TEL 319 World Media Systems. The two main questions of this course: What makes countries and their...

TEL 319TEL 319

World Media SystemsWorld Media Systems

The two main questions of this The two main questions of this course:course:

What makes countries and their media What makes countries and their media different?different?

What makes them different along the What makes them different along the media “have” / “have not” scale? I.e. Why media “have” / “have not” scale? I.e. Why do some nations have a lot of do some nations have a lot of communication devices and produce a lot communication devices and produce a lot of content and other countries a little or of content and other countries a little or none?none?

History of TelecommunicationsHistory of Telecommunications

Factors determining the evolution of Factors determining the evolution of modern communications:modern communications:– Technological progressTechnological progress– Social transformationsSocial transformations– Institutional evolutionInstitutional evolution

History of telecommunicationsHistory of telecommunications

From Post to TelegraphFrom Post to Telegraph– Couriers – lasted for a few thousand years:Couriers – lasted for a few thousand years:

King Sargon, 3800 BC – Postmaster, mapsKing Sargon, 3800 BC – Postmaster, mapsCyrus the Great and his Royal Couriers – The Cyrus the Great and his Royal Couriers – The Great Road Great Road Sardes to Susa 1800 miles 111 Sardes to Susa 1800 miles 111 stationsstationsRomans Romans The Via system – Roman roads width The Via system – Roman roads width “directly influences” the gauge of modern railways “directly influences” the gauge of modern railways – 90,000 kilometers or 54,000 miles (see – 90,000 kilometers or 54,000 miles (see linklink))The stage-coach system in the US – Pony express The stage-coach system in the US – Pony express 2000 miles in 10 days2000 miles in 10 days

From travel to signalsFrom travel to signals

Send the message, not the messengerSend the message, not the messengerSignaling systems:Signaling systems:

Greek firegramsGreek firegramsPersian, Gaelic and Amerindian voicegramsPersian, Gaelic and Amerindian voicegramsTalking drums and talking cannons (Hudson Talking drums and talking cannons (Hudson

valley)valley)Chappe’s semaphore – a cross with moving Chappe’s semaphore – a cross with moving

arms that were moved to create coded signals – arms that were moved to create coded signals – first optical telegraph – France had in 1850 500 first optical telegraph – France had in 1850 500 stations covering 2800 milesstations covering 2800 miles

FIRST TELEGRAPHFIRST TELEGRAPH

– GREEK Telegraphs:GREEK Telegraphs:

– Water tank and torchWater tank and torch– Drain water for as long Drain water for as long

as you see the torch lit as you see the torch lit at the nearby stationat the nearby station

– When torch When torch disappears read the disappears read the message on the message on the floating rodfloating rod

CHAPPE’S TELEGRAPHCHAPPE’S TELEGRAPH

– First telegraphs: First telegraphs: Chappe’s optical Chappe’s optical telegraph – Invented telegraph – Invented during the French during the French revolutionrevolution

– Position of the arms Position of the arms determined the letter determined the letter or a brief messageor a brief message

– 1850: 500 stations 1850: 500 stations covering 2800 miles in covering 2800 miles in FranceFrance


TelegraphTelegraph– Built on the idea of optical telegraphBuilt on the idea of optical telegraph– Instead of using light, use electromagnetismInstead of using light, use electromagnetism– Noticed that electricity transfers quickly at great Noticed that electricity transfers quickly at great

distance and creates a magnetic forcedistance and creates a magnetic force– The inventor of telegraph was an amateur American The inventor of telegraph was an amateur American

painter painter Morse 1845 Baltimore Washington; Morse 1845 Baltimore Washington; – Cyrus Field:1858 1st successful transatlantic cable; Cyrus Field:1858 1st successful transatlantic cable;

1866 first long term cable connection1866 first long term cable connection– Government refused the monopoly Government refused the monopoly first telegraph first telegraph

titan Western Uniontitan Western Union

The telegraphThe telegraphSamuel Morse: amateur

painter and inventor

Invented the device and its alphabet (1844) – but not telegraphy itself

S = . . .O = _ _ _S = …

First transatlantic cable 1858 (successful 1866)

Major impact: the “wire” news agency


THE CONTENT/SOCIAL REVOLUTION - From Quipu-s to printTHE CONTENT/SOCIAL REVOLUTION - From Quipu-s to print– Letters: some written, some orally delivered, some inscribed in Letters: some written, some orally delivered, some inscribed in

ropesropes– Manuscripts took forever to produce: 2 bibles per yearManuscripts took forever to produce: 2 bibles per year– Print revolution: 1 bible in a week or even a day – runs of 2000-Print revolution: 1 bible in a week or even a day – runs of 2000-

3000 exemplars3000 exemplars– 1500 AD: 20 million books in Europe, for a population of 100 1500 AD: 20 million books in Europe, for a population of 100

million people million people – Print revolution: not only technological but also socialPrint revolution: not only technological but also social– The rational-populist revolution:The rational-populist revolution:

Protestantism and its emphasis on literacy (personal knowledge of Protestantism and its emphasis on literacy (personal knowledge of Scriptures)Scriptures)Humanism and emphasis on general education and pursuit of knowledge Humanism and emphasis on general education and pursuit of knowledge beyond the limits (although not necessarily against) traditionbeyond the limits (although not necessarily against) traditionUsing science to improve everyday life Using science to improve everyday life needs more knowledge, etc. needs more knowledge, etc.

History of telecommunicationsHistory of telecommunications

The modern institutional systemThe modern institutional system– Royal post for centralizing absolutist Royal post for centralizing absolutist

monarchies 1400-1500 – e.g. France or Spainmonarchies 1400-1500 – e.g. France or Spain– Where the system was decentralized the Where the system was decentralized the

postal system was private postal system was private Germany and Germany and the Venetian Taxisthe Venetian Taxis

– Era of war and nationalism (Napoleon): Era of war and nationalism (Napoleon): All systems have, in the end, been taken under All systems have, in the end, been taken under governmental controlgovernmental controlFor “reasons of state” – frequently warFor “reasons of state” – frequently war

Theory of libertarian (“liberal”) and communitarian Theory of libertarian (“liberal”) and communitarian (social responsibility) media systems(social responsibility) media systems

Libertarian media systems are based on a Libertarian media systems are based on a theory of society and of the presstheory of society and of the pressLibertarian theory:Libertarian theory:– Facilitated by the ReformationFacilitated by the Reformation

freeing conscience from bureaucratic churches frees freeing conscience from bureaucratic churches frees individuals and consciousness from the manacles of tradition individuals and consciousness from the manacles of tradition and authorityand authority

– Appears in England, XVII century (Milton, Locke) Appears in England, XVII century (Milton, Locke) – Developed in the US (Jefferson) and in England (Mill)Developed in the US (Jefferson) and in England (Mill)– Consecrated by the US constitutionConsecrated by the US constitution– Not a “pure” system of laws anymoreNot a “pure” system of laws anymore

Libertarian theory assumptionsLibertarian theory assumptions

Three assumptions – all optimistic – about Three assumptions – all optimistic – about the:the:– Nature of man:Nature of man: rational, end in himself, rational, end in himself,

autonomous and creativeautonomous and creative

– Nature of society/state:Nature of society/state: a natural a natural contract of free individuals to preserve their contract of free individuals to preserve their individual happiness and autonomy; is not a individual happiness and autonomy; is not a reality greater than its membersreality greater than its members

– Nature of knowledge:Nature of knowledge: empirical and empirical and pluralplural

Impact of liberal theory of Impact of liberal theory of knowledge on media theory and knowledge on media theory and

practicepracticeTwo part argument Two part argument – Capacity to know is given to all by God; knowledge, Capacity to know is given to all by God; knowledge,

however, is to be acquired individually:however, is to be acquired individually:Knowledge is empirical Knowledge is empirical given in our experiences; given in our experiences; there are as many varieties of knowledge (truths) as many there are as many varieties of knowledge (truths) as many experiences experiences the truth emerges by “rubbing” these individual truths on the truth emerges by “rubbing” these individual truths on each othereach otherIs a self-correcting, progressive, emergent processIs a self-correcting, progressive, emergent process

– A free and unfettered press A free and unfettered press (“free market-place of (“free market-place of ideas”)ideas”) is needed to allow the opinions to confront is needed to allow the opinions to confront and correct each other and correct each other (“self-righting” process)(“self-righting” process)

– See quote from Becker on page 44 and Milton’s See quote from Becker on page 44 and Milton’s argument summarized on pages 44 and 45argument summarized on pages 44 and 45

Mill’s reasons why the advantages of a free Mill’s reasons why the advantages of a free market-place of ideas outweigh its market-place of ideas outweigh its

disadvantagesdisadvantagesMain disadvantage of a pluralistic market-place: we have Main disadvantage of a pluralistic market-place: we have to put up with a lot of wrong-headed of even malicious to put up with a lot of wrong-headed of even malicious ideas that have to be accepted as true until proved ideas that have to be accepted as true until proved wrongwrong

Mill says that even wrong ideas and opinions have value:Mill says that even wrong ideas and opinions have value:

– If we silence one opinion, even if this is wrong, we silence If we silence one opinion, even if this is wrong, we silence not one individual but the truth-making process itselfnot one individual but the truth-making process itself

Even a wrong opinion might contain a grain of truth which we need Even a wrong opinion might contain a grain of truth which we need for getting the complete picturefor getting the complete picture

– Even if the majority holds the right opinion, the dissenting Even if the majority holds the right opinion, the dissenting opinion performs a useful function: it forces the majority to opinion performs a useful function: it forces the majority to defend its ideas and not accept them as dogmadefend its ideas and not accept them as dogma

Unless challenged, truths lose their vitality and their impact on Unless challenged, truths lose their vitality and their impact on character and conductcharacter and conduct

Effects of Libertarian theory on Effects of Libertarian theory on political institutionspolitical institutions

The country that has first enshrined the libertarian idea in The country that has first enshrined the libertarian idea in its laws were the USits laws were the USBill of Rights Bill of Rights First Amendment First Amendment– Congress shall make Congress shall make no lawno law respecting an establishment of respecting an establishment of

religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievancesredress of grievances. .

– Instead of specifying what (or what cannot) be said, the Instead of specifying what (or what cannot) be said, the Constitution specifically mentions that everything can be said, Constitution specifically mentions that everything can be said, without without priorprior censorship censorship

– However, even in the US, there are limitations:However, even in the US, there are limitations:Libelous, offensive and indecent speech are not protectedLibelous, offensive and indecent speech are not protectedSpeech that presents a Speech that presents a clear and present dangerclear and present danger to the individual to the individual and collective security of the US citizens (WWI, justice Holmes)and collective security of the US citizens (WWI, justice Holmes)Yet, these are more theoretical than practical – rarely applied, Yet, these are more theoretical than practical – rarely applied, especially to print media especially to print media

Communitarian (social responsibility) mediaCommunitarian (social responsibility) mediaMain idea – the goal of communication systems is to further the goals Main idea – the goal of communication systems is to further the goals and happiness of the community not that of the individualand happiness of the community not that of the individual

Relies on different assumptions – mostly pessimistic—about man, Relies on different assumptions – mostly pessimistic—about man, society and truthsociety and truth

– Man is not an autonomous agentMan is not an autonomous agent – society is what makes him what – society is what makes him what he his – individual freedom is useless unless society makes sure that all he his – individual freedom is useless unless society makes sure that all have the same potential to achievehave the same potential to achieve

– Society/governments are the goal of individual existenceSociety/governments are the goal of individual existence, they are , they are more than the sum of their partsmore than the sum of their parts

– People are gullible and their innate desire to achieve true knowledge People are gullible and their innate desire to achieve true knowledge is debatableis debatable we cannot trust people to arrive at some greater truth we cannot trust people to arrive at some greater truth through interaction (p. 100)through interaction (p. 100)

Somebody needs to tell people the truth, which is related to societal goalsSomebody needs to tell people the truth, which is related to societal goalsKnowledge is always related to its usefulness for furthering the goals of Knowledge is always related to its usefulness for furthering the goals of society/state society/state We are given the right to know and express our ideas to further the good of the We are given the right to know and express our ideas to further the good of the society as a whole, if we do not do so, we might forfeit this right (?)society as a whole, if we do not do so, we might forfeit this right (?)

Caveats to the two “theories” of the Caveats to the two “theories” of the press discussed herepress discussed here

Chapter 3 in Siebert, Peterson and Schramm says that Chapter 3 in Siebert, Peterson and Schramm says that soc. Responsibility theory is uniquely Americansoc. Responsibility theory is uniquely AmericanIn fact it develops on the European / socialist tradition In fact it develops on the European / socialist tradition (society and the state are greater realities and more (society and the state are greater realities and more important) than the individualimportant) than the individualSocial-responsibility theory was quite successful in the Social-responsibility theory was quite successful in the US, but not across the board. While the print media US, but not across the board. While the print media remains libertarian, broadcasting and some remains libertarian, broadcasting and some telecommunications are regulated within a “social telecommunications are regulated within a “social responsibility” framework responsibility” framework although this conflicts with although this conflicts with the first amendmentthe first amendmentNo pure libertarian system, anywhereNo pure libertarian system, anywhereEurope: social responsibility theory and practices are Europe: social responsibility theory and practices are less strong than they used to be, libertarianism has less strong than they used to be, libertarianism has made strong inroads (privatization)made strong inroads (privatization)

Communitarian (social Communitarian (social responsibility) media systemsresponsibility) media systems

Main characteristic of social responsibility Main characteristic of social responsibility or communitarian media:or communitarian media:– Media should serve a greater purpose, Media should serve a greater purpose,

dictated by the state dictated by the state social development, social development, improve race relations, involve citizens in improve race relations, involve citizens in democratic debate etc.democratic debate etc.

– Freedom is not “from” but “for”Freedom is not “from” but “for”– Freedom of expression is not just a right but Freedom of expression is not just a right but

also a duty, if duty neglected or misused, right also a duty, if duty neglected or misused, right lostlost

Social responsibility media in an Social responsibility media in an ideal worldideal world

Media should perform pre-set goals (not just in principle, but Media should perform pre-set goals (not just in principle, but specifically and self-consciously), such as:specifically and self-consciously), such as:– service the political system service the political system make people vote make people vote– Educate peopleEducate people– Promote health and other social campaignPromote health and other social campaign

Hutchins Commission on the Freedom of the Press (see this Hutchins Commission on the Freedom of the Press (see this linklink for for more information) set the following goalsmore information) set the following goals1.1. Make the factual knowledge presented in the news relevant (by some Make the factual knowledge presented in the news relevant (by some

external standards)external standards)2.2. Allow fringe opinions, even if unpopular and unacceptable by the public Allow fringe opinions, even if unpopular and unacceptable by the public

known, even make an extra effort to be knownknown, even make an extra effort to be known3.3. Have a self-conscious race and ethnicity related policy of news Have a self-conscious race and ethnicity related policy of news

coveragecoverage4.4. Media should present and clarify the goals and values of society Media should present and clarify the goals and values of society

(should be subordinated to these goals and values)(should be subordinated to these goals and values)5.5. Greater societal / media transparencyGreater societal / media transparency

Social responsibility media: Social responsibility media: possible problemspossible problems

1.1. Whose standards should we use for making Whose standards should we use for making the news relevant?the news relevant?

2.2. What fringe opinion are to be given an What fringe opinion are to be given an extra-voice?extra-voice?

3.3. Whose values and goals is media supposed Whose values and goals is media supposed to promote?to promote?

Modern Media systems: Modern Media systems: Western MediaWestern Media

Defined in terms of:Defined in terms of:– Their political and social regimes:Their political and social regimes:

Libertarian/populist – American and Anglo-SaxonLibertarian/populist – American and Anglo-Saxon– Private initiativePrivate initiative– Market driven; loosely regulatedMarket driven; loosely regulated– Neutral in tone; general purpose; provincialNeutral in tone; general purpose; provincial– Strengthened by technological innovationStrengthened by technological innovation

Communitarian/elitist – European and Asian (Japanese)Communitarian/elitist – European and Asian (Japanese)– State or mixed state-private ownershipState or mixed state-private ownership– Tightly regulated and politically controlledTightly regulated and politically controlled– Partisan and associated with various groups; located in the capital cityPartisan and associated with various groups; located in the capital city– Considerably weakened by technological innovationConsiderably weakened by technological innovation

To serve and to entertain the “people” (populist) although To serve and to entertain the “people” (populist) although in Europe there is a conflict between populism and in Europe there is a conflict between populism and elitismelitismTwo layers: national and multinationalTwo layers: national and multinational

American MediaAmerican MediaDominant force in the world. Why?Dominant force in the world. Why?Influence or force? (see characteristics)Influence or force? (see characteristics)Central values:Central values:– Political: Freedom (1Political: Freedom (1stst Amendment “Congress shall make Amendment “Congress shall make no no

law”)law”). . – Business: creativity, risk-taking, versatility on a market-based Business: creativity, risk-taking, versatility on a market-based

backgroundbackground– Economies of scale: internally and externallyEconomies of scale: internally and externally

A large internal market allows producing for outside markets at low A large internal market allows producing for outside markets at low costcost

– Content and social values: Content and social values: Neutrality in content – people expect to be informed in order to Neutrality in content – people expect to be informed in order to create their own opinions – they do not expect to be preached at or create their own opinions – they do not expect to be preached at or indoctrinatedindoctrinatedIndividuality and personal freedom – each reader/member of the Individuality and personal freedom – each reader/member of the audience is a hero or should be able to identify with the hero – audience is a hero or should be able to identify with the hero – sitcoms and dramas – “ideal mirrors of reality” / Populismsitcoms and dramas – “ideal mirrors of reality” / Populism

Main characteristics of American Main characteristics of American Media:Media:

Fragmented:Fragmented:– Geographically -- no national newspaper; typical newspaper 50,000 readersGeographically -- no national newspaper; typical newspaper 50,000 readers

““Hardware” and “software” ownership does not always overlap Hardware” and “software” ownership does not always overlap Broadcasting is both centralized and decentralizedBroadcasting is both centralized and decentralized

– Institutionally – Institutionally – the decline of the national networks and ascent of niche programming the decline of the national networks and ascent of niche programming fragmented fragmented audiences – Superbowl most watched TV show – 60% share; Seinfeld 20-30% share; audiences – Superbowl most watched TV show – 60% share; Seinfeld 20-30% share; regularly a show attracts about 15% rating (American Idol, ER, etc.)regularly a show attracts about 15% rating (American Idol, ER, etc.)

– News media pretends to be “above the fry” – no clear political or social affiliation, News media pretends to be “above the fry” – no clear political or social affiliation, although this is eroding – NPR, NYTIMES, CNN perceived as being to close to although this is eroding – NPR, NYTIMES, CNN perceived as being to close to the left; Fox News and Talk Radio – more in tune with the rightthe left; Fox News and Talk Radio – more in tune with the right

– Elite (National Review, the New Republic) or low-brow (National Enquirer) Elite (National Review, the New Republic) or low-brow (National Enquirer) publications are relatively smallpublications are relatively small

Globalized:Globalized:– American media is not a strictly national affair American media is not a strictly national affair CNN, SONY, FOX – combines CNN, SONY, FOX – combines

localism with globalismlocalism with globalism– More and more local shows are produced with an eye to foreign markets (“lowest More and more local shows are produced with an eye to foreign markets (“lowest

common denominator”)common denominator”)– Technologically adept: pioneers Radio, Television, Cable, Satellite and Internet Technologically adept: pioneers Radio, Television, Cable, Satellite and Internet

communicationcommunication

United KingdomUnited Kingdom

Similarities with the US:Similarities with the US:– Based on an assumption of freedom, not regulation: No press lawBased on an assumption of freedom, not regulation: No press law

Dissimilarities (along the lines mentioned above – government and Dissimilarities (along the lines mentioned above – government and communitarian concerns):communitarian concerns):– Politically-oriented national media dominatesPolitically-oriented national media dominates

Quality newspapers: The Times, Daily Telegraph, The Independent, The Quality newspapers: The Times, Daily Telegraph, The Independent, The Guardian - centralizedGuardian - centralizedA score of tabloids: Sun (Conservative); Daily Mirror (Labour) – circulation 3 A score of tabloids: Sun (Conservative); Daily Mirror (Labour) – circulation 3 - 4 million (for a population 1/5 that of US)- 4 million (for a population 1/5 that of US)

– Broadcasting:Broadcasting:dominated by the BBC and by the ITN (independent but fiercely regulated) dominated by the BBC and by the ITN (independent but fiercely regulated) networksnetworksSatellite and cable has broken the spell of state monopolySatellite and cable has broken the spell of state monopoly

– Political control: Journalism board and special governmental laws can Political control: Journalism board and special governmental laws can curtail freedom of speech – remnants of royal (now governmental) curtail freedom of speech – remnants of royal (now governmental) authoritarianismauthoritarianism

– World news leader due to its imperial prestige World news leader due to its imperial prestige BBC World Service BBC World Service 150 million listeners although in the US is now available only on-line 150 million listeners although in the US is now available only on-line

FranceFranceIllustrates the difference between US and Europe the bestIllustrates the difference between US and Europe the best

One of the most powerful states in Europe: clear laws for suppressing or One of the most powerful states in Europe: clear laws for suppressing or infringing on an absolute freedom of the press – infringing on an absolute freedom of the press – – See Gubler vs. Mitterand example See Gubler vs. Mitterand example ((http://www.sokol-law-offices.com/mitterandarticle.htmhttp://www.sokol-law-offices.com/mitterandarticle.htm))

– Book author convicted for a criminal offense for publishing a book about the Book author convicted for a criminal offense for publishing a book about the illness of the former president Mitterandillness of the former president Mitterand

Media dominated by Paris - centralizedMedia dominated by Paris - centralized

Newspapers clearly politically oriented along not only ideological but also Newspapers clearly politically oriented along not only ideological but also party lines: France Soir, Le Monde, L’Humaniteparty lines: France Soir, Le Monde, L’Humanite

Television, until 1987 controlled by the governmentTelevision, until 1987 controlled by the government– Changes: Television privatized under technological pressureChanges: Television privatized under technological pressure– Mass media more commercial and more global (Vivendi)Mass media more commercial and more global (Vivendi)

Struggles technologically – Minitel and low rate of cable and Internet Struggles technologically – Minitel and low rate of cable and Internet penetration (30%)penetration (30%)

GermanyGermanyRegionalized and fragmented (imposed by the Allies after WWII)Regionalized and fragmented (imposed by the Allies after WWII)Several layers of government keep media in checkSeveral layers of government keep media in check

OrganizationOrganization– (Paradox) National newspapers are all provincial: FAZ, FR, SDZ (and of course (Paradox) National newspapers are all provincial: FAZ, FR, SDZ (and of course

partisan); most quality journals, one national tabloid (Bild)partisan); most quality journals, one national tabloid (Bild)

ContentContent– Newspapers and TV shows are relatively tame – do not confront authority too Newspapers and TV shows are relatively tame – do not confront authority too

violently exception Der Spiegelviolently exception Der Spiegel– There is at least one type of speech which is totally censored: fascist and There is at least one type of speech which is totally censored: fascist and

extremist speech extremist speech Technology and regulationTechnology and regulation– Television scene dominated by governmental networks: ARD and ZDF Television scene dominated by governmental networks: ARD and ZDF great great

progress toward cable and private but not as much as expectedprogress toward cable and private but not as much as expected– Not the most advanced technologically in Europe, Internet penetration 40% -- Not the most advanced technologically in Europe, Internet penetration 40% --

after UK (60%) and Scandinavian nations (70%)after UK (60%) and Scandinavian nations (70%)

The minor Anglo SaxonsThe minor Anglo Saxons

Canada, Australia, New ZeelandCanada, Australia, New ZeelandRelatively dynamic, combine government with Relatively dynamic, combine government with private initiative (like UK)private initiative (like UK)Canadian protectionism (no tax exemption for Canadian protectionism (no tax exemption for advertising in American media)advertising in American media)Little brother advantageLittle brother advantage– Attractive as movie-making locations Attractive as movie-making locations

(Lord of the Rings, Xena, etc)(Lord of the Rings, Xena, etc)– Directors, actors and technicians can more easily Directors, actors and technicians can more easily

immigrate to the US – name an actor or personalityimmigrate to the US – name an actor or personality– Use US as a global platform – Murdoch and his global Use US as a global platform – Murdoch and his global

interests: Europe, Asia and Americainterests: Europe, Asia and America

An exception in the making: An exception in the making: Scandinavian countriesScandinavian countries

Traditionally very statist (social-democraticTraditionally very statist (social-democratic—ie “liberal”) nations—ie “liberal”) nations

Regressive tax on advertising in SwedenRegressive tax on advertising in Sweden

Today at the forefront of the Internet Today at the forefront of the Internet revolution:revolution:– Finland: Highest Internet penetration rate in Finland: Highest Internet penetration rate in

EuropeEurope– Some of the highest rates of cable penetrationSome of the highest rates of cable penetration

JapanJapanMost communitarian media system – atypicalMost communitarian media system – atypical

Japan, Inc. – Social organization based on harmony “wa” – adjust your Japan, Inc. – Social organization based on harmony “wa” – adjust your values to those of the groupvalues to those of the group

Wa directs the way the media is controlled Wa directs the way the media is controlled – See press correspondents clubs (rarely include foreign journalists)See press correspondents clubs (rarely include foreign journalists)– News that can bother the emperor are not publicized – Crown prince’s search for News that can bother the emperor are not publicized – Crown prince’s search for

a wife and her pregnancy were barely publicized in Japan a wife and her pregnancy were barely publicized in Japan

Centralized:Centralized:– Three large newspapers, with local editions, largest circulation: Asahi Shimbun – Three large newspapers, with local editions, largest circulation: Asahi Shimbun –

14,000,000 daily copies14,000,000 daily copies– Several Television Station (NHK and Fuji)Several Television Station (NHK and Fuji)– Governmental control Governmental control HDTV partial failure HDTV partial failure

Technologically sophisticated Technologically sophisticated – Powerful hardware industry (most tv sets, VCRs or other electronics are Powerful hardware industry (most tv sets, VCRs or other electronics are

produced in Japan or China, by Japanese affiliates)produced in Japan or China, by Japanese affiliates)– But low computer penetration – complex alphabet and less emphasis on But low computer penetration – complex alphabet and less emphasis on

individualized technologiesindividualized technologies

European Union media policyEuropean Union media policy

1989 Television without frontiers: counteract 1989 Television without frontiers: counteract Hollywood domination Hollywood domination 50% of programming 50% of programming should be localshould be localParadoxical: without frontiers inside but raising a Paradoxical: without frontiers inside but raising a Chinese wall outsideChinese wall outsidePrivate industry quite successful in creating Private industry quite successful in creating Europe-wide media channels: Euronews, Sky, Europe-wide media channels: Euronews, Sky, RTLRTLEuropean policy makers followers, not leaders in European policy makers followers, not leaders in Internet revolutionInternet revolutionWhen ahead in the game, misguided – see the When ahead in the game, misguided – see the French Internet: MinitelFrench Internet: Minitel

The multinational puzzleThe multinational puzzle

Largest media companies rarely nationalLargest media companies rarely nationalThey own and co-own each other across They own and co-own each other across bordersbordersSynergy: mix technology, consumer Synergy: mix technology, consumer goods and contentgoods and contentTransborder “imperialism”: reflection of an Transborder “imperialism”: reflection of an interdependent worldinterdependent worldMost of the transactions are in the Most of the transactions are in the Western WorldWestern World

The multinationalsThe multinationals1.1. Time-Warner/AOL – Remember CNN, TNT, TBS, Time-Warner/AOL – Remember CNN, TNT, TBS,

Netscape, Compuserve? They are all here.Netscape, Compuserve? They are all here.2.2. VIACOM/CBS – MTV and Dan RatherVIACOM/CBS – MTV and Dan Rather3.3. Disney/ABC – Mickey and X-treme sports ESPNDisney/ABC – Mickey and X-treme sports ESPN4.4. Bertelsmann – “German” BMG, Arista (rap and hip-hop) Bertelsmann – “German” BMG, Arista (rap and hip-hop)

and RTLand RTL5.5. News Corporation/Fox – “Australian” includes STAR News Corporation/Fox – “Australian” includes STAR

TV, largest Asian satellite serviceTV, largest Asian satellite service6.6. Sony / Columbia Pictures / CBS records (Electronics, Sony / Columbia Pictures / CBS records (Electronics,

Music, Film)Music, Film)7.7. Vivendi Universal – “French” Water, energy utility Vivendi Universal – “French” Water, energy utility

company buys Universal Media & Studios, joins company buys Universal Media & Studios, joins whiskey smuggler company Seagram to form a 50 bn whiskey smuggler company Seagram to form a 50 bn dollar empiredollar empire

8.8. VNU – “Dutch” Nielsen; Hollywood dealmaker and VNU – “Dutch” Nielsen; Hollywood dealmaker and distributor owns Billboard, Hollywood Reporter, Adweekdistributor owns Billboard, Hollywood Reporter, Adweek

Totalitarian media systemsTotalitarian media systems

Generated by communist and nationalist-socialist Generated by communist and nationalist-socialist political systemspolitical systemsThey are an extreme form of communitarian They are an extreme form of communitarian media – their most extreme, anti-humanistic formmedia – their most extreme, anti-humanistic formThey are NOT the unique product of specific They are NOT the unique product of specific individuals (Stalin, Sadam, Kim Jong Il) or specific individuals (Stalin, Sadam, Kim Jong Il) or specific nations (Russia, China, Korea)nations (Russia, China, Korea)They are the product of ideological fervor and They are the product of ideological fervor and zealotryzealotry– Produced by political parties armed with an ideology of Produced by political parties armed with an ideology of

“enlightenment” – they KNOW the truth, which is one “enlightenment” – they KNOW the truth, which is one and foreverand forever

Totalitarian Media System AssumptionsTotalitarian Media System Assumptions

Nature of Man:Nature of Man: strictly controlled and regulated by a socio-economic strictly controlled and regulated by a socio-economic (class), race or religious background(class), race or religious background

Nature of Society and State:Nature of Society and State: are not only the primary element of social life are not only the primary element of social life but their true and only justified goal – hive mentalitybut their true and only justified goal – hive mentality

Nature of Knowledge:Nature of Knowledge: Is acquired by enlightened elites organized in formal Is acquired by enlightened elites organized in formal institutions – parties -- who have privileged access to “ultimate revealed institutions – parties -- who have privileged access to “ultimate revealed truths”– truths”– – e.g. in communist regime true knowledge is revealed by the Marxist doctrine, e.g. in communist regime true knowledge is revealed by the Marxist doctrine,

whose sole repository and interpreter is the Communist Party leadershipwhose sole repository and interpreter is the Communist Party leadership– In nationalist regimes to “savior”-like leaders and parties (NSDAP Germany, or In nationalist regimes to “savior”-like leaders and parties (NSDAP Germany, or

Baath Party in Iraq) and or the militaryBaath Party in Iraq) and or the military– In fundamentalist regimes to a church and its clergy – Iran, Saudi ArabiaIn fundamentalist regimes to a church and its clergy – Iran, Saudi Arabia

Totalitarian Systems:Totalitarian Systems:– Communist and post-communist: Cuba, North Korea, China, Vietnam, Laos, Communist and post-communist: Cuba, North Korea, China, Vietnam, Laos,

Uzbekistan, TurkmenistanUzbekistan, Turkmenistan– National-socialist: Syria, Iraq, Lybia, Burma, National-socialist: Syria, Iraq, Lybia, Burma, – Fundamentalist: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Taliban Afghanistan, Osama’s CaliphateFundamentalist: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Taliban Afghanistan, Osama’s Caliphate

Totalitarian Media Systems -- Totalitarian Media Systems -- CommunismCommunism

Born out of the great Marxian-proletarian intellectual Born out of the great Marxian-proletarian intellectual revolution of 19revolution of 19thth Century Century

Main goal: replace all that is bad and imperfect on this Main goal: replace all that is bad and imperfect on this world (economic inequality, social conflicts, injustice) world (economic inequality, social conflicts, injustice) with a perfect worldwith a perfect world

Perfection to be achieved not through reform but through Perfection to be achieved not through reform but through radical revolution radical revolution violence violence

Why? Marx said that world progresses through Why? Marx said that world progresses through contradictions, and reform only moves only the object of contradictions, and reform only moves only the object of contradictions, not contradiction itselfcontradictions, not contradiction itself– Proletarian revolution the only one that removes contradictions Proletarian revolution the only one that removes contradictions

by removing social class. This is done by eliminating private by removing social class. This is done by eliminating private property and free marketsproperty and free markets

Classic Communist media systemsClassic Communist media systems

The political system is reduced to ONE party which is identified with The political system is reduced to ONE party which is identified with the state – the state – – The state is usually identified with the Supreme LeaderThe state is usually identified with the Supreme Leader

Each state institution is intertwined with a parallel system of party Each state institution is intertwined with a parallel system of party control control – the state is a front for the party and for the upper clique ruling the the state is a front for the party and for the upper clique ruling the

countrycountry

The party considers itself entitled to absolute control because it is The party considers itself entitled to absolute control because it is the institution that has absolute control over understanding where the institution that has absolute control over understanding where society and the world are goingsociety and the world are going

Media becomes a bureaucratic department of the party: Media becomes a bureaucratic department of the party: Propaganda and AgitationPropaganda and Agitation

Functions of Mass Communication in Totalitarian Functions of Mass Communication in Totalitarian SystemsSystems

Serve other state institutions: Army, Serve other state institutions: Army, Health, Education, PropagandaHealth, Education, PropagandaAre seen as an instrument of unityAre seen as an instrument of unityThey “explain” and interpret political They “explain” and interpret political “revelations”“revelations”

Freedom in these systems: “freedom to Freedom in these systems: “freedom to participate within the system; to acquiesce participate within the system; to acquiesce with the system”with the system”

News content in News content in Communist/totalitarian MediaCommunist/totalitarian Media

There are no episodic events that can be There are no episodic events that can be reported as they comereported as they comeThere is only one event, building socialism, There is only one event, building socialism, strengthening the nation, revealing God’s willstrengthening the nation, revealing God’s willEach article is meant to reveal and reinforce this Each article is meant to reveal and reinforce this event – they are proof that the story is right, not event – they are proof that the story is right, not that there is a story to tellthat there is a story to tellIt is all interpretation and all opinion (no It is all interpretation and all opinion (no objectivity). The only “straight” news refer to the objectivity). The only “straight” news refer to the Leader’s Acts – see North Korea HandoutLeader’s Acts – see North Korea Handout

StructureStructure

All media is owned and controlled by the All media is owned and controlled by the governmentgovernment

It is part of the governmental structureIt is part of the governmental structure

It is fiercely centralized and narrowly It is fiercely centralized and narrowly specialized:specialized:– Trade Union NewspapersTrade Union Newspapers– Military NewspapersMilitary Newspapers– Medical NewspapersMedical Newspapers

Totalitarian Media -- ExamplesTotalitarian Media -- Examples

North Korea – North Korea – N Korean Press Agency N Korean Press Agency – Daily news – see handout:Daily news – see handout:

The leader visits agricultural projectThe leader visits agricultural projectSecret Police officers offer thousands of potted Kimjongillias Secret Police officers offer thousands of potted Kimjongillias to the government. The flower was named after the President to the government. The flower was named after the President – Kim Jong Il (see details – Kim Jong Il (see details herehere))

VietnamVietnam– Media has to have an “Educational” content Media has to have an “Educational” content

sometimes supported by American money see link sometimes supported by American money see link herehere

– News are usually congratulatory or self-News are usually congratulatory or self-congratulatory. When reporting incidents, they are congratulatory. When reporting incidents, they are usually created by the capitalists (see usually created by the capitalists (see herehere))

Chinese MediaChinese MediaA media system “in transition”A media system “in transition”

Dominated by state media owned by the Communist Party, the Military, or Dominated by state media owned by the Communist Party, the Military, or by the local and central governmentby the local and central government

Somewhat more liberal in the area of entertainment but news is tightly Somewhat more liberal in the area of entertainment but news is tightly controlledcontrolled

More liberal media policyMore liberal media policy– Free Talk radioFree Talk radio– Lively magazinesLively magazines– Party and governmental newspapers increasingly rely on advertisingParty and governmental newspapers increasingly rely on advertising

Critical issue Critical issue – Ownership: capitalist market without capitalists, Ownership: capitalist market without capitalists, – State organizations own and cross-own mediaState organizations own and cross-own media– Makes regulation and control easierMakes regulation and control easier

Chinese mediaChinese media

The seven NOsThe seven NOsYou are free to publish whatever you want as You are free to publish whatever you want as long as you do not:long as you do not:1.1. Negate the guiding role of Marxism, Maoism or Deng Negate the guiding role of Marxism, Maoism or Deng

Xio PingsmXio Pingsm2.2. Oppose the Communist PartyOppose the Communist Party3.3. Reveal “state secrets”Reveal “state secrets”4.4. Oppose the national (“minority”) policy of the govt.Oppose the national (“minority”) policy of the govt.5.5. Advocate superstition, pseudo-science, violence and Advocate superstition, pseudo-science, violence and

obscenityobscenity6.6. Spread rumorsSpread rumors7.7. Violate national publishing and advertising disciplineViolate national publishing and advertising discipline

Non Western MediaNon Western MediaDominated by authoritarian media systemsDominated by authoritarian media systemsAuthoritarian system: Authoritarian system: – Although there are laws on the book that guarantee freedom of expression, Although there are laws on the book that guarantee freedom of expression,

similar to communitarian and libertarian systems, they are ignored, circumvented similar to communitarian and libertarian systems, they are ignored, circumvented and suppressed by raw forceand suppressed by raw force

– The countries are ruled as dictatorships (royal or republican)The countries are ruled as dictatorships (royal or republican)– They can easily convert to democracy and libertarianism or communitarianism if They can easily convert to democracy and libertarianism or communitarianism if

the political leaders are eliminated (Italy, Spain)the political leaders are eliminated (Italy, Spain)

Difference, communitarian—authoritarian—totalitarian:Difference, communitarian—authoritarian—totalitarian:– Communitarian systems: media is regulated by clear laws which although more Communitarian systems: media is regulated by clear laws which although more

restrictive than in libertarian systems also ensure certain libertiesrestrictive than in libertarian systems also ensure certain libertiesCommunitarian media always function within the confines of the lawCommunitarian media always function within the confines of the law

– Totalitarian media systems suppress and repress freedom using laws:Totalitarian media systems suppress and repress freedom using laws: Communist freedom of expression is always to be exercised within the system, which Communist freedom of expression is always to be exercised within the system, which requires to support and promote the socialist/religious values of the system – See the 7 requires to support and promote the socialist/religious values of the system – See the 7 Chinese “NOs”Chinese “NOs”

– Authoritarian systemsAuthoritarian systemsBrutal and direct censorship and political manipulation of news contentBrutal and direct censorship and political manipulation of news contentPolitical influence above and beyond the law – uses raw force to impose its will Political influence above and beyond the law – uses raw force to impose its will Some areas of freedom are allowed: e.g. entertainmentSome areas of freedom are allowed: e.g. entertainmentAlthough slightly communitarian, they have no set assumptions about man and society, Although slightly communitarian, they have no set assumptions about man and society, it is all in the needs and ideas of the leaders/elitesit is all in the needs and ideas of the leaders/elites

Causes of authoritarianismCauses of authoritarianism

Why are many non-Western media systems Why are many non-Western media systems authoritarian?authoritarian?

Social, ethnic and political cleavages – Social, ethnic and political cleavages – authoritarianism a way of keeping the nation together:authoritarianism a way of keeping the nation together:

– Media is a symbol of control and powerMedia is a symbol of control and power– A symbol of national pride and identityA symbol of national pride and identity– Access to media unequal within and between nationsAccess to media unequal within and between nations

Purportedly facilitates developmentPurportedly facilitates development

Nigeria: Case study in Nigeria: Case study in authoritarianismauthoritarianism

Most populous African nation, one of the richest Most populous African nation, one of the richest (oil) and ethnically diverse (Muslim-Hausa, Ibo (oil) and ethnically diverse (Muslim-Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba-Christian, native religious split)and Yoruba-Christian, native religious split)Hierarchical vs. egalitarian political traditions Hierarchical vs. egalitarian political traditions (North vs. South)(North vs. South)A strong secular legal and political tradition A strong secular legal and political tradition (British law) but very fragmented and corrupt (British law) but very fragmented and corrupt political system (Transparency International political system (Transparency International ranks Nigeria second before last in a list of 90 ranks Nigeria second before last in a list of 90 nations)nations)Strong business class especially among the Strong business class especially among the SouthernersSoutherners

Nigeria – case studyNigeria – case study

Ethnic tensions Ethnic tensions frequent coups frequent coups

Alternates between democracy and dictatorshipAlternates between democracy and dictatorship– Frequent journalists imprisonment (local lore “you are Frequent journalists imprisonment (local lore “you are

not a journalist until you spend some time in prison”)not a journalist until you spend some time in prison”)– Poor infrastructure hinders media workPoor infrastructure hinders media work

National news agency mandated by law to:National news agency mandated by law to:– Be patriotic, truthful, honest and fairBe patriotic, truthful, honest and fair– Don’t be an opponent of government, but a friendly Don’t be an opponent of government, but a friendly

criticcritic– Frequent discussions about licensing journalistsFrequent discussions about licensing journalists

NigeriaNigeriaMore recently there has been a period of relative democratization but the authoritarianism of More recently there has been a period of relative democratization but the authoritarianism of the leaders was replaced with that of the various ethnic and religious traditionsthe leaders was replaced with that of the various ethnic and religious traditions

Northerners, Muslims, want common law to be replaced by Sharia (Islamic law), which uses Northerners, Muslims, want common law to be replaced by Sharia (Islamic law), which uses corporal punishments and amputationscorporal punishments and amputations

The great Nigerian Miss World Debacle of Nov, 2002 see The great Nigerian Miss World Debacle of Nov, 2002 see linklink and and videovideo– Miss World to be held in Lagos, capital of NigeriaMiss World to be held in Lagos, capital of Nigeria– The fundamentalist northern Muslims wanted the event to be cancelled (“decadent,” “corrupts the The fundamentalist northern Muslims wanted the event to be cancelled (“decadent,” “corrupts the

youth”)youth”)– A secular newspaper (ThisDay) published a funny/sacrilegious editorial written by an English A secular newspaper (ThisDay) published a funny/sacrilegious editorial written by an English

educated young woman saying that the Muslims should not be offended by the event; if Mohamed, educated young woman saying that the Muslims should not be offended by the event; if Mohamed, who had several wives, were to attend the event he would for sure choose at least one of the who had several wives, were to attend the event he would for sure choose at least one of the contestants to join his haremcontestants to join his harem

– Muslim riots—sacrilege—hundreds of deaths, Miss World was cancelled and moved to LondonMuslim riots—sacrilege—hundreds of deaths, Miss World was cancelled and moved to London– The journalist had to leave the country and the newspaper to apologizeThe journalist had to leave the country and the newspaper to apologize

Conclusion: authoritarianism does not need to come from above, sometimes it can come Conclusion: authoritarianism does not need to come from above, sometimes it can come from below, from the grassroots. Mass media can be a particularly powerful source of from below, from the grassroots. Mass media can be a particularly powerful source of contentioncontention

Non-Western media and the issue Non-Western media and the issue of developmentof development

Non-Western world inheritor of:Non-Western world inheritor of:– Colonial rule and underdevelopment of modern civil lifeColonial rule and underdevelopment of modern civil life– Historical low level of education and technology (including farming and health)Historical low level of education and technology (including farming and health)– Traditional values: power, religion, personal worth Traditional values: power, religion, personal worth hierarchical and personal hierarchical and personal

Media can/should be used to solve these problemsMedia can/should be used to solve these problems

Currently two understandings of “developmental media”Currently two understandings of “developmental media”– In the communitarian and libertarian traditionIn the communitarian and libertarian tradition

Media as great multiplier, use its potentialities (as prescribed by traditional theories) – Lerner, Media as great multiplier, use its potentialities (as prescribed by traditional theories) – Lerner, SchrammSchramm

social watchdog social watchdog broadens horizons, rises aspirationsbroadens horizons, rises aspirationsfeed interpersonal channelsfeed interpersonal channelsenforce social and political norms enforce social and political norms

Media should be used as agent of diffusion of innovation (like agricultural extensions in US); Media should be used as agent of diffusion of innovation (like agricultural extensions in US); supplements existing culturesupplements existing culture

– Second understanding of developmental media – closer to totalitarian theory:Second understanding of developmental media – closer to totalitarian theory:Using a socialist-Marxist paradigmUsing a socialist-Marxist paradigmChallenges the idea that democracy or Western-style industrialization are good for a nationChallenges the idea that democracy or Western-style industrialization are good for a nationWestern-style media and “freedom of speech:” commercialism fosters colonialismWestern-style media and “freedom of speech:” commercialism fosters colonialismNeed for “Development news”: news-process owned and directed by the nationNeed for “Development news”: news-process owned and directed by the nation

Can media and technology help Can media and technology help development?development?

Second wave of media development was a disaster – it fostered authoritarianism and it did little Second wave of media development was a disaster – it fostered authoritarianism and it did little for improving people’s livesfor improving people’s lives

Media can help in health, education or training campaigns, but not when vaccines are missing, Media can help in health, education or training campaigns, but not when vaccines are missing, teachers are underpaid and training is ideological indoctrinationteachers are underpaid and training is ideological indoctrination

– First take care of the basicsFirst take care of the basics

Can technology solve the problem of development?Can technology solve the problem of development?– Setting up state owned television and radio only helps the leaders to indoctrinate the people Setting up state owned television and radio only helps the leaders to indoctrinate the people TV and TV and

radio set ownership does not translate into developmentradio set ownership does not translate into development– However, setting telephone systems fosters development – Leapfrogging: cellular telephony a great However, setting telephone systems fosters development – Leapfrogging: cellular telephony a great

success throughout the world, but limited by need to interoperate with land-based companies and costsuccess throughout the world, but limited by need to interoperate with land-based companies and costSuccess stories: Lebanon, Romania, Nigeria, China (see Success stories: Lebanon, Romania, Nigeria, China (see linklink))

– The formula that worked was that of free markets not universal taxationThe formula that worked was that of free markets not universal taxationITU proposals: Maitland program and tax on telecom ITU proposals: Maitland program and tax on telecom

Tax on international telecom for World Universal Service (1day walk rule) – 12 bn / yearTax on international telecom for World Universal Service (1day walk rule) – 12 bn / yearPrivate industry ignored, but it did exactly that: satellite telephones at lower price (however, its most avid users are Osama Private industry ignored, but it did exactly that: satellite telephones at lower price (however, its most avid users are Osama and isolated terrorists)and isolated terrorists)

Free markets usually solve rather than impair development (see the development of television in Free markets usually solve rather than impair development (see the development of television in Latin America)Latin America)

Can democracy and freedom of expression save countries from poverty?Can democracy and freedom of expression save countries from poverty?– Democracy does not create prosperity but can break the cycle of tyranny, corruption and under-Democracy does not create prosperity but can break the cycle of tyranny, corruption and under-

developmentdevelopment

India – a case study in India – a case study in developmentdevelopment

Second largest democracy in the WorldSecond largest democracy in the World– A working federal system and a lively print media A working federal system and a lively print media Influenced by the British system Influenced by the British system – 1,000 dailies and 20,000 weeklies (3 newspapers per 100 persons vs. 26 and 57 in US and Japan)1,000 dailies and 20,000 weeklies (3 newspapers per 100 persons vs. 26 and 57 in US and Japan)

Developmental role of the media: a monumental failure – see exampleDevelopmental role of the media: a monumental failure – see example

– Podapadu village in Podapadu village in AndraAndra Pradesh Pradesh– 46 radio sets for 1000 residents 46 radio sets for 1000 residents 2/3rds of respondents listened to the shows 2/3rds of respondents listened to the shows – 5 copies of 2 regional newspapers sent to the village 5 copies of 2 regional newspapers sent to the village two regular readers two regular readers– However: Most effective means of influencing people remains interpersonal communicationHowever: Most effective means of influencing people remains interpersonal communication

Electronic Media tightly controlled by the government (Doordarshan) and stymied by the under-Electronic Media tightly controlled by the government (Doordarshan) and stymied by the under-development of the electronics industry (self-reliance)development of the electronics industry (self-reliance)

– Paradoxically, India has one of the most lively cinema industries in the world (Bollywood) – not regulatedParadoxically, India has one of the most lively cinema industries in the world (Bollywood) – not regulated– Bypassing services: VCR magazines and satellite services (boosted by wars) – but a total disaster when in Bypassing services: VCR magazines and satellite services (boosted by wars) – but a total disaster when in

came to cell phones see came to cell phones see linklink

National media involved in an on-going debate with Pakistan and the Muslim worldNational media involved in an on-going debate with Pakistan and the Muslim worldCommunal fights, same danger of “authoritarianism from below” as in NigeriaCommunal fights, same danger of “authoritarianism from below” as in Nigeria

– 1992: a mythological TV series about one of the Gods of the Hindu Pantheon, RAMA, has sparked a major 1992: a mythological TV series about one of the Gods of the Hindu Pantheon, RAMA, has sparked a major revolt in Ayodhya – 1,100 deathsrevolt in Ayodhya – 1,100 deaths

Latin-American media Latin-American media Between authoritarianism, development and Between authoritarianism, development and

democracy democracy

Countries with old culture and urbanizationCountries with old culture and urbanization

Early integrated in the world systemEarly integrated in the world system

Market oriented, technologically astute and economically viableMarket oriented, technologically astute and economically viable

Strong governmental control: undermined by political instability, conflict with Strong governmental control: undermined by political instability, conflict with the West and social inequalitythe West and social inequality– Reflected in media systems: private but muzzled or subservient to the powers Reflected in media systems: private but muzzled or subservient to the powers

that bethat be– Core values: populism, entertainment (telenovelas), low political involvementCore values: populism, entertainment (telenovelas), low political involvement– Frequently threatened not only by the government but also by various guerillas, Frequently threatened not only by the government but also by various guerillas,

especially left-communist terrorists (see Columbia especially left-communist terrorists (see Columbia linklink))

Some of them have made spectacular progress both in terms of freedom Some of them have made spectacular progress both in terms of freedom and media diversityand media diversity

BrazilBrazilOne of the largest countries in the world One of the largest countries in the world pop 150 million pop 150 millionHuge urban centers: Rio and Sao PaoloHuge urban centers: Rio and Sao PaoloMore TV sets than the rest of LatAm combinedMore TV sets than the rest of LatAm combinedFifth TV network in the world (GLOBO)Fifth TV network in the world (GLOBO)A great power with a provincial languageA great power with a provincial language

TV: entertainment oriented, subservient to the government but more and more TV: entertainment oriented, subservient to the government but more and more vociferousvociferous

– Directly involved in “assisting” the military gov to step down in 1984Directly involved in “assisting” the military gov to step down in 1984– Supported President de Melo, who proved to be a corrupt politician but also instrumental in Supported President de Melo, who proved to be a corrupt politician but also instrumental in

toppling himtoppling him– HOWEVER, ONE OF THE MAJOR EXPORTERS OF TV CONTENT AFTER US; ONE OF HOWEVER, ONE OF THE MAJOR EXPORTERS OF TV CONTENT AFTER US; ONE OF

THE MAJOR CONTENDERS IN THE TELEVISION WORLD TODAYTHE MAJOR CONTENDERS IN THE TELEVISION WORLD TODAY

Newspapers: Newspapers: – Free and vivacious – maintain a climate of debate and discussionFree and vivacious – maintain a climate of debate and discussion– Money making machinesMoney making machines– Reflect the socio-cultural cleavage of the nations: tabloids dominateReflect the socio-cultural cleavage of the nations: tabloids dominate

Brazil has elected its first populist president – far left; fate of democracy unknownBrazil has elected its first populist president – far left; fate of democracy unknown

MexicoMexicoOne of the most solid and secular/radical regimes in Latin America – Mexican One of the most solid and secular/radical regimes in Latin America – Mexican RevolutionRevolution

Statist and nationalist: opposed to the USStatist and nationalist: opposed to the US

Media, market oriented, was quite early capable in establishing itself as a source of Media, market oriented, was quite early capable in establishing itself as a source of content for the rest of the Hispanic worldcontent for the rest of the Hispanic world

Old newspaper tradition, some independence but marred by frequent bribes, threats, Old newspaper tradition, some independence but marred by frequent bribes, threats, assassinations and arrests assassinations and arrests self-censorship self-censorship

Vast network of connections between party-state oligarchs and media barons Vast network of connections between party-state oligarchs and media barons

DEMOCRATIZATION WAVE – LAST FEW YEARSDEMOCRATIZATION WAVE – LAST FEW YEARS– PRI removed from powerPRI removed from power– Television privatized and freed from political constraintsTelevision privatized and freed from political constraints– Two competitive networks TELEVISA – now extended in the – US challenged by AZTECA Two competitive networks TELEVISA – now extended in the – US challenged by AZTECA – HAS SPAWNED SEVERAL TRANS-CONTINENTAL TV NETWORKS AND SERVES AS HAS SPAWNED SEVERAL TRANS-CONTINENTAL TV NETWORKS AND SERVES AS

MAIN FUNNEL OF PROGRAMMING FOR THE REST OF THE CONTINENTMAIN FUNNEL OF PROGRAMMING FOR THE REST OF THE CONTINENT

Media in the Third World todayMedia in the Third World today

The great democratic revolution – but freedom of the press always The great democratic revolution – but freedom of the press always threatenedthreatenedFreedom Forum Scores Freedom Forum Scores (how many political and civil rights there are and if they (how many political and civil rights there are and if they are respected):are respected):

1973 50% of non-industrialized world (GDP < 15,000) was totalitarian or very 1973 50% of non-industrialized world (GDP < 15,000) was totalitarian or very authoritarianauthoritarian1989 20% totalitarian or authoritarian1989 20% totalitarian or authoritarian1998 10% totalitarian or authoritarian1998 10% totalitarian or authoritarian

Freedom of the press:Freedom of the press:1979 35% of the countries press not free1979 35% of the countries press not free1989 50% of the countries press not free1989 50% of the countries press not free1999 35% of the countries press not free1999 35% of the countries press not free

HOWEVER, THERE IS AN INCREASINGLY HIGH NUMBER OF HOWEVER, THERE IS AN INCREASINGLY HIGH NUMBER OF FAILED STATES: STATES THAT HAVE FAILED TO BE STATES – FAILED STATES: STATES THAT HAVE FAILED TO BE STATES – SOMALIA, ETHIOPIA, IVORY COAST, LIBERIA, AFGHANISTANSOMALIA, ETHIOPIA, IVORY COAST, LIBERIA, AFGHANISTAN

MEDIA SYSTEMS OVERVIEWMEDIA SYSTEMS OVERVIEWLibertarianLibertarian CommunitarianCommunitarian AuthoritarianAuthoritarian TotalitarianTotalitarian

AssumptionsAssumptions Man: autonomousMan: autonomous

State: contract between State: contract between individualsindividuals

Knowledge: acquired Knowledge: acquired through conflict/debatethrough conflict/debate

Man: shaped by societyMan: shaped by society

State: greater than sum of State: greater than sum of parts Knowledge: people parts Knowledge: people are gullible, need to be are gullible, need to be

told what to believetold what to believe

No assumptions, are No assumptions, are corrupted libertarian and corrupted libertarian and authoritarian systems; authoritarian systems;

Controlled by power and Controlled by power and intimidation intimidation

Man: Product of social Man: Product of social groups (classes), no groups (classes), no

autonomyautonomy

State: First and last State: First and last reality, goal of social lifereality, goal of social life

Knowledge: Revealed to Knowledge: Revealed to the leaders who impart it the leaders who impart it

to the massesto the masses

OwnershipOwnership PrivatePrivate Public/Private./Gov Public/Private./Gov Government/PrivateGovernment/Private GovernmentGovernment

RegulationRegulation Media system Media system separated and separated and

critical of gov by critical of gov by definition – cannot definition – cannot be regulated as to be regulated as to content (but is as content (but is as to its institutions)to its institutions)

Media system Media system subordinated to subordinated to community by community by

law but law but autonomous. Gov autonomous. Gov

regulates both regulates both content and content and

media institutionsmedia institutions

Laws can be Laws can be “liberal” but media “liberal” but media

system system subordinated to subordinated to specific elites: specific elites:

censorship, censorship, arrests, killingarrests, killing

Media is part of Media is part of the government, the government,

individual freedom individual freedom suppressed suppressed

BY LAWBY LAW

MissionMission Entertain, inform, Entertain, inform, profit, explore new profit, explore new

experiences, experiences, “reflect life”“reflect life”

Provide public Provide public service, maintain service, maintain

local “cultural local “cultural identity,” identity,”

entertain, informentertain, inform

Maintain “unity of Maintain “unity of the nation,” power the nation,” power

privileges, privileges, development, development,

entertain, informentertain, inform

““Development:” Development:” social engineering social engineering and propaganda and propaganda (indoctrination)(indoctrination)

CountriesCountries US, UKUS, UK UK, France, UK, France, Germany, Japan, Germany, Japan,

IndiaIndia

Nigeria, Mexico, Nigeria, Mexico, Brazil, India, IraqBrazil, India, Iraq

Cuba, North Cuba, North Korea, Iraq, SyriaKorea, Iraq, Syria

World inequalitiesWorld inequalities

Newspaper Newspaper circulation / circulation / 100 persons100 persons

Radio sets / Radio sets / 100 persons100 persons

TV sets / 100 TV sets / 100 personspersons

Phone lines / Phone lines / 100 persons100 persons

USUS 2626 224224 7474 5050

JapanJapan 5757 9494 6161 4242

FranceFrance 1919 108108 4040 4848

BrazilBrazil 55 4444 2727 77

MexicoMexico 1313 3535 1616 66

IndiaIndia 33 99 44 11

NigeriaNigeria 22 1515 77 00

Theories explaining international Theories explaining international communication inequalitiescommunication inequalities

Electronic colonialism theory ECCElectronic colonialism theory ECC– CLAIM: After the downfall of classical CLAIM: After the downfall of classical

colonialism (military and political) a media and colonialism (military and political) a media and cultural imperialism remainscultural imperialism remains

Mass media and telecommunications depend on Mass media and telecommunications depend on Western tools and practicesWestern tools and practices

Less developed countries dependent on the West Less developed countries dependent on the West for expertise and hardwarefor expertise and hardware

ECC = inequal news and programming flowsECC = inequal news and programming flows

Underdevelopment creates further Underdevelopment creates further underdevelopmentunderdevelopment

World-systems or dependency World-systems or dependency system theory (WST)system theory (WST)

Develops electronic colonialism theoryDevelops electronic colonialism theory– Starts from an undeniable reality: Starts from an undeniable reality:

There is a center-periphery structure of the world: rich/Western in the There is a center-periphery structure of the world: rich/Western in the center, poor/Non-Western at the peripherycenter, poor/Non-Western at the peripheryThe world-system:The world-system:

– formed 200 years ago formed 200 years ago – first capitalist colonial systems: metropolitan countries in the center, first capitalist colonial systems: metropolitan countries in the center,

colonies at the peripherycolonies at the peripheryThe center extracts materials from the periphery, produces goods The center extracts materials from the periphery, produces goods and sends it to the periphery consumers (Indian cotton export)and sends it to the periphery consumers (Indian cotton export)As the center grows richer, the periphery grows poorer (Indian As the center grows richer, the periphery grows poorer (Indian poverty)poverty)WST theory applies both to economics and mediaWST theory applies both to economics and media

Problems with WST Problems with WST – World system position is not destiny: US, JapanWorld system position is not destiny: US, Japan– For media, there is no “raw material” that is extracted from the For media, there is no “raw material” that is extracted from the

periphery – this is informationperiphery – this is information

NWICO debateNWICO debate1970s New World Information and Communication Order:1970s New World Information and Communication Order:

There is an inequitable distribution of hardware and news which tends to deepenThere is an inequitable distribution of hardware and news which tends to deepen Effect: resources comes and coverage is directed from the center (Western world)Effect: resources comes and coverage is directed from the center (Western world)

Third World image is dominated by the biases of the centerThird World image is dominated by the biases of the center Invasion of cultural products – suppresses national identityInvasion of cultural products – suppresses national identity

MASS MEDIA DECLARATION 1978 – International comm. should be re-MASS MEDIA DECLARATION 1978 – International comm. should be re-equilibrated: equilibrated:

2 Positions:2 Positions: Socialist, non-western nations:Socialist, non-western nations:

Strengthen control both over hardware and softwareStrengthen control both over hardware and software News gathering and diffusion process should be made more “national” and directed by News gathering and diffusion process should be made more “national” and directed by

governments – alternative news agenciesgovernments – alternative news agencies 33rdrd World information should be filtered and regulated by governments to redress inequities World information should be filtered and regulated by governments to redress inequities

Heavy intervention of governments in the news process Heavy intervention of governments in the news process creeping authoritarianism, creeping authoritarianism, even totalitarianism even totalitarianism

USSR had a special interest in this since the torrent of foreign news was threatening USSR had a special interest in this since the torrent of foreign news was threatening internal stability internal stability

Western nations:Western nations: world information should flow freely and addressed to individualsworld information should flow freely and addressed to individuals private agencies and state agencies should be left to compete for people’s attention in all private agencies and state agencies should be left to compete for people’s attention in all

countries (libertarian theory “free marketplace of ideas”)countries (libertarian theory “free marketplace of ideas”)

NWICO compromiseNWICO compromise– 1978 Media declaration 1978 Media declaration Plan for action: Plan for action:

McBride Commission (Belgrade, 1980): McBride Commission (Belgrade, 1980): Equitable diffusion of news, technology transfer, Equitable diffusion of news, technology transfer, elimination of monopolies public or privateelimination of monopolies public or private

Guarantee freedom of expression but with caveats: Guarantee freedom of expression but with caveats: journalists have to be responsible, governments journalists have to be responsible, governments can limit freedom of expression if they deem it as can limit freedom of expression if they deem it as “not reflective of the local situations,” governments “not reflective of the local situations,” governments are guaranteed a role in fostering a specific are guaranteed a role in fostering a specific information policy, based on national goalsinformation policy, based on national goals

State control of news and media for developmental State control of news and media for developmental purposespurposes

NWICONWICO

– Outcome Outcome Rejected by the US (withdraws from UNESCO):Rejected by the US (withdraws from UNESCO):

– not because it wanted 3not because it wanted 3rdrd world media development, but world media development, but because this was demanded in the name of the state because this was demanded in the name of the state and required curtailment of freedom of expression. and required curtailment of freedom of expression.

No checks and balances within totalitarian states No checks and balances within totalitarian states to prevent them from abusing their power to to prevent them from abusing their power to regulate the mediaregulate the media

Question: can there be state-directed development Question: can there be state-directed development AND press freedom?AND press freedom?

The international flow of television The international flow of television programsprograms

VARIS STUDY:VARIS STUDY:– WhenWhen

1983 – after a previous UNESCO study1983 – after a previous UNESCO study

– WhatWhatMaps the flow of television programming in the world: how Maps the flow of television programming in the world: how much of each countries’ television programming is imported much of each countries’ television programming is imported and how much domestically producedand how much domestically produced

– WhoWhoVarious research centers around the world directed by Tapio Various research centers around the world directed by Tapio Varis – UNESCO (United Nations Education Culture Science Varis – UNESCO (United Nations Education Culture Science and Culture Organization) sponsorshipand Culture Organization) sponsorship


Methodology:Methodology:– Sample two-week period in each countrySample two-week period in each country– Record how many hours of programming Record how many hours of programming

were dedicated to:were dedicated to:8 types of programming (info, education, cultural, 8 types of programming (info, education, cultural, religious, children, entertainment, ads, religious, children, entertainment, ads, unclassified)unclassified)

Foreign vs. domesticForeign vs. domestic

And if the above were shown in prime time or notAnd if the above were shown in prime time or not


Findings:Findings:– 1983: 1/3 of world television programming is imported – same as 1983: 1/3 of world television programming is imported – same as

19731973– Regional:Regional:

N America: US imports 2% (Mexico and UK); Canada imports about N America: US imports 2% (Mexico and UK); Canada imports about 30%30%Latin America: import 50%, all entertainment, 75% from US, 12% Latin America: import 50%, all entertainment, 75% from US, 12% from other Lat Am, rest from Europefrom other Lat Am, rest from EuropeWestern Europe: 30% of programs imported; of which 44% are from Western Europe: 30% of programs imported; of which 44% are from US; UK, Germany and France the restUS; UK, Germany and France the restEastern Europe: about 20-25% imported of which 50% from non-Eastern Europe: about 20-25% imported of which 50% from non-Communist countries and 21 from USSRCommunist countries and 21 from USSRAsia: 36% imported – highest New Zeeland; lowest IndiaAsia: 36% imported – highest New Zeeland; lowest IndiaMiddle East – 30% imported of which 30% produced in the USMiddle East – 30% imported of which 30% produced in the USAfrica – 40% imported – caveat: most of the population does not Africa – 40% imported – caveat: most of the population does not have access to televisionhave access to television

Varis studyVaris study

Other findingsOther findings– Regional exchanges on the increase:Regional exchanges on the increase:

Western Europe – over 40% from the regionWestern Europe – over 40% from the region

Middle East – over 30% from the regionMiddle East – over 30% from the region

– North-South and East-West gapsNorth-South and East-West gapsSouth and East are recipientsSouth and East are recipients

Antola and Rogers studyAntola and Rogers study

SUMMARY OF FINDINGSSUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Television flows in: Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Venezuela, Television flows in: Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Venezuela, ArgentinaArgentinaAmerican programming very importantAmerican programming very importantTV imports in key Lat. Am. nations have decreased (1972-81):TV imports in key Lat. Am. nations have decreased (1972-81):– Brazil: 60% Brazil: 60% 39% 39%– Venezuela: 50 Venezuela: 50 33% 33%– Chile: 56 Chile: 56 44% 44%– Peru and Argentina go in the opposite directionPeru and Argentina go in the opposite direction– Mexico stationary (50%)Mexico stationary (50%)

Mexico major exporter in other countriesMexico major exporter in other countriesRise of Japanese cartoonsRise of Japanese cartoonsAdaptation and transformation of American programmingAdaptation and transformation of American programming

Antola and RogersAntola and Rogers

Flaw of previous studies:Flaw of previous studies:– Did not weight the hours by the size of their audienceDid not weight the hours by the size of their audience– Dramatic changes:Dramatic changes:

Mexico (Televisa): American programming represents 50% in Mexico (Televisa): American programming represents 50% in terms of hours but only 30% in terms of total audience sizeterms of hours but only 30% in terms of total audience sizeBrazil (Globo): 20% US vs. 80% local in terms of audienceBrazil (Globo): 20% US vs. 80% local in terms of audience

Ranking of television prime-time shows in all nations Ranking of television prime-time shows in all nations studied:studied:

1.1. Domestic productionDomestic production2.2. Latin American productionLatin American production3.3. American productionAmerican production

Only 4 of top 50 rated shows in study countries are Only 4 of top 50 rated shows in study countries are importedimported


Latin American countries became Latin American countries became exporters of programming to the US exporters of programming to the US (Hispanic population)(Hispanic population)Mexico as the “neck” of the hourglassMexico as the “neck” of the hourglassLarger markets (Mexico) make the Larger markets (Mexico) make the decision what smaller countries will see decision what smaller countries will see (they cover the cost of dubbing)(they cover the cost of dubbing)The debacle of Dallas: not bought by The debacle of Dallas: not bought by Mexico and did poorly in BrazilMexico and did poorly in Brazil


Why did Mexico and Brazil succeed:Why did Mexico and Brazil succeed:– Domestic and original productions: telenovelaDomestic and original productions: telenovela– Large marketsLarge markets– Market savvy executivesMarket savvy executives– Permissive regulatory environmentPermissive regulatory environment

Why did Argentina fail?Why did Argentina fail?– Television was nationalizedTelevision was nationalized– Technical incompatibilityTechnical incompatibility– Marketing contacts were lostMarketing contacts were lost


ConclusionsConclusions

Imports from the US are still importantImports from the US are still important

Domestic fare attracts larger audiencesDomestic fare attracts larger audiences

Mexico = gatekeeper (largest market)Mexico = gatekeeper (largest market)

Brazil and Mexico are main exportersBrazil and Mexico are main exporters

Mexico the only exporter of programming Mexico the only exporter of programming to the USto the US

De Melo: Development of Audio-De Melo: Development of Audio-visual industry in Brazilvisual industry in Brazil

Traditional (19Traditional (19thth century) Brazilian culture was a colonial century) Brazilian culture was a colonial culture: culture: – Dominated by EuropeDominated by Europe– Served a local elite with European connectionsServed a local elite with European connections– Cultural content: books, art, theatre importedCultural content: books, art, theatre imported

Modern Brazil: mix of local (populist) artistic forms and Modern Brazil: mix of local (populist) artistic forms and modern formats (music, TV, etc) prepared to meet the modern formats (music, TV, etc) prepared to meet the needs of the local populationneeds of the local population

Affirmation of national identity and local content in Brazil Affirmation of national identity and local content in Brazil UNIQUELY SUPPORTED BY COMMERCIAL TELEVISIONUNIQUELY SUPPORTED BY COMMERCIAL TELEVISION

The Globo StoryThe Globo Story

A small production company, relatively late starter (1960s)A small production company, relatively late starter (1960s)

Takes advantage from: modern technology and modern marketing Takes advantage from: modern technology and modern marketing and managementand management

Has early set its eyes on a foreign market (Italy and other Latin Has early set its eyes on a foreign market (Italy and other Latin American countries): never think of your audience as strictly localAmerican countries): never think of your audience as strictly local

Taking advantage of lower labor costs, Brazilian telenovelas cost Taking advantage of lower labor costs, Brazilian telenovelas cost 1/3 of what Americans would charge1/3 of what Americans would charge

Profit from telenovelas alone: 20 mil beginning of 1990sProfit from telenovelas alone: 20 mil beginning of 1990s

As a sign of maturity, Brazil sells not only content but also format: As a sign of maturity, Brazil sells not only content but also format: Manuela (telenovela) and Xou of Xuxa (kids)Manuela (telenovela) and Xou of Xuxa (kids)

The media “imperialism” argument The media “imperialism” argument and the Western Countriesand the Western Countries

Western European nations try to impose Western European nations try to impose barriers and obstacles to American barriers and obstacles to American productsproducts

They believe that if free markets are left They believe that if free markets are left alone, America will flood Europe with a alone, America will flood Europe with a deluge of cheap programmingdeluge of cheap programming

This will corrode the standards of the local This will corrode the standards of the local broadcasters and will debase the publicbroadcasters and will debase the public

The “Iron Law” of Hollywood The “Iron Law” of Hollywood dominance:dominance:

When forced to choose between cheap When forced to choose between cheap American programming and costly domestic American programming and costly domestic programming European stations will prefer programming European stations will prefer American programmingAmerican programming

American programming is cheap because American programming is cheap because Hollywood and New York producers pay only a Hollywood and New York producers pay only a minimal cost to re-produce extra-copies (all minimal cost to re-produce extra-copies (all other costs + profit already covered by domestic other costs + profit already covered by domestic consumers)consumers)

““Iron Law” critiqueIron Law” critique

1. The argument confounds total costs with 1. The argument confounds total costs with costs of reproduction:costs of reproduction:– Argument reduced to: “It is cheaper to take a taxi than Argument reduced to: “It is cheaper to take a taxi than

to buy a car” – in the long run this is flawedto buy a car” – in the long run this is flawed

2. American programming was successful not 2. American programming was successful not because is cheap (both ways, quality and price) because is cheap (both ways, quality and price) but because it was the only one available, at but because it was the only one available, at decent quality and fit for universal distribution at decent quality and fit for universal distribution at a time when America was the only source of a time when America was the only source of commercial broadcasting commercial broadcasting – – broadcasters just like other customers look for “value broadcasters just like other customers look for “value

for money,” not for the cheapest possible pricefor money,” not for the cheapest possible price

Iron Law critiqueIron Law critique

3. Cheap imports produce income!3. Cheap imports produce income!Italy: Italy:

– 1 State television channel1 State television channel– 10 million dollars for 10,000 hours of broadcasting/year.10 million dollars for 10,000 hours of broadcasting/year.

If all content is domestically produced, Italy can only spend 1000 If all content is domestically produced, Italy can only spend 1000 dollars for each broadcasting hour. dollars for each broadcasting hour. If Italy decides to buy 5,000 hours of American programming at 100 If Italy decides to buy 5,000 hours of American programming at 100 dollars an hour, how much is left for domestic production/hour?dollars an hour, how much is left for domestic production/hour?9,500,000 dollars left to spend on 5,000 hours of domestic 9,500,000 dollars left to spend on 5,000 hours of domestic programmingprogramming either spend almost twice for each hour of either spend almost twice for each hour of programming (1900 dollars) or produce 4,500 extra hours of programming (1900 dollars) or produce 4,500 extra hours of domestic programming for a second domestic channeldomestic programming for a second domestic channel

– Imports do not destroy but can potentially boost higher quality Imports do not destroy but can potentially boost higher quality domestic production or extend domestic programming. It domestic production or extend domestic programming. It depends where you show the content.depends where you show the content.

““Iron Law” critiqueIron Law” critique4. The iron law assumes that only US can sell its wares 4. The iron law assumes that only US can sell its wares abroad, that only it can sell stuff at “marginal cost.” Why abroad, that only it can sell stuff at “marginal cost.” Why can’t England or Brazil do the same?can’t England or Brazil do the same?

5. (version of 4) The iron law assumes that the US is the 5. (version of 4) The iron law assumes that the US is the only nation that has a large enough internal market to only nation that has a large enough internal market to cover the initial investment of the production, which cover the initial investment of the production, which allows after market sales at “marginal cost”allows after market sales at “marginal cost”– In fact, the US market is quite fragmented, its large production of In fact, the US market is quite fragmented, its large production of

movies (or TV shows) chases a fixed number of viewers; Friends movies (or TV shows) chases a fixed number of viewers; Friends is usually watched by 10-15% of the American audience; CNN is usually watched by 10-15% of the American audience; CNN has about 500,000 viewers a weekhas about 500,000 viewers a week

6. Production decisions are determined by potential not 6. Production decisions are determined by potential not actual market: if this weren’t true the Swiss were not actual market: if this weren’t true the Swiss were not making the Swatches and New Zealanders would not making the Swatches and New Zealanders would not grow kiwisgrow kiwis


7. US products are cheap in Europe not only 7. US products are cheap in Europe not only because of “marginal cost” effects but also because of “marginal cost” effects but also because there was no one to bid prices up because there was no one to bid prices up monopsonistic (one customer) markets – that is monopsonistic (one customer) markets – that is how the EBU affords to pay 1/10how the EBU affords to pay 1/10 thth of the price of the price paid by American companies for broadcasting paid by American companies for broadcasting the Olympicsthe Olympics

8. Although American programming is mediocre 8. Although American programming is mediocre (catering to the medium public) it has evolved (catering to the medium public) it has evolved and is more sophisticated than it used to be (see and is more sophisticated than it used to be (see Discovery, National Geographic, HBO etc.) Discovery, National Geographic, HBO etc.)


9. The assumption that American programming 9. The assumption that American programming is simply dumped abroad, without regard for is simply dumped abroad, without regard for local traditions or universal appeal is wrong, this local traditions or universal appeal is wrong, this is finely calculated by the studio executivesis finely calculated by the studio executives

10. The iron law assumes that a market oriented 10. The iron law assumes that a market oriented system will benefit only the Americans, in fact as system will benefit only the Americans, in fact as the systems becomes organized around the systems becomes organized around production for sale more actors will emerge production for sale more actors will emerge (such as Televisa) that will be better prepared to (such as Televisa) that will be better prepared to serve various niche marketsserve various niche markets

What explains US success?What explains US success?

The only producer in a world of consumersThe only producer in a world of consumersAiming at the average viewer and his/her expectationsAiming at the average viewer and his/her expectationsAmerican programming is designed to appeal to diverse American programming is designed to appeal to diverse (universal audiences) because the American audience is (universal audiences) because the American audience is diverse itselfdiverse itselfAmerican culture was a “pre-sold” product, the American American culture was a “pre-sold” product, the American mystique of the West has long preceded the success of mystique of the West has long preceded the success of the Western (Karl May)the Western (Karl May)American content industry is highly sophisticated and American content industry is highly sophisticated and managed as a mass-consumption industrymanaged as a mass-consumption industryAmerican economy is a service economy, of which American economy is a service economy, of which content is only a segment (this is what US is good at)content is only a segment (this is what US is good at)

Iron Law conclusionsIron Law conclusions

The US was strong because was the only sale The US was strong because was the only sale oriented nation in a world of under-achievers oriented nation in a world of under-achievers (state dominated monopolies)(state dominated monopolies)In the long run it is cheaper and smarter to buy a In the long run it is cheaper and smarter to buy a car than to rent one, provided that the system is car than to rent one, provided that the system is market basedmarket basedCommercial production in the US has in fact Commercial production in the US has in fact subsidized European high quality production and subsidized European high quality production and access to world events (see Olympics)access to world events (see Olympics)Yet there is a need for balancing public and Yet there is a need for balancing public and privateprivate

MIDTERMMIDTERM

GOOD LUCKGOOD LUCK

Mini-summary: Mini-summary:

We learned that broadcasting and telecommunications We learned that broadcasting and telecommunications live through an interplay between interdependence live through an interplay between interdependence (internationalization) and localization(internationalization) and localizationProduction or distribution have become more Production or distribution have become more international but content consumption is still locale-international but content consumption is still locale-boundboundGreat disparity between nations but isolating nations Great disparity between nations but isolating nations from the world is not the solutionfrom the world is not the solutionMore interconnection, not less, should be the solutionMore interconnection, not less, should be the solutionFreer media environments have increased diversity of Freer media environments have increased diversity of programmingprogramming

Telecommunication and Telecommunication and interdependenceinterdependence

Major issue of the first part of the course:Major issue of the first part of the course:– Differences between media systemsDifferences between media systems– How does dependence of some countries on other countries is How does dependence of some countries on other countries is

mediated by the type of media system they havemediated by the type of media system they have– Authoritarian and communitarian media systems are more likely Authoritarian and communitarian media systems are more likely

to be dependent on libertarian media systemsto be dependent on libertarian media systemsLibertarian systems produce more and control more of the media Libertarian systems produce more and control more of the media resources of the worldresources of the world

Second part of the course looks at the same issues Second part of the course looks at the same issues focusing on Telecommmunicationsfocusing on TelecommmunicationsWe can look at dependence by considering other types We can look at dependence by considering other types of connections:of connections:– TelephoneTelephone– InternetInternet

Balance and dependence in the Balance and dependence in the world of telecommunications: world of telecommunications:

telephonytelephony

International telephony is a central tool for International telephony is a central tool for bringing people togetherbringing people together

What are the changes in the world What are the changes in the world telecommunications arena observed over telecommunications arena observed over the last 20-30 years?the last 20-30 years?

What countries dominate the arena of What countries dominate the arena of international telephony and why?international telephony and why?

How much more interdependent How much more interdependent and globalized is the world today?and globalized is the world today?Telecommunications between nations have Telecommunications between nations have increasedincreased

Prices have decreasedPrices have decreased

Technology has improvedTechnology has improved

How much?How much?

Who has benefited from this process the most?Who has benefited from this process the most?

How should the benefits of this economic and How should the benefits of this economic and technological revolution be spread around?technological revolution be spread around?

Improvements in Improvements in telecommunications – brief historytelecommunications – brief history

A little bit of perspective:A little bit of perspective:– No matter how great are the discrepancies today, the world has become smaller No matter how great are the discrepancies today, the world has become smaller

ACROSS THE BOARDACROSS THE BOARD

BEFORE STARTING THE DISCUSSION ABOUT INEQUALITY, LET’S BEFORE STARTING THE DISCUSSION ABOUT INEQUALITY, LET’S LOOK AT HOW FAR WE’VE COMELOOK AT HOW FAR WE’VE COMETHE EFFECT OF TELECOM. REVOLUTION THE EFFECT OF TELECOM. REVOLUTION – Space before 1840s (telegraphy) was immenseSpace before 1840s (telegraphy) was immense

Most people, including members of aristocracy, spent their lives within 30 miles of their Most people, including members of aristocracy, spent their lives within 30 miles of their homeshomesOnly the rich and government people traveledOnly the rich and government people traveledIt took several weeks – up to a month to travel across EuropeIt took several weeks – up to a month to travel across EuropeTwo months – two weeks to cross the AtlanticTwo months – two weeks to cross the AtlanticTwo years to get an answer from a letter sent to AustraliaTwo years to get an answer from a letter sent to AustraliaIt took Lewis and Clark at the beginning of 19It took Lewis and Clark at the beginning of 19 thth Century 3 years to travel from Saint Century 3 years to travel from Saint Louis to Washington State and backLouis to Washington State and backDaniel Boone – 6 months to get from W Virginia to BoonesboroughDaniel Boone – 6 months to get from W Virginia to BoonesboroughTrip up the Hudson (before steam): 50 hours for 140 milesTrip up the Hudson (before steam): 50 hours for 140 miles

Improvements in Improvements in telecommunications - 2telecommunications - 2

Travel: Boston – New YorkTravel: Boston – New York– 1800 3-4 days1800 3-4 days– 1830 1-2 days1830 1-2 days– 1860 10 hours1860 10 hours– 1920 6 hours1920 6 hours

Mail service in the US – New York to S. F.Mail service in the US – New York to S. F.– 24 days to 12 hours (FedEX)24 days to 12 hours (FedEX)

Even air travel has improved - New York – ParisEven air travel has improved - New York – Paris– Lindbergh – couple of daysLindbergh – couple of days– Early air travel 10 – 12 hoursEarly air travel 10 – 12 hours– Standard air travel – 6 – 7 hoursStandard air travel – 6 – 7 hours– Concorde – 3 – 4 hoursConcorde – 3 – 4 hours

Improvement in Improvement in telecommunications - 3telecommunications - 3

The long distance explosionThe long distance explosion– Length to place a call:Length to place a call:

1920 – 14 minutes1920 – 14 minutes

1931 – 2.1 minutes1931 – 2.1 minutes

– Cost to place a call (NY – SF)Cost to place a call (NY – SF)1920 - $15/3 min1920 - $15/3 min

1930 - $81930 - $8

1941 - $4.81941 - $4.8

Today 10c/minToday 10c/min

Tomorrow – flat rate plan (speakzero.com – $29.99/month)Tomorrow – flat rate plan (speakzero.com – $29.99/month)

What is the present state of What is the present state of telecommunicationstelecommunications

Despite tremendous increase in traffic and Despite tremendous increase in traffic and affordability, there is an equally affordability, there is an equally tremendous disparity in capability and tremendous disparity in capability and potential to communicatepotential to communicate

Bottom 10 countries in terms of Bottom 10 countries in terms of telephonic infrastructure (1999)telephonic infrastructure (1999)

minutes int calls per subscriber

number of phone lines per 1000 people

number of mobile phones for 1000 people

Chad 292 1.3 0

Rwanda 376 1.7 1.52

Central African Republic 439 2.7 1

Ethiopia 64 3.1 0.11

Madagascar 192 3.2 NA

Bangladesh 104 3.4 1.17

Burkina Faso 206 4 0

Mozambique 222 4 0.63

Myanmar 70 5.5 0.25

Mauritania 489 6.4 0

Top ten countries in terms of Top ten countries in terms of telephonic infrastructuretelephonic infrastructure

minutes int calls per subscriber

number of phone lines per 1000 people

number of mobile phones for 1000 people

United Kingdom 180 567 457

France 129 582 366

Germany 152 590 285.88

Netherlands 224 607 436

Canada 266 655 226

United States 155 664 311.59

Sweden 257 665 583

Denmark 180 685 495.29

Switzerland 481 699 411

Norway 178 709 613

Direction of traffic inequalitiesDirection of traffic inequalities

1999 direction of traffic report:1999 direction of traffic report:– Summarizes how much time people from any specific Summarizes how much time people from any specific

country in the world have spent talking on the phone country in the world have spent talking on the phone with people in other countrieswith people in other countries

– 23 developed countries generate 75% of the outgoing 23 developed countries generate 75% of the outgoing traffic but only 57% of incoming traffic traffic but only 57% of incoming traffic deficit deficit

– US has the largest deficit: no country sends more US has the largest deficit: no country sends more phone calls to the US, than the amount the US sends phone calls to the US, than the amount the US sends to itto it

– This works in favor of the sending countries due to the This works in favor of the sending countries due to the settlement mechanismsettlement mechanism

WHY THE DISPARITY?WHY THE DISPARITY?

Why are these disparities still so great?Why are these disparities still so great?Why isn’t telephony more prevalent in the Why isn’t telephony more prevalent in the worldworld– Considering that is relatively cheap Considering that is relatively cheap

considering the benefits?considering the benefits?

Mix of commercial and political reasonsMix of commercial and political reasonsMost important: International settlement Most important: International settlement mechanismmechanism

International telecommunications International telecommunications settlement mechanismsettlement mechanism

Telephonic conversations very hard to priceTelephonic conversations very hard to priceMarginal costs are really small: all that is Marginal costs are really small: all that is consumed in a call is electricity, everything else consumed in a call is electricity, everything else is fixed costs or laboris fixed costs or laborPrices are conventional and cover: Prices are conventional and cover: – Cost of fixed assets (building the networks and the Cost of fixed assets (building the networks and the

connections between the two countries)connections between the two countries)– The value of the network itself (the fact that it makes The value of the network itself (the fact that it makes

people available to the other partner) – “right of people available to the other partner) – “right of passage”passage”

Each country signs a convention with each of its Each country signs a convention with each of its telephonic partnerstelephonic partners

How International telephony pricing How International telephony pricing worksworks

The convention partners commonly agree to a The convention partners commonly agree to a “reasonable” price for a minute of conversation – “reasonable” price for a minute of conversation – “settlement rate”“settlement rate”At the end of the year the country that spent more At the end of the year the country that spent more minutes pays for the balance (the other calls “cancel minutes pays for the balance (the other calls “cancel out”)out”)They pay up for the “unequal use” of the network by its They pay up for the “unequal use” of the network by its subscribers – payment using the “settlement rate”subscribers – payment using the “settlement rate”If one country has a monopoly system and the other one If one country has a monopoly system and the other one a competitive one, the monopoly system will get far a competitive one, the monopoly system will get far larger benefits from the clearing because it will always larger benefits from the clearing because it will always keep prices higher, limiting outgoing calls and keep prices higher, limiting outgoing calls and encouraging incoming callsencouraging incoming calls

How international telephony pricing How international telephony pricing worksworks

ExampleExample– India and the USIndia and the US

Countries decide that it costs 71c per minute to establish a Countries decide that it costs 71c per minute to establish a connection between them (wholesale price)connection between them (wholesale price)American callers spent 100,000,000 minutes on calls to India in American callers spent 100,000,000 minutes on calls to India in 20012001Indian callers spent 10,000,000 minutes on calls to US in 2001Indian callers spent 10,000,000 minutes on calls to US in 2001American companies have to pay the Indian monopoly telecom American companies have to pay the Indian monopoly telecom 63,900,00063,900,000In addition, because the Indian telecom is a monopoly, it has In addition, because the Indian telecom is a monopoly, it has charged each Indian customer a retail price of 1.80c per minutecharged each Indian customer a retail price of 1.80c per minute

– it makes an additional 18,000,000 dollars = $81,900,000it makes an additional 18,000,000 dollars = $81,900,000In the US, where the market is more competitive, American In the US, where the market is more competitive, American companies charged only 90c per minute, so they made $90,000,000 companies charged only 90c per minute, so they made $90,000,000 – 63,900,000 = 26,100,000– 63,900,000 = 26,100,000CONCLUSION: INDIA MAKES 4 TIMES MORE MONEY, CONCLUSION: INDIA MAKES 4 TIMES MORE MONEY, ALTHOUGH INDIANS CALL 10 TIMES LESS ALTHOUGH INDIANS CALL 10 TIMES LESS

ConclusionConclusion

International telephonic traffic between 3International telephonic traffic between 3rdrd world and 1 world and 1stst world countries is a gigantic cash cow for the latter, world countries is a gigantic cash cow for the latter, especially if they maintain monopoliesespecially if they maintain monopolies1993-1998, developing countries have received $40bn 1993-1998, developing countries have received $40bn dollars: enough to add 45 million phone lines in the third dollars: enough to add 45 million phone lines in the third worldworldFirst world countries want to abandon the system and First world countries want to abandon the system and set it on a more realistic basis:set it on a more realistic basis:– Settlement rate should reflect costSettlement rate should reflect cost– People in the third world should have more equal access to calls People in the third world should have more equal access to calls

to first world countriesto first world countries

If 3If 3rdrd world countries do not do this, their outgoing traffic world countries do not do this, their outgoing traffic might go to zero, due people moving the calls to the might go to zero, due people moving the calls to the Internet or always preferring to be called from abroadInternet or always preferring to be called from abroad

Internet diffusion / digital divide: Internet diffusion / digital divide: causes and geographycauses and geography

The world of information technology is The world of information technology is very unequal: some have a lot, some a very unequal: some have a lot, some a littlelittleHow large is the divide?How large is the divide?What are the factors that predict (are What are the factors that predict (are associated) with Internet diffusion?associated) with Internet diffusion?– Old media endowmentOld media endowment– Economic developmentEconomic development– Human capital or democracyHuman capital or democracy

How great are the differences How great are the differences (1999) data(1999) data

See tables I distributed in class (they are also See tables I distributed in class (they are also linked linked herehere))– In 1999, Top 30 wired nations contained, compared to In 1999, Top 30 wired nations contained, compared to

bottom 30 wired nations: bottom 30 wired nations: 57 times more Internet users 57 times more Internet users 85% of all Internet 85% of all Internet populationpopulation162 time more hosts per capita162 time more hosts per capita

– A top 30 wired nation, compared to a bottom 30 wired A top 30 wired nation, compared to a bottom 30 wired nationnation

Is 10 times richerIs 10 times richer Is typically libertarian/communitarian (vs. authoritarian)Is typically libertarian/communitarian (vs. authoritarian)Has 5 times more television per capitaHas 5 times more television per capitaIs more educated (98% literate compared to 60% literate)Is more educated (98% literate compared to 60% literate)

Internet diffusion / digital divideInternet diffusion / digital divide

MeasurementsMeasurements

Internet penetration: users (NUA) and hosts per Internet penetration: users (NUA) and hosts per capita – highly correlated (R=.8, sig. = .001)capita – highly correlated (R=.8, sig. = .001)Most wired nations are economically advanced Most wired nations are economically advanced (figs. 3.1, 3.2)(figs. 3.1, 3.2)Several clusters: Nordic/Scandinavian, Anglo-Several clusters: Nordic/Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Asian/Tigers, Smaller European, Other Saxon, Asian/Tigers, Smaller European, Other Asian, Middle Eastern, South American, AfricanAsian, Middle Eastern, South American, African


What factors explain the disparity between the What factors explain the disparity between the groups?groups?

Is it:Is it:– How rich is the media environment in a nation?How rich is the media environment in a nation?– How rich is the nation?How rich is the nation?– How much a nation spends on research and How much a nation spends on research and

development?development?– How well educated/skilled is the population in a How well educated/skilled is the population in a

nation?nation?– How democratic is it?How democratic is it?


Research method used:Research method used:– CorrelationCorrelation

How much the values on a variable How much the values on a variable (measure) increase as the values (measure) increase as the values (measures) on another variable increase, (measures) on another variable increase, too.too.

Internet diffusion / digital divide Internet diffusion / digital divide findingsfindings

Correlation diagrams (3.4 – 3.6)Correlation diagrams (3.4 – 3.6)– As old media endowment increases, new media As old media endowment increases, new media

endowment increases, too – old media = newspapers, endowment increases, too – old media = newspapers, radio, tv, telephones and mobiles telephony radio, tv, telephones and mobiles telephony

– As Gross Domestic Product Increases, Percentage of As Gross Domestic Product Increases, Percentage of population on-line increases, toopopulation on-line increases, too

– As money spent for research increases, percentage As money spent for research increases, percentage of population on-line increases, tooof population on-line increases, too

– Countries with better educated populations or more Countries with better educated populations or more democratic are more likely to be connecteddemocratic are more likely to be connected

However, keep an eye on the outliers, under or over However, keep an eye on the outliers, under or over connected relative to their level of old media, economic or connected relative to their level of old media, economic or researchresearch


Caveat:Caveat:– Economically developed nations are also Economically developed nations are also

more likely to spend on research, to have more likely to spend on research, to have highly educated populations and to be highly educated populations and to be democraticdemocratic

– Which of these factors really influences Which of these factors really influences connectedness?connectedness?

– TABLE 3.4: It’s Economic development and TABLE 3.4: It’s Economic development and R&D spending, plus being a Scandinavian or R&D spending, plus being a Scandinavian or North American countryNorth American country

Internet diffusionInternet diffusion

Conclusion:Conclusion:– Economic development conditions all the Economic development conditions all the

other factors, including connectivity, other factors, including connectivity, education, skills, etc.education, skills, etc.

– However, this conclusion begs the questions:However, this conclusion begs the questions:How do you become developed, in the first place?How do you become developed, in the first place?

Next class assignmentNext class assignment

There will be no “official” lecture on Thursday. Instead, There will be no “official” lecture on Thursday. Instead, we will have a class discussion. The topic is:we will have a class discussion. The topic is:– How can the current world digital divide be reduced?How can the current world digital divide be reduced?– The discussion should be rooted in this week’s readings. The The discussion should be rooted in this week’s readings. The

discussion will focus on the following topics:discussion will focus on the following topics:Is the digital gap bridgeable?Is the digital gap bridgeable?Can specific technologies be used to “leapfrog” a nation’s current Can specific technologies be used to “leapfrog” a nation’s current predicament?predicament?If you were an international consultant working for the World Bank, If you were an international consultant working for the World Bank, what would you advise the less developed nations to do? Come up what would you advise the less developed nations to do? Come up with specific proposals forwith specific proposals for

– EconomyEconomy– SocietySociety– Political lifePolitical life

Summarize your thoughts into a bullet-point list or one-page mini-Summarize your thoughts into a bullet-point list or one-page mini-essay and be prepared to talk about it!essay and be prepared to talk about it!

REMINDERREMINDER

Your final paper is due April 16Your final paper is due April 16

Last two weeks of classes will be dedicated to final Last two weeks of classes will be dedicated to final presentationspresentations

Each student has about 15 minutes to present their Each student has about 15 minutes to present their paperpaper

Have a small powerpoint presentationHave a small powerpoint presentation

Explain what your topic is, main issues discussed in the Explain what your topic is, main issues discussed in the paper, conclusionspaper, conclusions

INTL ORGANIZATIONSINTL ORGANIZATIONS

ITUITU

UNESCOUNESCO

WTOWTO

ICANNICANN

What are International What are International organizationsorganizations

Are diplomatic arrangementsAre diplomatic arrangementsOrganized under the rule of international lawOrganized under the rule of international lawStates, not individuals, are the subjects of this lawStates, not individuals, are the subjects of this lawRegulates the way nations / states interact with one Regulates the way nations / states interact with one anotheranotherThese are organizations and laws in which people enter These are organizations and laws in which people enter voluntarily and can withdraw from at any point without voluntarily and can withdraw from at any point without (real) penalty from the organization, although there could (real) penalty from the organization, although there could be consequences coming from the other member states be consequences coming from the other member states (embargoes, war)(embargoes, war)Weaker than internal national organizations because the Weaker than internal national organizations because the laws are weaker – they are based on treaties and laws are weaker – they are based on treaties and customscustoms

Communication International Communication International OrganizationsOrganizations

ITU: details ITU: details http://www.itu.int/aboutitu/overview/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/aboutitu/overview/index.html – One of the oldest international organizations (1865)One of the oldest international organizations (1865)– Four functions:Four functions:

Regulate access to radio frequencies for space and Regulate access to radio frequencies for space and terrestrial communications – Maintains “table of frequencies”terrestrial communications – Maintains “table of frequencies”

Mediates international telephonic charge settlementsMediates international telephonic charge settlements

Facilitates interconnection between nations (standards)Facilitates interconnection between nations (standards)

Conducts and implements development studies and Conducts and implements development studies and proposalsproposals

International organizationsInternational organizations

The need for ITUThe need for ITU– Late 19Late 19thth century – interconnection between century – interconnection between

nations and telegraphic fees settlementsnations and telegraphic fees settlements– Early 20Early 20thth century – radio frequencies century – radio frequencies

allocation for maritime radio-telephony, later allocation for maritime radio-telephony, later international broadcastinginternational broadcasting

– Mid-late 20Mid-late 20thth century – satellite slot allocation century – satellite slot allocation– Major issue, spectrum and geostationary orbit Major issue, spectrum and geostationary orbit

scarcityscarcity


ITU and its role in administering the international ITU and its role in administering the international radio spectrumradio spectrum– Radio spectrum – possible range of vibrations of radio Radio spectrum – possible range of vibrations of radio

waveswaves– 1 vibration/sec = 1 Hertz1 vibration/sec = 1 Hertz

Use for communication 9KHz – 400 GHz – in the WorldUse for communication 9KHz – 400 GHz – in the WorldUsed for broadcasting 3KHz to 30 GHz – in the USUsed for broadcasting 3KHz to 30 GHz – in the US

– For each frequency band one can only have one user: For each frequency band one can only have one user: otherwise interferenceotherwise interference

– Each user has to be licensed (its right to broadcast on Each user has to be licensed (its right to broadcast on that frequency should be guaranteed)that frequency should be guaranteed)

– MAIN PRINCIPLE: FIRST COME, FIRST SERVED MAIN PRINCIPLE: FIRST COME, FIRST SERVED Western nations advantaged?Western nations advantaged?

International OrganizationsInternational Organizations

ITU and its role in regulating satellite ITU and its role in regulating satellite transmissiontransmission– Geostationary orbit scarcityGeostationary orbit scarcity– Satellites that fly over the equator at the same Satellites that fly over the equator at the same

speed with the Earth’s rotation are stationary speed with the Earth’s rotation are stationary (stay in the same spot on the sky)(stay in the same spot on the sky)

– Spots over equator are limitedSpots over equator are limited– Most Equatorial nations are poor, no Most Equatorial nations are poor, no

satellites, but they claim a right for a slice of satellites, but they claim a right for a slice of the geostationary orbit for future usethe geostationary orbit for future use


ITU and satellite broadcastingITU and satellite broadcasting– Answer to the geostationary orbit scarcityAnswer to the geostationary orbit scarcity

INTELSATINTELSAT– An international consortium of 114 nations who own “Shares” in An international consortium of 114 nations who own “Shares” in

a system of 14 satellitesa system of 14 satellites– Nations exchange telephone and video informationNations exchange telephone and video information– Initiated by the US as a technology sharing initiativeInitiated by the US as a technology sharing initiative– 2001: Transformed into a private corporation2001: Transformed into a private corporation

Most nations have privatized their telecom systemsMost nations have privatized their telecom systemsCompetition from private satellite operatorsCompetition from private satellite operators

INMARSATINMARSAT– Similar system for maritime communications: a sophisticated Similar system for maritime communications: a sophisticated

satellite telephony systemsatellite telephony system


The NWICO debate and ITUThe NWICO debate and ITUMaitland report: points at the great Maitland report: points at the great

telephone disparities in the worldtelephone disparities in the worldProposed a more equitable redistribution Proposed a more equitable redistribution

of “resources”of “resources”Proposed tax on international Proposed tax on international

communicationcommunicationIgnores the fact that Third World countries Ignores the fact that Third World countries

have already instituted their “private” taxes, in have already instituted their “private” taxes, in the form of the International settlement ratethe form of the International settlement rate

Ignores the role of private industry in Ignores the role of private industry in reducing disparitiesreducing disparities


International broadcasting organizationsInternational broadcasting organizations– Eurovision, Intervision, GulfvisionEurovision, Intervision, Gulfvision– Made sense when national broadcasters were national monopoliesMade sense when national broadcasters were national monopolies– Exchanged programs in a barter systemExchanged programs in a barter system– Superseeded by the new satellite channels: al jazeera, CNN, Sky, BBCSuperseeded by the new satellite channels: al jazeera, CNN, Sky, BBC

UNESCOUNESCO– Deeply involved (and compromised itself) in the NWICO debateDeeply involved (and compromised itself) in the NWICO debate– Dedicated to development programsDedicated to development programs

WTOWTO– World Trade OrganizationWorld Trade Organization– Reduction of export tariffs (reduction of protectionism)Reduction of export tariffs (reduction of protectionism)– Many countries fear open trade, for the reasons mentioned in the “iron Many countries fear open trade, for the reasons mentioned in the “iron

law argument”law argument”– One of the favorite targets of the anti-globalization activistsOne of the favorite targets of the anti-globalization activists

Internet regulationInternet regulation

The Internet is not ONE network but a The Internet is not ONE network but a NETWORK OF NETWORKSNETWORK OF NETWORKSTo call a webpage from a server in To call a webpage from a server in Australia or to send E-mail to Russia you Australia or to send E-mail to Russia you need to use a specific addressneed to use a specific addressSince the networks are autonomous they Since the networks are autonomous they need a neutral system, connected to them need a neutral system, connected to them all, which stores the address system and all, which stores the address system and standardizes the connectionsstandardizes the connections

INTERNET REGULATIONINTERNET REGULATION

ICANN—INTERNET CORPORATION FOR ASSIGNED NUMBERS ICANN—INTERNET CORPORATION FOR ASSIGNED NUMBERS AND NAMESAND NAMESNon-profit organization incorporated in CaliforniaNon-profit organization incorporated in CaliforniaRoles:Roles:– Maintains a master list of domain names and conventions for using Maintains a master list of domain names and conventions for using

domain namesdomain names– Maintains communication standards (TCP/IP) that allow computers to Maintains communication standards (TCP/IP) that allow computers to

talk with one anothertalk with one another– Settles disputes over domains and standardsSettles disputes over domains and standards

WHY CALIFORNIA: Because the Internet was invented in the US WHY CALIFORNIA: Because the Internet was invented in the US and most of its nodes are in the USand most of its nodes are in the USSet up by the US government to prevent being accused of Set up by the US government to prevent being accused of “imperialism” (Initially ICANN was a person, “imperialism” (Initially ICANN was a person, PostelPostel, then a technical , then a technical commission IANA)commission IANA)Voluntary divestiture of powers—but not as an intl. treaty Voluntary divestiture of powers—but not as an intl. treaty organization—it is an individual membership international organization—it is an individual membership international organizationorganization


ICANN functions:ICANN functions:Maintains the DNS (Domain Name Server) root file and Maintains the DNS (Domain Name Server) root file and links it to the 12 root serverslinks it to the 12 root servers– ROOT FILE: File that specifies what the top level domains are ROOT FILE: File that specifies what the top level domains are

(TLD): (TLD): – g(eneric)TLD: .edu, .gov, .com, .org, .net, .int, .mil, .arpa, .info, .bg(eneric)TLD: .edu, .gov, .com, .org, .net, .int, .mil, .arpa, .info, .b

iz, .museum, .name, .coopiz, .museum, .name, .coop– Cc(country code)TLD: .au (australia), .pl (poland)Cc(country code)TLD: .au (australia), .pl (poland)– ROOT SERVERS: Giant Internet “Phone” booksROOT SERVERS: Giant Internet “Phone” books

They know where each root server for a specific TLD isThey know where each root server for a specific TLD iswhen you send an email to when you send an email to [email protected]@me.au (Australia): from uky.edu (Australia): from uky.eduUS US root serverroot server.au root server.au root server me.au me.au

See visual router server: See visual router server: http://visualroute.visualware.com/http://visualroute.visualware.com/

INTERNET REGUALTIONINTERNET REGUALTION

ICANN functions:ICANN functions:– Coordinates the Registrars—independent companies Coordinates the Registrars—independent companies

that register your name when you buy a domain and that register your name when you buy a domain and keeps it on file e.g.: keeps it on file e.g.: http://www.netsol.comhttp://www.netsol.com

– Settles disputes over domain names—deals Settles disputes over domain names—deals especially with cybersquattersespecially with cybersquatters

– Proposes and maintains Internet standards and Proposes and maintains Internet standards and protocolsprotocols

TCP/IP the set of computer instructions that allow computers TCP/IP the set of computer instructions that allow computers to talk with one another over the Internetto talk with one another over the InternetHtml = the Internet language – cooperates with WWW Html = the Internet language – cooperates with WWW consortiumconsortium


ICANN – ICANN – http://www.icann.orghttp://www.icann.org organization: organization:– Non-governmental organizationNon-governmental organization– Board of directorsBoard of directors

19 members19 members9 nominated by ISPs, Internet registrars, and engineers9 nominated by ISPs, Internet registrars, and engineers9 nominated by ordinary Internet users who joined ICANN as 9 nominated by ordinary Internet users who joined ICANN as “members at large”“members at large”The President of the boardThe President of the board

– Main issue: representativityMain issue: representativityBureaucracies + self-appointocracies (Germany has more members Bureaucracies + self-appointocracies (Germany has more members at large than the US, although Germany has far less Internet users!)at large than the US, although Germany has far less Internet users!)First elections very skewed: 160,000 members at large for millions First elections very skewed: 160,000 members at large for millions of Internet usersof Internet usersMore elected reps from continents with low Internet representationMore elected reps from continents with low Internet representationPreferred in order to avoid governments from taking over (but Preferred in order to avoid governments from taking over (but governments are democratically elected!!)governments are democratically elected!!)


ICANN challengesICANN challenges– Although is a non-gov. body it has law-making Although is a non-gov. body it has law-making

powers:powers:Determines the allowed domain namesDetermines the allowed domain names

– After adding .info and .biz it talks about adding new ones, such After adding .info and .biz it talks about adding new ones, such as .coop and some ask for .suck!as .coop and some ask for .suck!

Settles disputesSettles disputes– This makes it a political institution, although its This makes it a political institution, although its

mandate is mainly technicalmandate is mainly technical– Alternative and competing name systemsAlternative and competing name systems

New.netNew.net, boroon.com, boroon.comAOL keywordsAOL keywordsIn effect each network can invent its own system, if it decided In effect each network can invent its own system, if it decided to forgo the advantage of using an international domain to forgo the advantage of using an international domain name systemname system

Conflict and communicationConflict and communication

Better communication facilitates both international understanding Better communication facilitates both international understanding and conflictand conflict– UnderstandingUnderstanding

We get the chance to know the enemy as a human being – coverage of We get the chance to know the enemy as a human being – coverage of civilian casualitiescivilian casualitiesGive people who wouldn’t see each other eye to eye a chance to Give people who wouldn’t see each other eye to eye a chance to communicate without being in each other’s presencecommunicate without being in each other’s presence

– Conflict Conflict direct military use of telecommunicationdirect military use of telecommunicationInstantaneous communication sometimes takes the time needed for Instantaneous communication sometimes takes the time needed for reflection, spurs conflictsreflection, spurs conflicts

– Examples:Examples:Avoided situations like the 1812 war: New Orleans, the battle that Avoided situations like the 1812 war: New Orleans, the battle that should’ve have happenedshould’ve have happenedMade comm vulnerable and hastened other wars: Zimmerman telegram Made comm vulnerable and hastened other wars: Zimmerman telegram British give the US intercepted German telegraph about Mexican invasionBritish give the US intercepted German telegraph about Mexican invasion

Conflict and communicationConflict and communicationInternational communication systems International communication systems shaped by warshaped by war– World Empires tended to carry world wars World Empires tended to carry world wars

need for world systems of communicationneed for world systems of communicationRoman, Inca empires leader in road constructionRoman, Inca empires leader in road construction

American and British Navy first users of American and British Navy first users of radiotelegraphy radiotelegraphy

British Empire leader in world telegraphy and British Empire leader in world telegraphy and telephonytelephony

Satellites first used as spy devicesSatellites first used as spy devices


– Communication was used not only to convey Communication was used not only to convey information but also to mobilize the massesinformation but also to mobilize the masses

– Modern wars were “total wars:”Modern wars were “total wars:”Use the whole population as a war machine: national Use the whole population as a war machine: national conscript armiesconscript armies

To make people to sustain the war To make people to sustain the war propaganda and mass propaganda and mass circulation newspaperscirculation newspapers

Spanish-American war: a war between Hearst and PulitzerSpanish-American war: a war between Hearst and Pulitzer

World War I escalated into a crisis due to speed of telegraph World War I escalated into a crisis due to speed of telegraph communication amplified by mass circulation newspaperscommunication amplified by mass circulation newspapers

“The age of the crowd:”

Mass media used to whip people into a frenzy

Both wars were prepared by mediated preludes and its actors were educated by them: Hitler was the product of this era

World War I: war of national pride

Masses stimulated by media to defendtheir national heritage and rights


MEDIA CAN CREATE INTL. COM PROBLEMS:MEDIA CAN CREATE INTL. COM PROBLEMS:

Diplomats hate open and mediated communication of international Diplomats hate open and mediated communication of international conflictconflictMedia stereotypes and characterizesMedia stereotypes and characterizesDiplomats need to reach compromises and save faceDiplomats need to reach compromises and save faceIf situations are defined by the media they cannot control de terms If situations are defined by the media they cannot control de terms of the discussionof the discussion– Example:Example:

Once Bush told the world that he will disarm Saddam he could not back off, Once Bush told the world that he will disarm Saddam he could not back off, not matter how strong the oppositionnot matter how strong the oppositionIn the current Mid East conflict, Sharon and Arafat cannot back off because In the current Mid East conflict, Sharon and Arafat cannot back off because they are locked in pre-set positions:they are locked in pre-set positions:

– Defend the right of Israel to exist (Sharon)Defend the right of Israel to exist (Sharon)– Defend the right of a Palestinian state to exist (Arafat)Defend the right of a Palestinian state to exist (Arafat)

Conflict and communication Conflict and communication

New communication devices and techniques are a New communication devices and techniques are a double edge sword not only for large states but also for double edge sword not only for large states but also for those who oppose themthose who oppose them– Terrorists and non-state actors seem to benefit from Terrorists and non-state actors seem to benefit from

globalization of communicationglobalization of communicationAl Qaeda uses extensively satellite phones and “donkey-back” emailAl Qaeda uses extensively satellite phones and “donkey-back” email

– Using modern communication makes you more vulnerableUsing modern communication makes you more vulnerablePearl’s killers were tracked through their emailsPearl’s killers were tracked through their emailsSatellite telephones are small transmitters – can be trackedSatellite telephones are small transmitters – can be trackedDudayev, the first leader of the Chechen rebellion was killed in a Dudayev, the first leader of the Chechen rebellion was killed in a bomb attack after his satellite phone was trackedbomb attack after his satellite phone was trackedHowever, Osama used this feature to escape the 2001 encirclement However, Osama used this feature to escape the 2001 encirclement of Tora Bora, sent his bodyguard away with the phone (see of Tora Bora, sent his bodyguard away with the phone (see handouts CBS and AP handouts CBS and AP 11, , 22))


Does modern technology help war coverage? Does it Does modern technology help war coverage? Does it make it not only faster moving, but also better?make it not only faster moving, but also better?

What do you think about embedded journalists?What do you think about embedded journalists?

– Embedding -- response to the way Gulf War I was covered – Embedding -- response to the way Gulf War I was covered – pooled reportspooled reports

– New technologies – videophones, make coverage instantaneous New technologies – videophones, make coverage instantaneous – does this make the coverage better or worse?– does this make the coverage better or worse?

Immediacy vs.Immediacy vs.Fog of warFog of war

Conflict and communicationConflict and communicationDirect involvement of communication in Direct involvement of communication in conflictconflict– Psyop Psyop

Used by large countries -- Examples from Used by large countries -- Examples from Afghanistan:Afghanistan:

– Bin Laden Bin Laden WantedWanted– Is this the future you want for your Is this the future you want for your countrycountry??

THE ENDTHE END

What follows below is material not covered What follows below is material not covered in class. It will not be used for the finalin class. It will not be used for the final


Media (TV) as a tool of governmentMedia (TV) as a tool of government– In totalitarian regimes television is a powerful In totalitarian regimes television is a powerful

tool of controltool of control– But it can backfire, he who controls TV But it can backfire, he who controls TV

controls the countrycontrols the countryExamples:Examples:

– RomaniaRomania CeausescuCeausescu– IranIran– ManilaManila

Driven by democratic marketsDriven by democratic markets

Go to Wall Mart, buy a hammer, look at Go to Wall Mart, buy a hammer, look at the label. Where was it made?the label. Where was it made?Let’s look at our clothing labels? Where Let’s look at our clothing labels? Where are our clothes made?are our clothes made?Is there a good Sushi restaurant in Is there a good Sushi restaurant in Lexington? Why?Lexington? Why?Where is X-files made?Where is X-files made?If you do not live in the US, what is your If you do not live in the US, what is your favorite TV show?favorite TV show?

Media and democratic marketsMedia and democratic markets

When markets dominate we do not have When markets dominate we do not have less but more diffusion of power and less but more diffusion of power and interdependenceinterdependenceMarkets are systems of production and Markets are systems of production and distribution, where everybody needs in distribution, where everybody needs in everybody in order to succeedeverybody in order to succeedMulti-national corporations succeed only in Multi-national corporations succeed only in so far as they take advantage of these so far as they take advantage of these markets and decentralize themselvesmarkets and decentralize themselves

Can there be a uniform global Can there be a uniform global culture and media?culture and media?

Interdependence subsists only in so far as the Interdependence subsists only in so far as the actors are different; as long as I need something actors are different; as long as I need something that you have in exchange for something that I that you have in exchange for something that I have and you wanthave and you wantMedia products – consumers are very Media products – consumers are very demanding; people want to see themselves on demanding; people want to see themselves on TV (the democratic impulse, again)TV (the democratic impulse, again)Big media will succeed only when reflecting Big media will succeed only when reflecting universals – populist common denominatorsuniversals – populist common denominatorsThere will always be a need for media products There will always be a need for media products that reflect what is unique to a specific placethat reflect what is unique to a specific place

The need for global governanceThe need for global governance

Commerce and markets are ahead of our Commerce and markets are ahead of our political institutionspolitical institutions

We need them just like we need local institutionsWe need them just like we need local institutions

But they need to arbitrate and facilitate, not to But they need to arbitrate and facilitate, not to impose their will on the peopleimpose their will on the people

Most importantly: they should reflect a basic Most importantly: they should reflect a basic covenant that encapsulates our rights, liberties covenant that encapsulates our rights, liberties and responsibilities – and this is missing in the and responsibilities – and this is missing in the global arenaglobal arena

Has the new deregulated media Has the new deregulated media environment helped or deterred environment helped or deterred

diversity?diversity?The argument against liberalizing television is sometimes reworkedThe argument against liberalizing television is sometimes reworked

Although liberalized/non-public commercial, transnationalized Although liberalized/non-public commercial, transnationalized television increases local offers, this only increases in volume the television increases local offers, this only increases in volume the low-quality programming already available, not true media diversitylow-quality programming already available, not true media diversity

The amount of output provided to us has dramatically increased:The amount of output provided to us has dramatically increased:– American media productionAmerican media production

3 3 11 million words/capita (1960-80) 11 million words/capita (1960-80)– American media consumption has increased, but does not keep pace:American media consumption has increased, but does not keep pace:

20,000 to 40,000 words/capita/day20,000 to 40,000 words/capita/day

Production/consumption ratio has decreased from 1.4% to .6%Production/consumption ratio has decreased from 1.4% to .6%

Has programming become more or Has programming become more or less diverse with the advent of less diverse with the advent of

liberalization?liberalization?The argument is not that we are poorer in The argument is not that we are poorer in channels, but the increase in channels does not channels, but the increase in channels does not reflect an increase in content diversityreflect an increase in content diversity

Comparing the New York with the London TV Comparing the New York with the London TV scene the difference is shocking, as late as 1990scene the difference is shocking, as late as 1990

– 1969-1990: From 13 to 70 channels in NY and from 3 1969-1990: From 13 to 70 channels in NY and from 3 to 15 in Londonto 15 in London

The international media menu The international media menu available in NYC 69 compared to available in NYC 69 compared to

90 (table 3.2 Noam)90 (table 3.2 Noam)1969: 1969:

Two Spanish moviesTwo Spanish movies

1990:1990:Spanish, Greek, Korean, Chinese, Hebrew newsSpanish, Greek, Korean, Chinese, Hebrew newsChinese and Spanish moviesChinese and Spanish moviesSpecial current affairs program covering the Special current affairs program covering the Senate gavel-to-gavelSenate gavel-to-gavelDocumentaries about Florence, Vietnam warDocumentaries about Florence, Vietnam war

International media menu in International media menu in EnglandEngland

19691969No foreign news or programmingNo foreign news or programming

19901990Sky newsSky newsEurosportEurosportAmerican ProgrammingAmerican Programming

We can probably add today Al-JezeeraWe can probably add today Al-Jezeera

The increase in quality/high brow The increase in quality/high brow programming diversity in the USprogramming diversity in the USExpansion of programming is so staggering that even if Expansion of programming is so staggering that even if we get multiple channels of garbage, the space made for we get multiple channels of garbage, the space made for quality programming is greater than anything ever quality programming is greater than anything ever dreamed: the tide rises all boatsdreamed: the tide rises all boatsOmaha exampleOmaha example::– Although entertainment has increased by about 7 times between Although entertainment has increased by about 7 times between

1970 – 85, it represents less, percentage-wise of total output1970 – 85, it represents less, percentage-wise of total output– Informational programming remains the same (percentage of Informational programming remains the same (percentage of

total) but in fact has increased dramatically in terms of total total) but in fact has increased dramatically in terms of total number of hoursnumber of hours

New York example. Programming as % of tot:New York example. Programming as % of tot:– Increase: News, Financial, Music, ReligiousIncrease: News, Financial, Music, Religious– Decrease: Drama, Game/quiz, Variety, MoviesDecrease: Drama, Game/quiz, Variety, Movies– Herfindahl index shows a Herfindahl index shows a net increase in diversitynet increase in diversity

Tracey and Redal study: capping Tracey and Redal study: capping the storythe story

Starts from the Varis study: there are more Starts from the Varis study: there are more lateral connections in the world than expected, lateral connections in the world than expected, decline of dependency and affirmation of decline of dependency and affirmation of national identitynational identityBias in local televisions toward: “the parochial, Bias in local televisions toward: “the parochial, the distinct, the proximate” what does he mean the distinct, the proximate” what does he mean by this? by this? Oshin vs. Dallas – greed vs. harmony Oshin vs. Dallas – greed vs. harmonyBrazil shows that, as Noam says, cheap does Brazil shows that, as Noam says, cheap does not necessarily mean popular and domestic not necessarily mean popular and domestic unsophisticatedunsophisticatedThailand, Ireland and South-East Asia confirm Thailand, Ireland and South-East Asia confirm the same thing the same thing they all go in the direction of they all go in the direction of more local productionmore local production

Tracey: News flowsTracey: News flows

NHK study reveals that THERE IS NO SINGLE NHK study reveals that THERE IS NO SINGLE STORY that dominates the global news interest, STORY that dominates the global news interest, each nation emphasizes other issues and newseach nation emphasizes other issues and newsWhat directs the news flows is proximity:What directs the news flows is proximity:– GeographicGeographic– CulturalCultural– IdeologicalIdeological– Alliances and competitive relationsAlliances and competitive relations

We live in a world of next-door neighbors that do We live in a world of next-door neighbors that do not necessarily know what goes on in each not necessarily know what goes on in each other’s living roomsother’s living rooms

The need for cultural adaptationThe need for cultural adaptation

““Transnational” programming is not really Transnational” programming is not really transnational, it is locally adapted “re-versioned” transnational, it is locally adapted “re-versioned” – To be global, be local– To be global, be local– keep characters and storyline but adorn it in local keep characters and storyline but adorn it in local

clothesclothes– sell the format not the content (Video Age Intl.’)sell the format not the content (Video Age Intl.’)

Hungarian Wheel of Fortune)Hungarian Wheel of Fortune)

The Brazilian-Argentinean telenovela coproductionThe Brazilian-Argentinean telenovela coproduction

Vanessa, Vera am Mittage and Catherine (European talk Vanessa, Vera am Mittage and Catherine (European talk shows produced by the company that produced Hercules)shows produced by the company that produced Hercules)

CNBC Future FileCNBC Future File

Tracey: why is television so local?Tracey: why is television so local?

People watch TV to learn who they are, People watch TV to learn who they are, like looking in a mirrorlike looking in a mirror

Television is dominated by domestic Television is dominated by domestic populism, not by electronic colonialismpopulism, not by electronic colonialism

Example: Canada’s “colonization” Example: Canada’s “colonization” by the USby the US

– Divided not by the North - South fault, but by the Divided not by the North - South fault, but by the French – English one; French – English one;

– While the French population consumes While the French population consumes preponderantly domestically French fare, the Anglo-preponderantly domestically French fare, the Anglo-Saxons consume American programmingSaxons consume American programming

– Reflection of Anglos integration in the North American Reflection of Anglos integration in the North American cultural outlook.cultural outlook.

– If American television dominates this is not a sign that If American television dominates this is not a sign that someone imposes foreign values on Canadians but someone imposes foreign values on Canadians but that the Canadians are local by being North that the Canadians are local by being North AmericansAmericans

Major contributing factors to Major contributing factors to telecommunicative progresstelecommunicative progress

Fiber-opticFiber-optic– A new technology – thin threads of glass used to send messages A new technology – thin threads of glass used to send messages

modulated by lightmodulated by light– A single fiber-optic thread has the capacity of a coaxial cable (like the A single fiber-optic thread has the capacity of a coaxial cable (like the

one used for cable tv)one used for cable tv)– A fiber-optic cable the size of your finger can send tens or even A fiber-optic cable the size of your finger can send tens or even

hundreds of thousands times more information than a regular wire cablehundreds of thousands times more information than a regular wire cableSatellitesSatellites– Enormous economies of scale, once put in orbit, a satellite serves the Enormous economies of scale, once put in orbit, a satellite serves the

same function of wire network does, it usually carries tens of thousands same function of wire network does, it usually carries tens of thousands of channels simultaneously – footprint 40% of the earthof channels simultaneously – footprint 40% of the earth

– Daring initiatives: Iridium – tens of low flying satellites acting as a Daring initiatives: Iridium – tens of low flying satellites acting as a cellular telephony system at the scale of the entire globe (bankrupt)cellular telephony system at the scale of the entire globe (bankrupt)

Cost decline:Cost decline:– Satellites: $23000/hour for a color TV broadcast (1975) Satellites: $23000/hour for a color TV broadcast (1975) 5,000/1,000 5,000/1,000

todaytoday

Increase in interdependence = a Increase in interdependence = a smaller, more democratic worldsmaller, more democratic world

Overall, technological advance is Overall, technological advance is undeniable and potentially democratizing undeniable and potentially democratizing in its effectsin its effects

Not because Bill Gates affords things that Not because Bill Gates affords things that not many people can afford, but because not many people can afford, but because most of the things he can afford, we can most of the things he can afford, we can afford, tooafford, too

Let’s look at telecommunicationsLet’s look at telecommunications

Patterns of telecommunicative Patterns of telecommunicative progress – inequality in spaceprogress – inequality in space

Rich pole: an always-on, flat rate world – Rich pole: an always-on, flat rate world – everyone connected to everyone (Star Trek everyone connected to everyone (Star Trek “communicators”) – distance makes no “communicators”) – distance makes no difference (Figure 3.5 page 70) difference (Figure 3.5 page 70)

Poor pole: a world of wide disparities – center Poor pole: a world of wide disparities – center cities in the Third World are just like New York, cities in the Third World are just like New York, vast rural areas can still be in 18vast rural areas can still be in 18 thth or even 10 or even 10thth centurycentury

Most of the traffic flows from the First to the third Most of the traffic flows from the First to the third worldworld

Telecommunications and position Telecommunications and position in world systemin world system

Barnett, A longitudinal analysis of the international Barnett, A longitudinal analysis of the international telecommunications network 1978-1996telecommunications network 1978-1996

Main questionsMain questions– Does World System Theory apply to the world of Does World System Theory apply to the world of

telecommunications?telecommunications?– What countries are central or peripheral in the world What countries are central or peripheral in the world

telecommunications network?telecommunications network?– Does the world become more globalized?Does the world become more globalized?– Is the global telecom system more centralized today than 20 Is the global telecom system more centralized today than 20

years ago? years ago? – What predicts centrality?What predicts centrality?

Telecommunications and position Telecommunications and position in the world systemin the world system

Dataset:Dataset:– Telecomunication flows between nationsTelecomunication flows between nations– Matrix data: what countries “talk” on the phone with other Matrix data: what countries “talk” on the phone with other

countries? countries? – How do you measure centrality, integration, density? (page How do you measure centrality, integration, density? (page

1652)1652)

CENTRALITY: How many links does it take to get from node A to CENTRALITY: How many links does it take to get from node A to node Bnode B

DENSITY: Number of links by total possible number of links DENSITY: Number of links by total possible number of links

INTEGRATION: Proportion of node links that are linked to one INTEGRATION: Proportion of node links that are linked to one anotheranother


FindingsFindings– There are distinct cultural areas in the world, There are distinct cultural areas in the world,

organized in a center periphery system (Figure 1)organized in a center periphery system (Figure 1)– OVER TIME: The world telecommunications network OVER TIME: The world telecommunications network

has become more integrated and denser. Has it also has become more integrated and denser. Has it also become more centralized? (Table 1 and 2)become more centralized? (Table 1 and 2)

There are more links between nations and more directThere are more links between nations and more directThere is a problem with interpreting centralization: here it There is a problem with interpreting centralization: here it means not how hierarchical is the system but how compact it means not how hierarchical is the system but how compact it isis

– Richer countries are more central: they have more Richer countries are more central: they have more telephonic connections telephonic connections


FindingsFindings– Connectivity is present not only between central and Connectivity is present not only between central and

peripheral countries, but also between nations peripheral countries, but also between nations situated in the same geographic area or in the same situated in the same geographic area or in the same cultural group (Figure 1)cultural group (Figure 1)

– Eastern European countries have become more Eastern European countries have become more central, compared to Latin American countries – some central, compared to Latin American countries – some of the most isolated countries are former Soviet Union of the most isolated countries are former Soviet Union colonies (Figure 1)colonies (Figure 1)

– Countries that talk with one another the most, are Countries that talk with one another the most, are more likely to be geographic neighbors and to share more likely to be geographic neighbors and to share the same language (previous research)the same language (previous research)

ConclusionsConclusions

The world is relatively stable in terms of The world is relatively stable in terms of “centrality,” but has become much “centrality,” but has become much “smaller”: there are denser and more “smaller”: there are denser and more integrated ties between nationsintegrated ties between nations

There is a center-periphery structure in the There is a center-periphery structure in the world but does the “central become more world but does the “central become more central, and the peripheral, more central, and the peripheral, more peripheral” still holds true?peripheral” still holds true?

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