Technology for All Americans · Technology Education During the Elementary School Years 36 ... or...

Technology for AllAmericans

A Rationaleand Structure for the Study of Technology

Technology ishuman innovation

in action

Technology for All Americans:A Rationale and Structure forthe Study of Technology

Technology forAll Americans Project

International TechnologyEducation Association

This material is based upon work supported by the following:

National Science Foundation under Grant No. ESI-9355826 and theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No.NCCW-0064. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions orrecommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National ScienceFoundation or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Copyright © 1996 by the International Technology EducationAssociation. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publicationmay be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, withoutthe prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 1-887101-01-02

Copies of this document are being disseminated by the InternationalTechnology Education Association

1914 Association DriveReston, Virginia 20191(703) 860-2100 (voice)(703) 860-0353 (fax)[email protected] (e-mail)http://www.tmn.com/Organizations/Iris/ITEA.html (home page)

Contents

P R E F A C E 1

THE POWER AND THE PROMISE OF TECHNOLOGY 2

The Need for Technological Literacy 6

The Goal of Technological Literacy for All 13

A STRUCTURE FOR THE STUDY OF TECHNOLOGY 14

The Need for a Structure 14

The Universals of Technology 16Processes 18Knowledge 25Context 32

TEACHING TECHNOLOGY 34

Technology Education During the Elementary School Years 36

Technology Education During the Middle School Years 38

Technology Education During the High School Years and Beyond 40

TAKING ACTION 42

The Need for Standards 42

A Call to Action 44

R E F E R E N C E S A N D R E S O U R C E S 45

A P P E N D I C E S 49Technology for All Americans Project 49International Technology Education Association 51Foundation for Technology Education 52Acknowledgments 54Reviewers 55

This document is about educa-tion and a subject vital tohuman welfare and economicprosperity. It is about invigorat-

ing the entire educational systemwith high interest, student-focusedcontent and methods. It is aboutdeveloping a measure of technolog-ical literacy within each graduate sothat every American can under-stand the nature of technology,appropriately use technologicaldevices and processes, and partici-pate in society’s decisions on tech-nological issues.

Technological literacy is muchmore than just knowledge aboutcomputers and their application. Itinvolves a vision where each citizenhas a degree of knowledge aboutthe nature, behavior, power, andconsequences of technology from a broad perspective. Inherently, itinvolves educational programswhere learners become engaged in critical thinking as they designand develop products, systems, andenvironments to solve practicalproblems.

A Rationale and Structure forthe Study of Technology is the firstpublication in a series envisioned tohelp educators improve andstrengthen the preparation of eachlearner. Subsequent work will buildupon this background and presenttechnology education standards.The standards will provide a gener-al framework from which schoolscan develop curricula and pro-grams. This material will also

provide the criteria for studentassessment, teacher preparation,and enhancement and improvementof the learning environment.

The first part of this documentdiscusses the power and thepromise of technology and the needfor technological literacy. The nextsection outlines the universalprocesses, knowledge, and contextsof technology. The third partdescribes how technology should beintegrated into the core of the cur-riculum from kindergarten throughsecondary and post secondary edu-cation. The fourth and final sectionof this document challenges all con-cerned to establish technology edu-cation standards based on theuniversals outlined in this docu-ment, and to make technologicalliteracy a national priority.

This document has been pre-pared by the Technology for AllAmericans Project through assis-tance from writing consultants. Ithas been reviewed by hundreds ofpractitioners of technology, science,mathematics, engineering, andother areas at all levels. Input hasbeen gathered from a group ofwriting consultants, a NationalCommission for TechnologyEducation, and educators acrossthe country. Please read the docu-ment, study it, and join theInternational Technology EducationAssociation in calling for andimplementing the educationalreform necessary to ensure techno-logical literacy for all.

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Preface

Technological literacy

is much more than

just knowledge about

computers and their

application.

Through technology, people havechanged the world. In the driveto satisfy needs and wants,people have developed and

improved ways to communicate,travel, build structures, makeproducts, cure disease, and providefood. This has created a world of technological products andmachines, roadways and buildings,and data and globalcommunications. It has created acomplex world of constant change.

Each technological advancebuilds on prior developments. Eachadvance leads to additional poten-

tials, problems, and more advancesin an accelerating spiral of develop-ment and complexity. The accelera-tion of technological change, andthe greater potential and powerthat it brings, inspires and thrillssome people, but confuses—evenalienates—others. Many peopleembrace technological change,believing that through technologytheir lives will be made easier. Theysee the growing ability to solve age-old problems ranging from foodsupply to education and pollution.Others see a confusing interconnec-tion of impersonal devices, and fearsocial, ecological, or military cata-strophe. Some people find thatthrough communication and trans-portation technology they can moreeasily maintain their personal rela-tionships; others discover that thesame technologies can strain rela-tionships. Some believe that

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The Power and the Promise of Technology

through technological advancespeople create new jobs and newindustries; others see automationreplacing skilled labor and chang-ing their way of life.

There is truth in all of theseviews, for technology is created,managed, and used by societies and individuals, according to theirgoals and values. For example,biotecnological developments caneradicate a plague or cause one.Industrial plants can be used toclean water or to pollute it. Nuclearenergy can be used to providepower to heat millions of homes or to destroy millions of lives.

Technological systems havebecome so interrelated with oneanother and with today’s social sys-tems, that any new developmentcan have far reaching effects.Recently people have seen that onedevelopment in microwave technol-ogy can alter the eating habits ofmillions; that an advance in radiotelecommunications can create amulti-billion-dollar industry almostovernight; and that a commonrefrigerant can damage the Earth’sprotective atmosphere.

The promise of the future liesnot in technology alone, but inpeople’s ability to use, manage, and understand it.

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People today inhabit a world of technological products and machines, roadways and buildings, dataand global communications. Technology has become one of the major influences in the way peoplework, relax, interact, and meet their basic needs.


Eighteenth century pioneers in thewestern wilderness of the Virginia andPennsylvania colonies were able toprovide themselves with everythingthey needed except for iron, lead, andsalt. In today’s urban society, peopleare more dependent upon others andupon technological processes andproducts.

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It is difficult to escape the effects of technologicaldevelopments—even when pursuing “natural”activities, such as hiking. Shoes, clothes, and hygieneproducts are designed and made with computer–controlled machines. This hiker could be using a globalpositioning system, or possibly a compass, to identifyher location.

The condition of the forest is influenced by humanendeavors. Will hikers dispose of waste properly? Hasthe cutting of trees been managed with reforestation inmind? Have manufacturing and transportation systemspolluted the air causing acid rain and destroyingforests? Have the products carried into the forest beendesigned to be environmentally compatible?


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Amajor consequence of acceler-ating technological change is adifference in levels of techno-logical ability and understand-

ing. There is a widening gapbetween the knowledge, capability,and confidence of the average citi-zen and that of the inventors,researchers, and implementors whocontinually revolutionize the tech-nological world. While it is logicaland necessary for the developers to have advanced technologicalcapability, it is senseless for thegeneral public to be technologicallyilliterate.

Because of the power of today’stechnological processes, society andindividuals need to decide what,how, and when to develop or usevarious technological systems. Sincetechnological issues and problemshave more than one viable solution,decision making should reflect thevalues of the people and help themreach their goals. Such decisionmaking depends upon all citizensacquiring a basic level of tech-nological literacy—the ability touse, manage, and understandtechnology.

Indeed, technological literacy is vital to individual, community,and national economic prosperity.Beyond economic vitality is therealization that how people developand apply technology has becomecritical to future generations,society, and even the Earth’scontinued ability to sustain life.

❚ The ability to use technol-ogy involves the successfuloperation of the key sys-tems of the time. Thisincludes knowing thecomponents of existingmacro-systems, or humanadaptive systems, and howthe systems behave.

❚ The ability to managetechnology involves insur-ing that all technologicalactivities are efficient andappropriate.

❚ Understanding technologyinvolves more than factsand information, but alsothe ability to synthesizethe information into newinsights.

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Practically every job today depends upon people learning new technological processes and systems.

The Need for Technology Literacy

Technological LiteracyTechnological literacy is the ability to use, manage, andunderstand technology.


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Retirees have experienced tremendous changes in their lives. The advent of television, satellites,personal computers, genetically altered food, and the threat of nuclear devastation are but some ofthe changes they have witnessed since they were children. Today’s children will experience evengreater changes. What will they develop, manage, and adapt to before they retire? Will they havethe necessary skills and understanding to direct and adapt to technological change?

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Individual NeedsParticipating citizens need to con-sider issues and take part in deci-sions regarding transportation, landuse, pollution control, defense, andrestricting or encouraging techno-logical activities. Sound decisionsdemand an understanding of theimpacts, relationships, and costs of such technological activities.❚ Workers need to possess a variety

of technological abilities—boththe skills to use products and theability to identify and remedy sim-ple malfunctions. Those directlyresponsible for technologicalchange, such as engineers, design-ers, consumers, manufacturers,key decision makers, and archi-tects, require an understandingand ability to assess and forecastthe impacts of their actions.Workers today also need to havethe tools to adapt to technologicalchange in the workplace.

❚ Consumers need to make deci-sions about the purchase, use, and disposal of appliances, infor-mation systems, and comfort-enhancing devices. Fromentertainment to medical deci-sions, everyday life requires abasic technological literacy.

Societal NeedsMore than personal comfort andsatisfaction is at stake. Today’sglobal societies must improve theirtechnological literacy in order tosupport growing populations andto provide a safe environment in acomplex world. ❚ Effective democracy depends on

all citizens participating in thedecision-making process. Thedecision-making process safe-guards the country from yieldingcontrol to a small, powerful elite.Since so many decisions involvetechnological issues, technologicalliteracy is required for all citizens.

❚ Technological activities pro-vide the base for the country’seconomy. As new advances pro-vide more opportunities, the needgrows for technologically skilledengineers, innovators, and work-ers to develop and maintain acompetitive edge in a globaleconomy.

❚ Democracy demands sharedresponsibilities and contributions.People who lack the technologicalknowledge needed to participatein the economy often becomenoncontributing members of soci-ety who must be provided for byothers.

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When making informed decisions about how to spend recreational time, consumers often need toconsider issues involving safety, effectiveness, and effects on the environment. Such decisions requirebasic technological literacy.


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All citizens should increase their levels of technological literacy so that they can effectively participatein the decisions affecting society. Should new roads be built in agricultural districts? Should logging berestricted in an old-growth forest? How should the airwaves be regulated? Should society underwriteresearch in developing technologies? These and many more questions can be best answered only ifall citizens are capable of participating in the decision-making process.

Environmental NeedsBecause various technologicalprocesses or abuses can pose eco-logical dilemmas and create envi-ronmental crises, technologicalliteracy is critical to the Earth’scontinued ability to support life. ❚ Innovators, developers, govern-

ments, and consumers need toconsider the consequences on theenvironment when making deci-sions about the use and develop-ment of different processes.

❚ Everyone must be concerned withthe entire product life cycle. Theymust consider not only the materi-als and processes used in produc-tion, but also what happens toproducts at the end of their usefullife.

❚ Designing and developing techno-logical processes and systems thatare less threatening to the naturalenvironment has become veryimportant. When it comes to theenvironment, technology can beviewed optimistically as a meansto solve environmental problems,not just create them.

Through technology, people willnot solve all of the problems in thefuture. They will, in fact, createsome. But if people develop and use technology in the context of the country’s goals and values, they will continue to offer eachother even more ways to work,enjoy leisure, communicate, andorder their lives.

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Much technological activity has an impact on the Earth’s natural resources. It is imperative that people consider the consequences of their actions on the environment, and strive to minimizedamage. People are now working to develop technological processes that can prevent or repairenvironmental damage.

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Technologically

literate persons

understand

and appreciate

the importance

of fundamental

technological

developments.

Characteristics of a Technologically Literate Person

Technologically literate per-sons are capable problemsolvers who consider techno-logical issues from different

points of view and in relation-ship to a variety of contexts.They acknowledge that the solu-tion to one problem often createsother issues and problems. Theyalso understand that solutionsoften involve trade-offs, whichnecessitate accepting less of onequality in order to gain more ofanother. They appreciate theinterrelationships between tech-nology and individuals, society,and the environment.

Technologically literate personsunderstand that technologyinvolves systems, which aregroups of interrelated com-ponents designed to collectivelyachieve a desired goal or goals.No single component or devicecan be considered without under-standing its relationships to allother components, devices, andprocesses in the system. Thosewho are technologically literatehave the ability to use conceptsfrom science, math, social studies,and the humanities as tools forunderstanding and managingtechnological systems. Therefore,technologically literate people use a strong systems-orientedapproach to thinking about andsolving technological problems.

Technologically literate per-sons can identify appropriate

solutions, and assess and forecastthe results of implementing thechosen solution. As managers oftechnology, they consider theimpacts of each alternative, anddetermine which is the mostappropriate course of action forthe situation.

Technologically literate per-sons understand the major tech-nological concepts behind thecurrent issues. They also areskilled in the safe use of the tech-nological processes that are life-long prerequisites for theircareers, health, and enjoyment.

Technologically literatepersons incorporate variouscharacteristics from engineers,artists, designers, craftspersons,technicians, mechanics, and soci-ologists that are interwoven andact synergistically. These charac-teristics involve systems-orientedthinking, the creative process, the aspect of producing, and theconsideration of impacts andconsequences.

Technologically literate per-sons understand and appreciatethe importance of fundamentaltechnological developments.They have the ability to use deci-sion-making tools in their livesand work. Most importantly,they understand that technologyis the result of human activity. Itis the result of combining inge-nuity and resources to meethuman needs and wants.

A system is a group

of interrelated

components that

collectively achieve

a goal.

The basic building block of tech-nology is the system. A systemis a group of interrelated com-ponents designed to collectively

achieve a desired goal or goals.Systems exist on many levels, asshown by the bicycle.

A basic system involving a bicy-cle is the guidance and controlsystem, which is made up of han-dle bars, the wheels, brakes, and arider who turns the handle bars—all working together to guide thebicycle in the desired direction.

A rider on a bicycle comprisesanother level of a system. Thatsystem is used to transport peoplefrom one place to another bymuscle power. The componentsinclude the rider, subsystems ofguidance, power, and support(frame, seat, etc.).

The rider on the bike can bepart of yet another level of system.

When school children ride bikes toschool, they are part of the trans-portation system that conveys stu-dents to schools. Other componentsof the system include roads, side-walks, school buses and drivers, busschedulers, parents who drive chil-dren to school, students who walkto school, school crossing guards,and others.

Still another level of system is amacrosystem, such as the country’stransportation system, which in-cludes all of the people, machines,information, and infrastructure usedto move people and goods fromplace to place. These macro tech-nological systems are often referredto as human adaptive systems.

Technologically literate personsuse a strong systems-orientedthinking approach to solving tech-nological problems.

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Technological Systems

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The Goal of Technological Literacy for All

How widespread is technologicalliteracy among Americanstoday? Levels of technologicalliteracy vary from person to

person and depend on one’s back-ground, education, interests, atti-tudes, and abilities. However, mostpeople do not even begin to com-prehend the basic concepts oftoday’s technological society. Fewcan fully comprehend the techno-logical issues in the daily news, per-form routine technologicalactivities, or appreciate an engi-neer’s breakthrough.

Understanding of and capabilityin technology traditionally havebeen ignored, except for those pur-suing education and training intechnological fields. For mostAmericans, technological literacyhas been left for individuals to gainthrough their daily activities.However, technological processes

and systems have become so com-plex that the ad hoc approach hasclearly failed most Americans.

A massive effort is needed inorder to achieve technologicalliteracy. This should involve theschools, the mass media and enter-tainment outlets, book publishers,and museums. The country’sschools must bear the bulk of thiseffort, for the educational system isthe only means by which each childcan be guaranteed participation inan articulated, comprehensive tech-nology education program.

Technology education providesan opportunity for students to learnabout the processes and knowledgerelated to technology that are need-ed to solve problems and extendhuman capabilities. Incorporatingtechnology education into everyschool system will require curricu-lum development, teacher enhance-

ment, and dedicated teaching andlaboratory space. A number ofstates and school systems havealready established technology pro-grams. These schools provide evi-dence of high—quality technologyeducation at all levels. The nextpart of this document describes thestructure for what should belearned in technology, and discusseshow it can be incorporated into theeducation programs of all studentsfrom kindergarten through highschool and beyond.

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Agreement on the need fortechnological literacy is justthe beginning. The moredifficult problem is

determining how to develop thisliteracy. What experiences, abilities,and knowledge are needed? Whatexactly should a person knowabout and be able to do withtechnology? What should be thecontent of this literacy effort?

The specific answers change witha person’s and community’s aspira-tions, and capabilities. A ranchingcommunity in Wyoming encounterstotally different issues than a manu-facturing community in SouthCarolina, or a city in the urbanizednortheast corridor. The answersalso change rapidly with time.Technology is advancing so quicklythat knowledge, processes, and sys-tems are becoming obsolete almostas quickly as they are developed. Astechnology grows more complex, itbecomes more important to defineand set boundaries for its study.

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A Structure for the Study of Technology

The Need for a Structure

The following pages describe astructure for study that focuses onthe universals of technology thatare considered to be significant andtimeless—even in an era dominatedby uncertainties and acceleratedchange. These universals form thebasis for continuous learning oftechnology throughout a person’slifetime. They constitute the funda-mental concepts that allow individ-uals to continually learn asconditions change. From this pro-posed structure, the content ele-ments for the study of technologycan be developed that will beappropriate for students of differenttimes and places.

Education programs based onthis structure will provide studentswith the concepts and experiencenecessary to develop the under-standing and capability that theywill need in a constantly changingtechnological world.

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Technology is human

innovation in action.

It involves the

generation of

knowledge and

processes to develop

systems that solve

problems and extend

human capabilities.

Technology is human innovationin action. It involves the gener-ation of knowledge and proc-esses to develop systems that

solve problems and extend humancapabilities. As such, technologyhas a process, knowledge, andcontext base that is definable anduniversal.

The processes are those actionsthat people undertake to create,invent, design, transform, produce,control, maintain, and use productsor systems. The processes includethe human activities of designingand developing technological sys-tems; determining and controllingthe behavior of technological sys-tems; utilizing technological sys-tems; and assessing the impacts and consequences of technologicalsystems.

Technological knowledgeincludes the nature and evolutionof technology; linkages based onimpacts, consequences, resources,and other fields; and technologicalconcepts and principles. Thisincludes much of the knowledge ofhow the technological processes aredeveloped, applied, and used.

The context of technologyinvolves the many practical reasonswhy it is developed, applied, andstudied. People develop technologi-cal processes and knowledge for areason—they want to develop anduse systems that solve problemsand extend their capabilities. Thesystems that are developed can easi-ly be categorized as informational

systems, physical systems, and bio-logical systems.

The processes, knowledge, andcontext are all equally critical tothe existence and advance of tech-nology. One cannot exist withoutthe others, for they are mutuallydependent. With technologicalknowledge people engage in theprocesses, yet it is through theprocesses that technological knowl-edge is developed. All technologicalactivity is for a reason, or donewithin a context.

Processes, knowledge, and con-text, then, are the universals oftechnology, and must be the foun-dation of the structure for the studyof technology. Each of the univer-sals is discussed in greater detail inthe following pages.

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A Structure for the Study of Technology—Universals

The Universals of Technology

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Designing and DevelopingTechnological SystemsMuch technological activity isoriented toward designing andcreating new products, techno-logical systems, and environ-ments. The technological designprocess involves the applicationof knowledge to new situationsor goals, resulting in the develop-ment of new knowledge.Technological design requires anunderstanding of the use ofresources and engages a varietyof mental strategies, such asproblem solving, visual imagery,and reasoning. Developing thesemental capabilities and strategies so that they can be applied toproblems is a significant aspectof technological literacy. Theseabilities can be developed instudents through experiences indesigning, modeling, testing,troubleshooting, observing,analyzing, and investigating.

After a product, system, orenvironment is conceived, it isdesigned or developed. Thedevelopment processes includethose activities that are used tocarry out the plans, create solu-tions, or to test ideas that aregenerated through a designprocess. The development ofphysical systems involves manyof the common manufacturingand production processes. Thedevelopment of information sys-tems includes basic data manipu-lation and enhancing actions,such as encoding and decoding.

In biological systems, the devel-opment processes include geneticengineering, agricultural cultiva-tion, manipulating the humanimmune system, and improvingthe predictive technologies fordiseases. Technological literacyincludes an understanding ofdevelopment processes involvedin physical, biological, and infor-mational systems.

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Designers and developers ofwireless communications usecomputer simulations to test thesignals.

Architects develop models of their designs in order to communicate the concepts and toidentify any conceptual flaws.

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Determining and Controlling the Behavior of Technological SystemsPeople need an understanding oftechnological systems that isbased on experience and analy-sis. This understanding forms thebasis of systems-oriented think-ing that underlies all technologi-cal activity. All technologicalsystems — whether they are sub-systems of larger units, such asthe steering system on a bicycle,or macrosystems made up ofmany levels of smaller systems —are composed of inputs, process-es, and outputs that worktogether to achieve what couldnot be achieved individually.

A technologically literate per-son should not only know whattechnological systems are, butalso how they operate, how theyare controlled, and why they areused. Although there are caseswhere systems work forunknown reasons, systemsunderstanding usually requires aknowledge from a variety offields, especially science, mathe-matics, and technology. Thisknowledge is central to the inves-tigation and determination of thebehavior of the individual com-ponent parts and devices that areused within a system. Once thebehavior of a system is under-stood, the technologically literateperson is able to assess the com-plete system to judge what neces-sary control adjustments areneeded as variables change orinputs become known.

Analysis is required in order to determine how many systems work. Analysis often usesinformation from science and mathematics.

Many times the best way to determine what is happening in a systemis to take it apart.

Technological systems involvethe interaction of the key compo-nents: input, process, output,and feedback. A system’s input isthe entry of resource materialsinto the total system. Sometimesit may be viewed as the desiredresult or action that a systemshould achieve. The process isthe performance of the system,

or how the desired results will beachieved by the system. The out-put is the actual result or whatthe process produces. A sampleof the output is fed back to thecomparison device and com-pared to the desired result toachieve control. This feedbackprocess involves measuring thedifference between the actual

result and the desired result. Ifthe output and input are differ-ent, then an adjustment is madeto the process to keep the outputat the desired value for which itis designed.

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Controlling the Behavior of Technological Systems—The Feedback Systems Model

Classifying Systems

People classify systems in order to discuss them or studythem more easily. The classification system used dependsupon the purpose. Very often systems are classified accord-ing to their underlying scientific principles, such as electri-

cal, mechanical, or chemical. At different times, systems may beclassified according to their purpose, such as communicationsystems, production systems, and others. Sometimes, systemsare classified according to their general makeup, such as physi-cal, informational, or biological. Technologically literate peopleshould be able to use and understand a variety of classificationsystems, so that they can operate within whichever system ismost appropriate for the purpose at hand.

INPUT OUTPUTCOMPARE PROCESS

MONITORFEEDBACK FEEDBACK

(Desired Result) (Actual Result)

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People use technological systemsto satisfy their needs and wants.This could be as fundamental aspreserving life with food andshelter, to enhancing health andenjoyment. People also use sys-tems that provide them withimproved materials, mobility,and communications. Each per-son should know how to usetechnology safely and effectivelyas a means to solve problemsand to extend their capabilities.

In order to become safe, effec-tive users of technological sys-tems, people must haveexperience with the systems thatthey will commonly encounter at home, play, and at work.Because of the pace of tech-nological change, new develop-ments are quickly absorbed intowork and home environments.This means that students willoften need exposure to thenewest, developing technologies,because the new technologiesduring their school years will bethe common technologies by thetime they graduate. In the studyof technology, students will needongoing experiences using vari-ous human adaptive systems sothat they can:❚ Select appropriate technologies

for the situation,❚ Use tools, materials, devices,

and processes in a correct andsafe manner,

❚ Acquire and use information tosolve problems and create newtechnologies,

❚ Analyze system malfunctions,❚ Adapt to the use of new tech-

nologies throughout their life,❚ Or, in some cases, choose not

to employ technological sys-tems in a given situation.

Thanks to many technological systems, preparing food can be a quick, easy task.However, in order to select the most appropriate cooking method, the cook mustanswer a number of questions. Should natural gas, electric, or propane be used foran energy source? Which would be faster, the microwave, convection, or toasteroven? Which process would consume the fewest resources? What is available inthe kitchen at the time?

People encounter many differenttechnological processes at workand at home. Effective utilizationdepends upon safe, appropriateuse of systems. Co

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Not all malfunctions need to besent to repair professionals.Technologically literate peopleneed to be able to cope withsystem malfunctions anddetermine the appropriatecourse of action.

Assessing the Impacts and Consequences ofTechnological SystemsPeople make decisions abouttechnological activities every day.However, the growing complexi-ty of technological systemsmeans that all technological deci-sion-making should include anassessment of the impacts andconsequences of an implementedor proposed technological sys-tem. All technological activityimpacts humans, society, and theenvironment. Moreover, techno-logical activity involves trade-offs and risks. Decision makersshould understand real vs.implied risks associated withtechnological developments.Erich Bloch, past Director of theNational Science Foundation,said that, “Technologically liter-

ate people should be able to reada newspaper or magazine articleand react to those articles relatedto technology on a basis of someunderstanding, not on a basis ofemotion.” (Bloch, 1986)

Therefore, those involved inthe study of technology needexperience assessing varioustechnological systems that willaffect individuals, society, andthe environment. They need tounderstand the process of assess-ment so that they can develop their own forecasts. Forecasts arenot definite predictions, but are“best guess estimates” based ona variety of techniques, such astrend analysis, modeling, crossimpact analysis, Delphi surveys,and scenario development.

Assessing and forecastingprocesses involve:❚ Reflecting on historical events

and connections,❚ Determining quality and costs,❚ Evaluating risks, both real and

imagined,❚ Making decisions on near-term

results of current technologicalactivity,

❚ Evaluating the results ofchanges in current technologi-cal activity,

❚ Projecting trends and futuredevelopments, and

❚ Anticipating possible conse-quences.

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The automobile has had great impact on today’s society. The automobile has changed whereand how people live, enabling them to create suburbs in areas previously considered out-of-the-way. A huge infrastructure has been developed that includes roads, bridges, servicestations, insurance systems, scrap yards, and regulations. The automobile has providedemployment for thousands of people who build cars, roads, and bridges. Anotherconsequence of adopting the auto as the primary mode of transportation has been thousandsof deaths and injuries each year. Environmental damage from the automobile has been amajor problem, especially in more populated areas of the country.

Refrigeration for long-haul trucks eliminated theproblem of food spoilage during long shippingtimes—and changed the American consumers’eating habits. The first automatic refrigerationsystem for long-haul trucks was invented in1938 by Frederick McKinley Jones, who receivedmore than 60 patents in his career. Jones wasinspired to invent the refrigeration unit aftertalking to a truck driver who lost a shipment ofchicken due to heat.

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The first industrial robot, calledthe Unimate, was put on line in1961 in Trenton, New Jersey. By the 1990s, robots had beendeveloped to perform manyindustrial functions , includingtasks in hazardous environmentssuch as toxic waste dumps andnuclear facilities.

Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge was completed in 1983 and designedby John Roebling. It was the first great suspension bridge in the U.S.

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The Nature and Evolution of TechnologyPeople need knowledge and anunderstanding of the nature anda historical perspective of tech-nology. This will help them tounderstand and analyze currentsituations and issues, and tochallenge and test their decisionsabout technology.

The nature and evolution oftechnology is influenced by manyfactors, including the following:

❚ Needs of society and individualor group desires,

❚ Information base,❚ Intellectual and social climate,❚ Education of the citizens,❚ Social acceptance and

compatibility,❚ Level of development of related

technological components,devices, and systems,

❚ Level of talent and expertiseavailable,

❚ Economic capability and desireof society to support technolog-ical development, and

❚ Human invention andinnovation.

The nature of technology isdescribed by a variety of its char-acteristics. Technology is devel-oped and applied by people. Itssuccess or failure is usually deter-mined by social acceptance andsuccess in the marketplace. It hashelped to satisfy some of the fun-damental human needs ofhunger, shelter, comfort, health,mobility, and communication,

while at the same time it hashelped to create weapons of warand environmental degradation.Technology is ever changing.However, it has grown at anexponential rate over time withmany of its major developmentstaking place in the last few cen-turies.

Part of the historical perspec-tive of technology is an under-standing of significanttechnological accomplishmentsthroughout history. This can bean immense and significantundertaking. Moreover, what isconsidered significant maychange according to the contextin which it is placed. However,substantive technological mile-stones usually result in a combi-nation of the following:

❚ An alteration of the way peoplecreate new products, systems,and environments,

❚ An incorporation of new waysof doing work and recreation,

❚ A widespread and dramaticimpact on individuals, socialsystems, or the environment,and

❚ A significant impact on theprogress in other subject fields.

It is important that the natureand evolution of technology beincluded in the cognitive basis ofthe study of technology. Thenature and meaning of technolo-gy has evolved over thousands ofyears and its understanding isimportant for each person.

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Part of the historical

perspective of

technology is an

understanding of

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Technology transfer

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or environment

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another setting

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LinkagesDecisions concerning the devel-opment and the use of technolo-gy cannot be made in today’sworld without an understandingof how technology influencesand is affected by society and theenvironment. Individuals, soci-eties, the environment, andacademic disciplines all affecttechnology and, in turn, arechanged by new technologicaldevelopments. These influencesand impacts can be positive ornegative, anticipated or unan-ticipated, depending upon thesituation.

Understanding the linkagesbetween technology, society, andthe environment is particularlyimportant with technology trans-

fer activity. Technology transfercan involve applying a product,system, or environment to a set-ting or application that is differ-ent from the situation for whichit was developed. As technologi-cal systems are moved from cul-ture to culture, country tocountry, organization to organi-zation, or government laboratoryto private enterprise, what con-siderations must be made for theinterrelated and reciprocalbehaviors of technological,social, and natural systems?How will the transfer of knowl-edge and processes affect therelationships that currently existbetween individuals, societies,and the environment?

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Technology and Society

TECHNOLOGY AFFECTS SOCIETYAS IT:

❚ Serves as an economic engine,

❚ Increases human capabilities,

❚ Creates new linkages between people,groups, and nations or between peopleand the environment,

❚ Introduces ethical and political issues,

❚ Solves and introduces health and safetyissues, and

❚ Increases environmental problems.

SOCIETY AFFECTS TECHNOLOGYAS IT:

❚ Influences and limits development and use,

❚ Provides skills and ideas, and

❚ Provides the need/demand for bigger,better, faster, more efficient systems.

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Technology transfer occurs whenever systems or processes developed in one setting are used in another. For example, in theearly 1970s, NASA had a special coating developed that would protect the launch structures from salt corrosion, rocketexhaust, and thermal shock. More than 10 years later, the same coating was applied to the interior structure of the Statue of Liberty, in order to prolong the statue’s life.

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Technology and Other Fields of StudyProgress in all fields of study hasbeen enhanced by technologicaltools, such as measuring devicesor information processing andcommunication systems. At thesame time, technological activitydraws on information and theo-retical tools from every otherfield of study. Theoretical toolsare basic rules of truth, such aslaws, formulae, fundamentalprinciples, axioms, or theorems.Technology has a particularlystrong relationship with scienceand mathematics.

Science is a study of the natur-al world (National ResearchCouncil, 1992), and technologyextends people’s abilities tomodify that world. Science and technology are different, yetsymbiotic. Technology is muchmore than applied science andscience is quite different fromapplied technology. When peopleuse technology to alter the natur-al world, they make an impacton science. Science is dependentupon technology to develop, test,experiment, verify, and applymany of its natural laws, theo-ries, and principles. Likewise,technology is dependent uponscience for its understanding ofhow the natural world is struc-tured and functions.

Mathematics is a study of allconceivable abstract patterns and

relationships (American Asso-ciation for the Advancement ofScience, 1993, Project 2061Benchmarks for ScientificLiteracy). It provides an exactlanguage for technology andscience. Developments in tech-nology, such as the computer,stimulate mathematics, just as

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Music written using a computer isdiscussed through the use ofaudio-visual equipment.

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developments in mathematicsoften enhance innovations intechnology. One example of thisis mathematical modeling thatcan assist technological design bysimulating how a proposed sys-tem may behave.

Technology also has interdisci-plinary linkages with social stud-ies, language arts, humanities,art, music, and many other fieldsof study. For example, the socio-logical and historical aspects oftechnology are very important insocial studies. Likewise, technol-ogy has revolutionized the fieldsof music and visual arts with therecent ability to convert fromanalog to digital signals.

There are strong philosophicalconnections between technologyand engineering and architecture.Historically, engineering and

architecture have had some limit-ed involvement with education inthe primary and secondaryschools. These professions needto work with technology educa-tors to develop alliances forinfusing engineering and architec-tural concepts at these levels. Thealliances will provide a mecha-nism for greater appreciation andunderstanding of engineering,architecture, and technology.

Each technologically literateperson should know some of theunderlying basic science, mathe-matics, engineering, and architec-tural concepts and theirrelationship to technology. Alsopart of this literacy includes anappreciation and understandingof the interdisciplinary connec-tions between technology, lan-guage arts, the humanities, andsocial sciences.

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Artists use technological systemsto produce their works of art.Shown above, an artist createsan image (right) using acomputer system.

Technology Education and Educational TechnologyTechnology education is differentfrom instructional technology,also called educational technolo-gy. Educational technology,which involves using technologi-cal developments, such as com-puters, audio-visual equipment,and mass media to aid in teach-ing all subjects, is concernedwith creating the optimum teach-ing and learning environmentthrough the use of technology.Technology education is a schoolsubject designed to develop tech-nological literacy, while educa-tional technology is used as atool to enhance teaching andlearning. The role of educationaltechnology in technology educa-tion is the same as it is in mathe-matics, science, the humanities,or any other field of study.

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Technological Concepts and PrinciplesA number of concepts and prin-ciples can be identified that arecentral and unique to the studyof technology. These conceptsmust be defined in any techno-logical literacy effort, for theyserve as the cornerstones in afield with constantly changingboundaries.

The following concepts andprinciples are presented as exam-ples, and are not intended to bea comprehensive list.❚ Technology results from human

ingenuity.❚ Technological activities require

resources.❚ People have created technologi-

cal systems to satisfy basicneeds and wants.

❚ Technological activities haveboth positive and negativeimpacts on individuals, society,and the environment.

❚ Technology provides opportuni-ties and triggers requirementsfor careers.

❚ The current state of technologi-cal sophistication is the resultof the contributions of diversecultures.

❚ The rate of technologicalchange is accelerating.

❚ Complex technological systemsdevelop from simpler techno-logical systems.

These concepts are compara-ble to the basic principles of anyfield. For example, in science, the key concepts and principlesinclude that organisms use mat-ter and energy for growth andmaintenance; that observationand experimentation are thebases of scientific inquiry anddiscovery; and that the processesthat changed the Earth in thepast still exist today—theprinciple of uniformity.

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Technological activities requireresources, such as energy—whether it comes from the sun,electricity, or other sources.

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ETechnology is the result of human innovation—creativity, knowledge, and skills. Ingenuity depends on a firm understanding of existing technology and the ability to conceive something that does not currently exist.

Since its invention in the eighteenth century, the hot-airballoon has symbolized human ingenuity. Withstandard materials and creativity, people were able to soar with the birds. Ingenuity is not alwaysappreciated, however. A hydrogen balloon inventedabout the same time as the hot air balloon stayed upfor 45 minutes and covered 15 miles. Then it wasdestroyed on the ground by terrified observers.

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Physical systems are among the more obvious resultsof technological activity. Whether used fortransportation, shelter, entertainment, production, orstudy, physical systems require resources and involvechanging the form of materials.

Systems have been developed by people to help themcommunicate across longdistances. The first satellite waslaunched in 1959, and within 10years satellites had become astandard method of transmittingvoice, data, and video.

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SystemsThe processes and knowledgerelated to the study of technolo-gy must be placed in the contextfor their development and use.The technological contexts canbe categorized as informationsystems, physical systems, andbiological systems. All threetypes of systems rely on theprocesses and knowledge out-lined in the previous pages.

Informational Systems are concernedwith processing, storing, andusing data. Such systems providethe foundation for today’s“information age.” Knowledgeof and experience with these sys-tems gives people the ability toquantify, qualify, and interpretdata as a basis for developingnew knowledge. Communicationtechnology is an information sys-tem that provides the interfacebetween humans and humans,between humans and machines,and between machines andmachines.

Physical Systems are those that aretangible and made of physicalresources. Changing the form ofmaterials to increase their valueand purpose provide the basisfor production in physical sys-tems. Power is considered as amajor part of the physical sys-tems since it is important to theoperation of them. Physical sys-tems also transport people andthings.

Biological Systems use living organ-isms (or parts of organisms) tomake or modify products, toimprove humans, plants, or ani-mals, or to develop micro-organ-isms for specific use (U.S. Officeof Technology Assessment,1988). Many of these systemsare referred to as, “biotechnolo-gy.” Biological systems are usedin fields such as agriculture,medicine, sports, and genetics.

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The ability to alter the molecular structure of living organisms has given society great medicaladvances. However the ability has also caused ethical debates about altering the geneticstructure of humans and animals.

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During a period of educationalreform in the 1980s, the lateErnest Boyer, president of theCarnegie Foundation, stated

that America needed to developtechnological literacy in allstudents.

The great urgency is for “technology lit-eracy,” the need forstudents to see howsociety is beingreshaped by our inven-tions, just as tools ofearlier eras changedthe course of history.The challenge is not[just] learning how touse the latest piece ofhardware, but askingwhen and why itshould be used (Boyer,1983, p 111).

Boyer’s prescription is even truertoday. School systems across thecountry must establish effectivetechnological literacy efforts, begin-ning in kindergarten and continu-ing each year through high schooland beyond. By using the structureoutlined in the last section, commu-nities can incorporate the necessaryconcepts and experiences so that allstudents have the opportunity todevelop the necessary knowledgeand abilities to become technologi-cally literate. By incorporating theuniversals of technology through-out the curriculum and in technol-ogy courses, schools can provideexperiences that instill insight andproblem-solving capabilities.Including the study of technologyin the core curriculum will not onlyraise the technological literacy ofthe community, but also help stu-dents perform better in other sub-

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jects. In addition, technological lit-eracy will create a more diverse andlarger pool of graduates who areable and motivated to pursue edu-cation and careers in the varioustechnological professions.

The first priority of technologyeducation is to provide technologi-cal literacy to all students. Thisincludes all of those students whotraditionally have not been servedby technology programs.

Technology must be a requiredsubject for every student at everylevel of their education.Incorporating technology educationinto the country’s school systemswill require curriculum develop-ment, teacher training, and in somecases, dedicated teaching and labo-ratory space. However, it is aneffort that will reap rewards forevery person in every community,and society as a whole.

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Throughout the elementary years,technology education should bedesigned to help pupils learnand achieve the educational

goals of the total elementary cur-riculum. These experiences developthe students’ perceptions andknowledge of technology, psy-chomotor skills, and provide abasis for informed attitudes aboutthe interrelationship of technology,society, and the environment.

Beginning in kindergarten, tech-nology education can help deliverthe kind of active learning that chil-dren need and enjoy. Childrenshould be engaged in the design ofproducts, systems, and environ-ments requiring them to gain newknowledge about technology, andto use the knowledge they have

learned from related subjects.Pupils apply their knowledge whendrawing, planning, designing, prob-lem solving, building, testing, andimproving their solutions to prob-lems. According to research resultsfrom cognitive science, this processof critical thinking and creativeactivity can help children constructwhat they are learning into moremeaningful knowledge structures.Technology education activities canbe used to integrate the study oftechnology with related conceptsfrom other disciplines, such asmathematics, science, social studies,and the humanities.

Technology education should bea part of integrated thematic unitsthat explore the relationship oftechnology to humans, societies, or

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Teaching Technology

Technology Education During the Elementary School Years

Technology education provides theactive learning on which studentsthrive at all ages.

The materials and resources required for elementarytechnology education are minimal.

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the environment, or incorporatedinto the elementary curriculum as avalued subject with designated timeslots. The materials and resourcesrequired for elementary technologyeducation are minimal and includestudent- and teacher-prepareditems, along with basic suppliestypically used at these grade levels.

Technology can and should betaught in the regular classroom, bya qualified elementary teacher.Initially, many elementary teachersfeel unqualified to teach technolo-gy, but experience has shown thatwith appropriate inservice training,these teachers perform exceptional-ly well and excel at integratingtechnological concepts across thecurriculum. However, if technologyeducation is to enhance what andhow children learn, all elementaryteachers will need inservice andpreservice opportunities in technol-ogy education. Further, all teacherpreparation institutions will need toinclude technology education as apart of their undergraduate degreerequirements.

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Elementary school pupils should apply their knowledge through drawing, planning, building, testing,and improving their solutions to problems.

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Technology Education During the Middle School Years

As middle school students developgreater capability in science,mathematics, and social studies, theyare able to delve deeper into theworkings of technological systems.

Middle school technology edu-cation programs should bedesigned to provide activelearning situations that help

the early adolescent explore anddevelop a broader view of technol-ogy. Instructional experiencesshould be organized in ways thatcorrespond to the distinct develop-mental needs of learners in gradesfive through eight.

Technology education should bea part of the core curriculum for alllearners throughout their middleschool years. Programs at this levelcan be implemented through inter-disciplinary teams that include acertificated technology educationteacher. In some cases the technolo-gy education program will betaught by a certificated technologyteacher(s) in a non-team-teachingenvironment. Middle school tech-nology education programs assiststudents in learning about theprocesses that apply to the design,problem solving, development, anduse of technological products andsystems. Also, students begin todevelop the ability to assess theimpacts and consequences of thesesystems on individuals, society, andthe environment.

In the middle school, the stu-dents gain further understanding ofthe nature and evolution of tech-nology. Middle school students willdeepen their level of understandingrelated to the technological con-cepts and principles which areconsidered important for thegeneration of new knowledge andprocesses surrounding technology.Middle school students continue to be given opportunities to seehow technology has contextualrelationships with other fields of study, such as science, mathe-matics, social studies, language arts, the humanities, and societyand the environment.

Middle school students can pro-duce models and develop real tech-nological products, systems, andenvironments. They learn how toapply principles of engineering,architecture, industrial design, andcomputer science to gain a betterunderstanding of technology. Bytaking core courses in technologyeducation at the middle schoollevel, students will discover anddevelop personal interests, talents,and abilities related to technology.

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At the middle school level, activity-based technology education leads to a deeper understanding and capability. Students can better understandthe components of many structures, including bridges and buildings by designing and building trusses. The students can also gain experiences inanalysis, by measuring and comparing the strength of their various structures. Finally, they can explore forecasting by predicting when theirstructure will fail so that they can learn from this and build even better structures in the future.

Technology education at the highschool level enhances the learn-er’s understanding of technolo-gy and develops a richer sense

of the relationships between tech-nology and other school subjects.This is especially appropriate withcourses in which there is a directapplication with technology, suchas science and mathematics. Otherrelevant courses could be language,social studies, geography, art,music, and physical education. Insome applications, technology edu-cation can assist the high schoolstudent to learn in an interdiscipli-nary nature by providing relevanceto many other school subjects.Curriculum options should allowstudents to choose from sequencesof courses that extend their studiesin specific processes and knowledgein technological systems. Coursessuch as “Introduction to Engineer-ing” can be taken by 11th- and12th-grade students in someschools.

High school students’ needs fortechnology education are morediversified than younger students’since their interests and potentialcareer choices are expanding. As aresult of taking technology educa-tion, students need to:❚ Evaluate technology’s capabilities,

uses, and consequences onindividuals, society, and theenvironment,

❚ Employ the resources of technolo-gy to analyze the behavior of tech-nological systems,

❚ Apply design concepts to solveproblems and extend humancapability,

❚ Apply scientific principles, engi-neering concepts, and technologi-cal systems in the solution ofeveryday problems, and

❚ Develop personal interests andabilities related to careers intechnology.

High school students engaged indiscussion, problem solving, design,research, and the development andapplication of technological devicesneed to study and learn in a tech-nology laboratory. This will ensurea learning environment for efficientand safe work. The technology pro-gram at the high-school levelshould be taught by certificatedtechnology education teachers, indi-vidually or in a team-teaching envi-ronment.

The ultimate goal is to haveevery student who graduates fromhigh school to be technologicallyliterate. Some students who studytechnology in high school will pur-sue technological careers after grad-uation, such as engineering,architecture, computer science,engineering technology, and tech-nology teacher education.

Beyond High SchoolThe technological literacy level ofhigh school graduates should pro-vide the foundation for a lifetime oflearning about technology. As grad-uates pursue post secondary study,they will meet many opportunitiesto delve more extensively into tech-nology studies.

At the community college level,there are specialized engineeringtechnology programs. These pro-grams may consist of electronicstechnology and design technology,

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At the high school level, students shouldhave the opportunity to take technologyeducation courses that delve deeply intovarious areas that involve the develop-ment, utilization, and assessment oftechnological systems. Courtesy of Rick Griffiths.

Technology Education During the High School Years and Beyond

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Teaching Technology

as well as many other associatedegree programs.

The study of technology at thecollege and university level is exten-sive and multidimensional. Typicalmajors in engineering, architecture,health sciences, and computer sci-ence are directly involved with thestudy of technology. Additionalcourses related to technology mayinclude agriculture, industrialdesign, science-technology-society(STS), and technology education.

Some universities offer broadcourses in the study of technologyas a part of their liberal arts or coreofferings to undergraduate stu-dents. The courses help to providestudents with technological literacyat the baccalaureate levels. Finally,the preparation of technologyteachers is an important componentof higher education.

Many high school students will pursue technological careers after graduating, such as engineering,architecture, computer science, engineering technology, and technology teacher education.

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To help achieve technologicalliteracy for the nation,standards should be developedbased on the universals of

technology and structure describedin this document. Nationaleducational associations andorganizations have developedmeasures to define and delineatestandards for mathematics, science,English, language arts, geography,music, art, social studies, foreignlanguages, and other subjects. Theprocess of defining such standardsis worthwhile because it creates apositive discussion about improvingthe overall quality of education.

The technology education stan-dards will provide a general frame-work from which state and localschool systems can develop curricu-la and programs best suited to theirstudents. Standards can provide aguidance for teachers to improve

their teaching and their technologyeducation programs. Also, thesestandards will provide the criteriafor student assessment, teacherenhancement and teacher prepara-tion, and improvement of the learn-ing environment.

In developing standards for thestudy of technology, the fundamen-tal premises are:

1. That standards are needed toestablish the requirements fortechnological literacy for allstudents from kindergartenthrough 12th grade;

2. That standards must articulatea shared vision for what theteachers, teacher educators,and supervisors of technologyeducation expect students toachieve through technologyeducation;

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Taking Action

The Need for Standards

3. That standards are necessaryto establish qualitative andquantitative expectations ofexcellence for all students; and

4. Standards can be a means tohelp those from other fieldslearn more about technologyeducation.

It is very important that stan-dards be set high enough to ensurethat all students can participatefully in society. Special considera-tions must be made in the stan-dards to assure that all learnersbenefit from technology education.

Technology educators must holdhigh expectations for each studentand every school. Standards, bythemselves, cannot erase the resultsof poverty, or ethnic and culturaldiscrimination. It is essential thatall students have equal opportuni-ties to study technology and thatinequalities in school resources beaddressed. It is also important that

safe and supportive environmentsbe provided for the teaching oftechnology and that schools havean adequate supply of knowledge-able teachers who are motivatedand qualified to provide exception-al learning experiences.

In the future, the Technology forAll Americans Project plans todevelop, validate, and gain consen-sus on four sets of standards fortechnology education. Theseinclude:

1. Curriculum content standardsfor students in grades K-12(with benchmarks at grades 4,8, and 12);

2. Student assessment standardsthat include cognitive andprocess achievement indica-tors, teacher assessment, and appropriate formative and summative evaluationtechniques;

3. Teacher enhancement andpreparation standards; and

4. Program standards for schoolsystems and individual schoolswithin that system.

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Technological literacy mustbecome a central concern of theeducational system. This willrequire significant effort involv-

ing the schools, individuals, par-ents, concerned citizens, businessand industry leaders, governmentagencies, and those in the techno-logical professions, such as engi-neering and architecture, andothers concerned about the study of technology.

A rationale and structure for thestudy of technology has been pre-sented here that should assure thateveryone can gain the foundationthey need to participate in andadapt to today’s ever-changing tech-nological world. These materialsshould be compatible with theemerging standards for technologyeducation. It is hoped that this willencourage technology educationleaders to develop new curriculummaterials at the state and local lev-els. Technology education, as pre-sented here, must become a valuedsubject at every level.

This document addresses tech-nology education professionals andother educators. Technology teach-ers must realize their full potentialas the key people who can increaseawareness of the need for technolo-gy education within their localschool system. State and localschool administrators and curricu-lum leaders must also mobilize topromote the idea that technologyeducation can become a liberatingforce as a new basic and multi-dis-

ciplinary form of education.Technology teacher educators at thecollege/university level must expandtheir teacher preparation andresearch in the field of teachingtechnology so that many issues canbe addressed with knowledge andunderstanding. Finally, studentorganizations, should provideactivities that are available to allstudents to develop leadership atthe local, state, and national levels.These activities should reflect thestandards of technology education.

Professional associations andgroups both inside and outside thetechnology education professionmust work to develop and imple-ment standards for technology edu-cation. These standards can be usedby state and local school systems to develop high-quality technologycurricula and programs, to prepareteachers, and to assess whether ornot students are meeting thestandards.

Parents need to become familiarwith technology education and thebenefits it can provide their chil-dren. They should become proac-tive in promoting the study oftechnology as a core subject. Thesupport from the business andindustry community is crucial forthe full implementation of technol-ogy education in the schools.

Key government decision mak-ers, from the local to the state andfederal levels, need to be informedabout the benefits of technologyeducation for all students so thattheir support can be obtained.

The vision of technology educa-tion, embodied in this document,and later in the standards, must beshared by all of those who have astake in the future of all children—not just teachers, but also adminis-trators, policy makers, parents, andmembers of the general public. Thismaterial represents not an end, buta beginning. It is a starting pointfor universal action within states,districts, and local schools acrossthe country so that technologybecomes an essential subject for all students.

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Taking Action

A Call to Action

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48


IntroductionIn an effort to increase the tech-

nological literacy of all Americans,the National Science Foundation(NSF) and the National Aero-nautics and Space Administration(NASA) funded this project todevelop a nationally viable ratio-nale and structure for technologyeducation. This effort has beenspearheaded by the InternationalTechnology Education Association(ITEA) and is called “Technologyfor All Americans.” The project’sgoal is to offer those who are inter-ested in technology education aclear vision of what it means to betechnologically literate, how thiscan be achieved at a national level,and why it is important for thenation.

The Technology for All Ameri-cans Project set out to achieve thisgoal by establishing a NationalCommission composed of personswho were especially aware of theneed for a technologically literatesociety. Members represent thefields of engineering, science, math-ematics, the humanities, education,government, professional associa-

tions, and industry. The 25-memberCommission has served in an advi-sory capacity to the project staffand has functioned independentlyof both the project and the ITEA.The Commission has served as avital resource of experts knowl-edgeable about technology and itsinterface with science, mathematics,engineering, and education.

A team of six writing consultantswas formed from the NationalCommission. Throughout theprocess, the writing consultantshave represented a wealth ofknowledge, extensive background,and a unique diversity that playedan important role in the develop-ment of this document.

Building ConsensusThis document, in draft form,

went through a dynamic develop-ment evolution as a result of a verystructured consensus process. Theconsensus process has involved aseries of workshops, along withindividual reviews and comments,that ultimately involved the scruti-ny of more than 500 reviewersinside and outside the profession of technology education.

The first workshop was held atthe ITEA Conference in March,1995 in Nashville to gain inputfrom the profession on the forma-tive items in this document. Duringthe initial review process, that tookplace during August 1995, a draftdocument was mailed to andreviewed by more than 150 profes-sionals, who were selected via anomination process. Each statesupervisor for technology educationand president of state associationsfor technology education wereasked to nominate mathematics,science, and technology educatorsfrom elementary through highschool levels to participate in aseries of consensus-building work-shops. The workshops were hostedby seven NASA field centersaround the country. The draft doc-ument was disseminated to the par-ticipants prior to the consensus-building workshop. They wereasked to review the draft docu-ment, respond to several preparedquestions, and provide commentsdirectly on their copy of the draft.At the workshops, participantsfrom 38 states and one territory

49

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Technologyfor All AmericansProject

were divided into heterogeneousgroups that represented the interestgroups of those involved (i.e., ele-mentary school, middle school,high school, mathematics, science,technology). These small groupswere then asked to respond to pre-pared questions as a group andcome to consensus on the contentof the draft document.

Input and reactions from thefield were very valuable during theconsensus process. Perspectiveswere shared that had not been dis-cussed in prior writing consultants’meetings. Ideas for improving thedraft document were generatedfrom the group synergism andregional philosophies or viewpointswere acknowledged. This input wasanalyzed to determine the neededchanges for its content. Changesthen were made to reflect the datafrom the summer workshops. Inaddition, these changes were “triedout” with groups throughout thefall of 1995 at state and regionalconferences. The project staff foundthat by focusing on areas of con-cern identified from the summerreview process, the changes that

were made in subsequent versionsof the draft document were wellreceived.

Changes and revisions go hand-in-hand with the consensus process.This process continued throughoutthe fall until a second version of thedraft document was disseminatedfor review in October–December,1995. This second draft was dis-seminated to more than 250 peopleat eight regional locations in theUnited States. This group containeda large number of administrators. Itwas felt that an important part ofthe consensus process includes a“buy-in” component. In otherwords, if technology education is to become a core subject in thenation’s schools, then those whohold the power to enable this visionto become real must be involved inthe front end of this process.

Additional efforts were made toexpand the audience that reviewedthis document by making it avail-able to anyone having access to theInternet. Throughout this project, aWorld Wide Web home page wasmaintained in an effort to dissemi-nate timely material. Access to the

draft document became part of thehome page in December 1995, andreviewers were invited to fill out acomment and review form on-lineand submit it to the project forconsideration prior to the final revi-sions. The final version of this doc-ument represents the broad supportand input that was providedthroughout this consensus process.

Technology for All Americans Project in the Future

After developing a consensus-based rationale and structure forthe study of technology, the goalfor the Technology for All Ameri-cans Project is to develop standardsfor technology education. This willinclude kindergarten through 12thgrade curriculum content standardswith benchmarks at 4th, 8th and12th grade; teacher enhancementand teacher preparation standards;student assessment standards; andprogram standards. When thesestandards are developed and imple-mented, they will improve thequality of technology educationprograms in schools in the future.

50

Appendices

HistoryThe International Technology

Education Association (ITEA) wascreated in 1939 by a group of edu-cators who sought to promote theirprofession and to provide a nation-al forum for their ideas. Today, theITEA pursues that same purpose onthe international level and hasbecome a powerful voice acrossNorth America and around theworld.

Since its beginning, the ITEA hasbeen dedicated to ensuring that allchildren get the best education pos-sible. It serves the professionalinterests of elementary through uni-versity technology educators andpromotes the highest standards.

OrganizationThe Delegate Assembly is the

ITEA’s basic governing body.Delegates are selected by affiliatedstate/province/national associationsand meet annually at the ITEAInternational Conference. A 12-member Board of Directors, elected

by the membership, oversees thefiscal and program management ofthe association and adopts policiesand procedures accordingly. Aprofessional headquarters staff,located in Reston, Virginia, carriesout the day-to-day operations ofthe association.

MissionThe ITEA’s mission is to advance

everyone’s technological capabilitiesand to nurture and promote theprofessionalism of those engaged inthese pursuits. The ITEA seeks tomeet the professional needs andinterests of its members, and toimprove public understanding ofthe profession and its contributions.

No generation of educators hasever needed to be as up-to-date ontechnology trends as today’s practi-tioners. The ever-acceleratingchanges in current technologies and the influx of new technologiespresent major challenges to thoseteaching about technology.

The ITEA strives to:❚ Provide a philosophical founda-

tion for the study of technologythat emphasizes technologicalliteracy.

❚ Provide teaching and learningsystems for developingtechnological literacy.

❚ Serve as the catalyst in establishingtechnology education as theprimary discipline for theadvancement of technologicalliteracy.

❚ Increase the number and qualityof people teaching technology.

❚ Receive enrichment andreinforcement on the concepts in the sciences, mathematics,language arts, and other subjectareas.

❚ Work with tools, materials, and technological concepts and processes.

❚ Develop technological answers.

51

Appendices

InternationalTechnologyEducationAssociation

The Foundation for TechnologyEducation (FTE) supports efforts toensure that schools prepare stu-dents to live effectively in anincreasingly complex society. Itsemphasis is on educating a citizenryto think and act from a technologi-cal perspective for therein liesstrength for the individual, society,and the economy. The Foundationis committed to providing support-ing programs for technology educa-tion which:❚ Enhance the knowledge and skills

of technology teachers.❚ Promote collaboration between

schools and other sectors of thecommunity to enrich educationalresources and support schoolimprovement.

❚ Strengthen effective learning abouttechnology in schools.

The FTE is a nonprofit organiza-tion established in 1986 by theInternational Technology EducationAssociation and governed by aBoard of Trustees, which includeseducators and leaders from busi-ness and industry. The Foundation’sprogram of giving and developmentis devoted to improving andstrengthening the education of eachlearner through high quality tech-nology education.

The Foundation generates acapability to award scholarshipsand grants to teachers and futureteachers to strengthen technologyeducation. It strives to build afinancial base that will provideadditional means and encourage-ment to address technological liter-acy in schools.

For more information pertaining to the International TechnologyEducation Association or theFoundation for TechnologyEducation, contact 1914Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191; (703) 860-2100.

52

Appendices

Foundation forTechnologyEducation

The National Commission forTechnology Education

Dr. G. Eugene MartinChairperson

Dean of the School of AppliedArts and TechnologySouthwest Texas State University

Dr. J. Myron AtkinProfessor of EducationStanford University

Dr. E. Allen BameAssociate Professor ofTechnology EducationVirginia Tech

Dr. M. James BensenPresidentBemidji State University

Dr. Gene R. CarterExecutive DirectorAssociation for Supervision andCurriculum Development

Dr. Robert A. Daiber*Technology Education TeacherTriad High School—Illinois

Dr. James E. DavisProfessor of EnglishOhio University

Dr. Paul W. DeVore*PresidentPWD Associates

Mr. Ismael DiazEducational ConsultantFordham University

Dr. William E. Dugger, Jr.Project DirectorTechnology for All AmericansProject

Dr. Frank L. HubandExecutive DirectorThe American Society forEngineering Education

Mr. Thomas A. Hughes, Jr.Director of DevelopmentFoundation for TechnologyEducation

Dr. Patricia A. HutchinsonEditorTIES MagazineTrenton State College

Dr. Thomas T. LiaoProfessor and ChairpersonDepartment of Technology andSocietyState University of New York atStony Brook

Dr. Franzie L. Loepp*Co-DirectorCenter for Mathematics,Science, and Technology

Ms. Elizabeth D. PhillipsSpecialistDepartment of MathematicsMichigan State University

Dr. Charles A. PinderProfessor and Chairperson ofTechnologyNorthern Kentucky University

Dr. William S. Pretzer*Technology for All AmericansWriting Consultants CoordinatorDirector of School ProgramsHenry Ford Museum andGreenfield Village

Dr. John M. RitzProfessor and ChairpersonOccupational and TechnicalStudies DepartmentOld Dominion University

Dr. Richard E. SatchwellAssistant DirectorTechnology for All AmericansProject

Dr. Kendall N. StarkweatherExecutive DirectorInternational TechnologyEducation Association

Dr. Charles E. VelaTechnical Support StaffMITRE Corporation

Dr. Walter B. Waetjen*President EmeritusCleveland State University

Dr. John G. WirtSenior Research AssociateInstitute for Education and theEconomyTeachers CollegeColumbia University

Dr. Michael D. Wright*Assistant Professor ofTechnology EducationUniversity of Missouri-Columbia

53

Appendices

*Technology for All AmericansWriting Consultants

Technology for All Americans Project Staff

Dr. William E. Dugger, Jr.Project Director

Dr. Richard E. SatchwellAssistant Project Director

Support StaffJodie AlticeElizabeth ChabalaLisa DriscollMichelle GriffithJeff MeideLisa Thorne

Visiting Scholars

Dr. Laverne Young-HawkinsAssociate Professor, Texas A&MUniversity

Dr. Hidetoshi MiyakawaAssociate Professor, AichiUniversity of EducationAichi, Japan

International Technology EducationAssociation Board of Directors

Mr. William “Ed” BallDr. R. Thomas Wright, DTEMr. John Monroe, DTEMr. Thomas A. D’ApolitoMr. Barry N. BurkeMr. Jeffrey E. GrimmerDr. Jay C. Hicken, DTEMs. Tina E. HaydenDr. David H. Devier, DTEMr. Lemuel E. “Chip” MillerDr. Everett N. Israel, DTEDr. William WargoMr. Harold E. HolleyDr. Gerald G. LovedahlDr. Michael D. WrightDr. Kendall N. Starkweather

The ITEA and the TAA Project wish tothank the National Science Foundation(NSF) and the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration (NASA) for theirsupport during Phase I of the project.Special appreciation is given to GerhardSalinger, Coleen Hill, Franzie Loepp, andRodney Custer who provided help fromNSF. Also, we would like to thank FrankOwens, Pam Mountjoy, and MalcolmPhelps from NASA for their advice andinput. The ITEA and TAA would also liketo express appreciation to the TechnicalFoundation of America for their assistancein funding certain activities during Phase Iof the project.

Special thanks are given to OttobineElementary School, Rockingham County(Virginia) Schools; Hidden Valley JuniorHigh School, Roanoke County (Virginia)Schools; and Christiansburg MiddleSchool, Montgomery County (Virginia)Schools for photographs.

The project would like to thank EileenBaumann, Susanna Kibler, and JohnO’Connor for initial editing and prepara-tion and Ed Scott of Harlowe Typographyfor the design of this document. It wouldalso like to express special appreciation toMaureen Heenan of the ITEA staff for allof the editorial and publishing assistanceshe provided in the production of the finalcopy of this doument.

International Technology EducationAssociation Staff

Dr. Kendall N. StarkweatherExecutive Director

Mr. Thomas A. Hughes, Jr.Director of DevelopmentFoundation for TechnologyEducation

Support Staff

Janice BrunsLinda DeFrancoMaureen HeenanCatherine JamesJayne NewtonLari PriceKaren UlatowskiLorena Vasquez

Evaluators

Dr. Jack R. FrymierSenior FellowPhi Delta Kappa

Dr. Jill F. RussellAssistant ProfessorCollege of EducationUniversity of Nebraska atOmaha

Evaluation AdministratorDr. Larry W. BarberDirector, Center for Evaluation,Development and ResearchPhi Delta Kappa International

54

Appendices

Reviewers

Demetrio AcevedoAmbrose AdamsShawn AgnewDaniel AiroldiRobert AlbertCreighton AlexanderCynthia AllenChris AlmeidaFrederick AlmquistMeredith AltshulerRichard AlvidrezRichard AmbacherAndrea AndersonJack AndersonJohn AntrimHarry ArmenThomas AsplinEric AustinRick AvondetLarry BacchiBecky BakerJoe BakerJerry BalistreriWilliam BallDeborah BallardGary BaltozerMarilyn BannonKim BaranyRonald BarkerHilda BarnettTimothy BarrettJoe BarrySandra BarryLynn BashamBrad BasilRobert BatemanThomas BaughmanJohn BearMac BeatonCharles BeattyHeinz BeierGary BellMyron BenderRoger BenedictChristine BengstonRussell BennettBarbara BernardDavid BernsAl BirkholzJoseph BlumDel Boedeker

Carlalee BoettgerBarbara BolinPaul BondBarry BorakovePauline BottrillNiki BourkeDavid BouvierDonovan BowersDebra BozarthFrank BramanJohn BreckLillian BrinkleyDan BrookCharles BrooksSharon BrusicStanley BucholcWalter BuczynskiNancy BuglerJames BujakDebra BurdickBarry BurkeVerner BurkettStephen BurkholderJohn BurnsTed BurtonDonna BushJeffrey BushRobert CaldwellKristin CallenderNick CammaranoJohn CaseyKevin CastnerJodi CavanaughApril CaveChristopher ChamurisJonathan CharlesArlene ChasekDennis CheekEldon ChlumskyBrad ChristensenDean ChristensenJim ChristensenKaren ChristophersonCraig ClarkMarcus ClarkeThomas ClineSam CobbinsGeanea ColemanThomas CollinsSyliva ConnollyCharles CookSteve CookCharles Corley

Steve CottrellDale CoulsonJodie CoulsonWes CoulterAlan CoxDouglas CraigTerry CrisseyPaul CuetaraDavid CulverScott CurrieRodney CusterThomas D’ApolitoRichard DahlMichael DaughertySara De CarloJohn DecaireKenneth DeLuccaEd DentonWilliam DerryDavid DevierMary DevinRichard DieffenderferFrank DiNotoDennis DirksenJohn DoylePasquale DragoLarry DunekackRobert DunnLorraine DurrillRobert DwyerMichael DyrenfurthGlenn EdmondsonJane EisemannJohn EmmonsNeil EnglishThomas EreksonNeil EshelmanCindy EtchisonRichard FeinVictor FelicianoDennis FerrariKeith FinkralEdward FitzgeraldJohn FlanaganMichael FlanaganE. P. FlemyngGioia FormanAlice FosterTad FosterGary FoveauxMarilyn FowlerPhilip FrankenfeldDavid Frankenhauser

Kathy FrancoHarold FullamDennis GalloHervey GallowayWilliam GarzkeCharlie GauldenPerry GemmillMary GenovaBradford GeorgeJohn GibbonsAnthony GilbertiJames GiordanoRoberta GlaserEdward GoldmanJames GoodMary GoodHarold GotwaldRodney GrafGary GraffSandi GraffCarmen GrantoTheodore GrattsGary GrayRobert GrayClark GreeneWalter GreerDavid GreerJames GriffinEdward GrimaldiJeffrey GrimmerRichard GrimsleyShawn GrossJerry GroverJoseph GuidiceLeroy GurnleMark HaasMichael HackerLarry HagmannDoris HammLeo HanifenCindy HannonJohn HansenRobert HansonLinda HarpineEdward HartmannMark HartshorneCraig HaugsnessMaureen HeenanRichard HellthalerMichael HelmickAl HenrionBarry HessingerTom Hession

Mark HiendlmayrColleen HillJane HillRoger HillWarren HitzLarry HoelscherMarie HoepflHarold HolleyRich HollidayDavid HolmesSid HolodnickDundee HoltDavid HoodLynn HooverPeter HoroschakDaniel HouseholderKenneth HoytPhilip HublitzJames HudockJeremy HughesVan HughesJeffrey HuntJohn HutchinsonJoseph HuttlinClinton IsbellEverett IsraelLeovincey IwiyisiChuck JacobsPaul JacobsTricia JacobsPatrick JanssenJames JelkinJim JenkinsGerald JenningsMichael JensenWilliam JodzScott JohnsonJames JohnsonCheryl JongJames JusticeJon KahleGregory KaneJohn KarsnitzRalph KilgoreRichard KimbellMichael KlannSuzanne KnapicDonald KneplerLouisa KniivilaStephan KnoblochJane KoniradRobert KosztownyJohn Kovel

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John KraljicCharlie KrenekBenjamin KrotheRichard KruyerGerald KuhnDan KunzThomas LaClairHenry LacyKevin LallyChristine LandryWayne LangJoanne LangabeeJames LaPorteConnie LarsonThomas LatimerDonald LaudaBarry LeBarronTa-Wei LeeHal LefeverJames LevandeTheodore LewisJane LiedtkeJeff LindstromMike LindstromEthan LiptonCharles LittleJolene LittonGerald LovedahlPeter LoweBrian LuceRichard LucePeter LundRon LutzMichael MagliacanoDavid MagnoneGary MahoneyDavid ManardVickie MarkavitchLinda MarkertPeter MartinBenjamin MartinBrian McAlisterJoseph McCadeDave McCreadyDavid McCroryDavid McGeeJack McGinnisRichard McManusScott McMillinSean McSheehyJim Meinert

Joseph MerodaWilson MewbornMarilyn MeyerPete MeyerAnne MikesellGinney MilbourneChip MillerDavid MillerDavid W. MillerJonathan MillerJudy MillerKevin MillerDave MillikenMichael MinoCarl MitchamJohn MitchellWilliam Moats, IIIMike MonaghanRichard MondragonJohn MonroeJim MoonHarvielee MooreSteve MoorheadMike MosleyAl MotherseleRoger MousseauJames MundyHeidi MunzCynthia NavaCarolyn NewsomeGail NiedernhoferChris NielsenDiane NovakJ. T. NuzzoDon O’ConnorTimothy ObermierThomas OgleLinda OrganElaine OstermanBob OzgaMatthew PagnaniCarll PallokatJohn PannabeckerScott PapenfusKevin PendergastJames PetzoldRandal PierceTommy PitchfordJohn PliasDouglas PloeserPaul Post

Neil PostmanTheresa PoweRoger PrewittBeth PriceSteven PriceCrystal PriestSusan PryorDavid PucelDavid PuringtonNathaniel QuintanaSid RaderSenta RaizenFelix RamirezGene RangerRobert RansomeKathy RaymondEldon RebhornCherry RedusCharlotte RiceBetty RiderJerry RidgewayJohn RigdenSam RittsGene RitzKenneth RobinsonDwight RogersGeorge RogersKevin RoseRon RossmanThomas RothackerJames RussettJames RutherfordSharon RyanThomas RyersonGerhard SalingerJoseph Samela, Jr.Mark SandersDavid SawyerErnest SavageLaurie SchmittMax SchoenhalsTonia SchofieldTodd SchollJohn SchumacherAnthony SchwallerDavid SeidelRichard SeymourEdward ShineThomas ShownDeborah ShumateJeffrey Sicher

Ron SiebachJohn SingerBernard SingerAlfred SkolnickDennis SkurulskyRoy SlaterLee SmalleyDave SmithHarley SmithKenneth SmithOra SmithLoren SmittGreg SmothersRichard SouterJoseph SpadavecchiaGari SpagnolettiEmilio SpinoDonatus St. AimeeWilliam StamanJohn StaudenmaierGregg SteeleLeonard SterryGary StevensonGary StewardsonHoward StobColleen StoneJohn StoudtHenry StradaArnold StrassenburgJerry StreichlerLarry StromDouglas SullivanKaye SullivanLaura SullivanDonald SupleeDarlina SwartzRobert Swisher, Jr.Dennis SwytEd TaylorArmand TaylorTom TermesDennis TesolowskiDonald TestaJohn ThomasMaurice ThomasDanny ThompsonSylvia TialaRon ToddSherri TorkelsonDonna TrautmanLisa Tremblay

Joan TuckerDennis TurnerJohn VagliaBrigitte ValeseyEric Van DuzerArvid Van DykeDorothy VanLooyBruce VenturaBob ViaraRon VickersFrank ViscardiJohn VogelsangKenneth VolkMarc deVriesCharles WallaceMark WallaceBill WargoScott WarnerGordon WarrenSteve WashJohn WatsonChad WeaverAlfred WeissJack WellmanKen WeltyEdward WenkTed WernerTracy WestraVincent WheatleyJane WheelerRosanne WhiteDoug WickhamRobert WickleinEmerson WiensFlint WildGeorge WillcoxWilliam WolfeDeborah WoodmanWayne WornerJohn WrightTom WrightGary WynnDottie YagerLaVerne Young-HawkinsRon YuillNorman ZaniboniMichael ZapantisDavid ZinnKaren Zuga

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Technology forAll Americans Project

International TechnologyEducation Association

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