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Chapter I Planning for Multimedia Learning Patrick J. Fahy, Athabasca University, Canada Abstract Multimedia tools, applied with awareness of the realities of organizational culture, structures and finances, have been shown to enhance the performance of learning systems. If some predictable pitfalls are avoided, and proven pedagogical design principles and appropriate vehicles (including the Internet) are used effectively, multimedia can permit greater individualization, in turn fostering improved learning, learner satisfaction, and completion rates. 2 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Introduction Effective uses of multimedia in open and distance learning (ODL) depend upon various factors, some intrinsic to the media themselves, and others related to the differing pedagogic tasks and organizational environments into which these tools are introduced. For those planning use of multimedia, it may be valuable to consider the likely impacts of these tools on teaching and learning practices and outcomes, and on organizational structures and processes, as they are likely to be different in scope and magnitude from those of traditional instructional innovations. This chapter discusses some of the characteristics of multimedia in relation to basic pedagogic tasks and organizational realities. The goal is to alert new users to issues that often arise in multimedia implementations and to assist experienced users in assessing their strategies, by outlining some fundamental considerations commonly affecting implementation of multimedia. Both new and experienced
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Chapter I

Planning forMultimedia LearningPatrick J. Fahy, Athabasca University, CanadaAbstractMultimedia tools, applied with awareness of the realities of organizationalculture, structures and finances, have been shown to enhance theperformance of learning systems. If some predictable pitfalls are avoided,and proven pedagogical design principles and appropriate vehicles(including the Internet) are used effectively, multimedia can permit greaterindividualization, in turn fostering improved learning, learner satisfaction,and completion rates.2 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

IntroductionEffective uses of multimedia in open and distance learning (ODL) depend uponvarious factors, some intrinsic to the media themselves, and others related to thediffering pedagogic tasks and organizational environments into which these toolsare introduced. For those planning use of multimedia, it may be valuable toconsider the likely impacts of these tools on teaching and learning practices andoutcomes, and on organizational structures and processes, as they are likely tobe different in scope and magnitude from those of traditional instructionalinnovations.This chapter discusses some of the characteristics of multimedia in relation tobasic pedagogic tasks and organizational realities. The goal is to alert new usersto issues that often arise in multimedia implementations and to assist experiencedusers in assessing their strategies, by outlining some fundamental considerationscommonly affecting implementation of multimedia. Both new and experiencedtechnology users will hopefully find the discussion useful for reflecting onoptions, and anticipating potential pedagogic and administrative challenges, asthey move from simpler to more complex combinations of media for teaching.The chapter begins with a discussion of the term multimedia, including a reviewof some of the characteristics (including common pedagogic benefits andpotential issues) of specific media. Based on this analysis, some of the conditionsunder which multimedia might readily support learning tasks are explored.Finally, the impact of multimedia as an innovation on aspects of organizationalculture (including structure and finances) are addressed.Defining MultimediaWhile the term “multimedia” has not always been associated with computers(Roblyer & Schwier, 2003, p. 157), there is no doubt that it is the merging ofincreasingly powerful computer-based authoring tools with Internet connectivitythat is responsible for the growing interest in and use of multimedia instruction,in both distance and face-to-face environments. This trend is encouraged bygrowing evidence that well-designed online delivery, regardless of the mediaused, can improve retention, expand the scope and resources available inlearning situations, and increase the motivation of users (Fischer, 1997; Bruce &Levin, 1997; Mayer, 2001). For these reasons, the term “multimedia” is nowfirmly associated with computer-based delivery, usually over the Internet andaccompanied and supported by interaction provided via some form of computermediated

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communication (CMC).Planning for Multimedia Learning 3Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Definitions of multimedia vary in particulars but tend to agree in substance.Mayer (2001, p. 1) defined multimedia learning simply as “presentation ofmaterial using both words and pictures.” Roblyer and Schwier (2003) observedthat definition is problematic, because it is increasingly difficult to distinguishmultimedia from other tools with which it seems to be converging. They also notethat multimedia have sometimes been defined simplistically by the storagedevices they employ, e.g., CD-ROM, videodisc, DVD, etc., a practice theyregard as clearly inadequate. Roblyer and Schwier offered this definition ofmultimedia: “A computer system or computer system product that incorporatestext, sound, pictures/graphics, and/or audio” (p. 329). They added that themultimedia implies the purpose of “communicating information” (p. 157).In keeping with the above, in this chapter, the term “multimedia” refers to theprovision of various audio and video elements in teaching and training materials.Usually, the delivery of the media is by computer, and increasingly, it involves theInternet in some way, but the storage and delivery devices, as noted above, aresecondary to the forms of the stimuli that reach the user. The definition assumesthat media are used, but it does not address such design issues as choice ofspecific media for differing pedagogic purposes and levels of user control.Basic to considering how specific media contribute to the effectiveness orineffectiveness of multimedia is a brief discussion of the available research ontechnology in learning. Multimedia technologies invariably consist of media witheffects on learning that have been studied before, making this knowledgepertinent and applicable here (Saettler, 1990).Media and LearningSpecific Media CharacteristicsFor some time, media have been used with more traditional delivery methods(lectures, tutorials) to support essential teaching objectives, such as the following(Wright, 1998):• Clarifying and illustrating complex subjects• Adapting to individual learning styles• Improving retention and aiding recall• Reaching nonverbal learners4 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Debates have occurred over the precise role of media in learning. The fundamentaldisagreement between Clark (1983, 1994) and Kozma (1994) aboutmedia and learning is familiar historically and need not be repeated here. It seemsclear that Mayer’s (2001) views of multimedia (discussed later) clearly supportone point made in that debate, that of the “interdependence” of presentationmedia and delivery methods in certain circumstances, especially in collaborativesituations, and where higher-order learning is an objective (Crooks & Kirkwood,1988; Juler, 1990; Koumi, 1994). As Berge (1995, p. 23) concluded, and as hasbeen documented by Mayer (2001), “Some media channels promote particularinteractions, and other channels can hinder that same type of interaction.”While the potential for successful high-level learning outcomes is present inmedia use, a persistent problem in multimedia applications has been failure toachieve more than low-level learning outcomes (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, &Krathwohl, 1956). Helm and McClements (1996) commented critically,“Interactivity in the context of multimedia often refers to the learners’ ability tofollow hypertext links or stop and start video clips…. Much of what passes for

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interactivity should really be called feedback” (p. 135). These are seriouscriticisms, justifying Mayer’s (2001) advice, “Instead of asking which mediummakes the best deliveries, we might ask which instructional techniques help guidethe learner’s cognitive processing of the presented material” (p. 71).The varying characteristics of different presentation media and modes, and theirimplications for learning, have direct implications for the design of multimediastrategies and materials. Sound can supplement visual information and can beused to attract attention, arouse and hold interest, provide cues and feedback, aidmemory, and provide some types of subject matter (heart or machinery sounds,voice clips). Music can be used to augment feedback, grab attention or alertusers, and support the mood of a presentation. Synthetic speech, while usefulfor handicapped users, is less effective if too mechanical sounding. Szabo (1998)concluded that achievement gains due to audio are “weak or non-existent.” Headded that where benefits are seen, they tend to accrue to the more highly verballearners. Problems with development costs and bandwidth for delivery of audiocan also be significant (Wright, 1998; Szabo, 1998).Graphics and color can be used for various purposes, from simple decorationto higher-level interpretation and transformation (helping the observer to formvalid mental images) (Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987). Research has shown thatrealism and detail are not critical in graphics and may, in fact, extend learningtime for some users; relevance is more important than detail (Szabo, 1998). Colormay also distract some learners, unless it is highly relevant to instruction. Asignificant proportion of individuals (especially men) have some degree of colorblindness,suggesting that color should be placed under the control of the userwhere possible. The best contrasts are achieved with blue, black, or red on whiteor white, yellow, or green on black.Planning for Multimedia Learning 5Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Animation can sometimes shorten learning times by illustrating changes in theoperation or state of things; showing dangerous, rapid, or rare events; orexplaining abstract concepts. For some, animation increases interest and holdsattention better than text or audio, and the resulting learning seems to be retained(Szabo, 1998). Overall, however, research indicates that well-designed andimaginative verbal presentations may be capable of producing similar outcomes(Rieber & Boyce, 1990), leading to the conclusion that animation may notpossess many unique instructional capabilities.Video (motion or sequences of still graphics) can be used to show action andprocesses and to illustrate events that users cannot see directly or clearly in realtime. Video, when used skillfully and artistically, can also emotionally moveobservers and can produce impacts affecting attitudes similar to in-personobservation of real events.Hypermedia is the linking of multimedia documents, while hypertext is thelinking of words or phrases to other words or phrases in the same or anotherdocument (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, p. 85). Hypertext andhypermedia may be difficult to distinguish and increasingly difficult to separatefrom other applications of multimedia (Roblyer & Schwier, 2003). When pairedwith plain text, hypertext has been shown to be a cost-effective way to extendtext’s information-conveying capabilities, especially for more capable learners.Szabo (1998) suggested that hypertext should be used more to provide access toinformation than for actual teaching, in recognition of the need for hypertextmaterials to be placed in context for maximum impact (especially for lessexperienced or less capable learners).Hypermedia is a particularly promising form of multimedia materials designedfor ODL (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, p. 85; Roblyer & Schwier,

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2003). With advances in hardware, software, and human–computer interfaces,it is now technically feasible to use hypermedia systems routinely in onlineteaching. Dozens of hypertext and hypermedia systems exist, with most offeringthree basic advantages:• Huge amounts of information from various media can be stored in acompact, conveniently accessible form, and can easily be included inlearning materials.• Hypermedia potentially permit more learner control (users can choosewhether or when to follow the available links).• Hypermedia can provide teachers and learners with new ways of interacting,rewarding learners who developed independent study skills and permittingteachers to be creative in how they interact with learners (Marchionini,1988, p. 3).6 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.There are potential problems, too, in learning with hypermedia, related to thevolume and structure of all information found on the Web. The vast amounts ofinformation available can overwhelm the learner, especially if structure isinadequate or procedures such as searches are not skillfully refined, allowinglearners to “wander off” and become engrossed in appealing but irrelevant sidetopics. Learners who do not have independent study skills may not be able tomanage the complexity of hypermedia. This problem may not be immediatelyevident, however, because they appear to be engaged and on task, sometimesdeeply so.Other potential problems in teaching with hypermedia include some unique to thismedium and others common to all learning situations that require specific skillsor make assumptions about learner attributes and characteristics:• Hypermedia require basic literacy skills. While this may change as increasingbandwidth makes audio and video available, presently, the Internet andits multimedia products rely heavily on text.• A related problem is that interacting with hypermedia and multimediarequires keyboard and mouse skills, as well as understanding and manipulatingfunction keys. The computer illiterate, the unskilled, or the physicallyhandicapped may be affected.• More broadly, accessing hypermedia and multimedia requires computeruse, including sitting in front of the machine and making sense of its cuesand displays. Those with vision, concentration, coordination, or mobilityproblems, or those distracted or confused by the intense stimulation ofcolors, animation, sound, etc., may be penalized.The above specific features of media have been shown to affect their usefulnessfor teaching and learning. In addition to the limitations of media, a key point hereis the importance of historical media research to the present discussion:multimedia are media, and the view taken in this chapter is that knowledgepreviously gained about their impact on learning is still highly applicable.Media Characteristics, Teaching Conditions, and Learning OutcomesWhen media are used together, their effects can interact, sometimes unpredictably.With media, “more is not necessarily better.”There is as yet little thorough research on multimedia technologies to informdesign and implementation decisions; use of previous research may help guidepresent practice. What follows is a discussion of some key didactic purposes toPlanning for Multimedia Learning 7Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.which media may apply, followed by some remarks about the Internet as a base

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for multimedia delivery.Evaluations have shown that a fundamental benefit to students from the best usesof technology in teaching is a more systematic approach to the individualizationand customization of instruction (Massy & Zemsky, 1999). Properly designed,a technology-based learning environment provides students with more optionsthan are typically available in traditional learning situations, in content, pace,preparation, and review of prerequisites, and for activities such as collaboration,consultation, and testing/evaluation. These are objectives that have long beenrecognized as pedagogically essential (Zimmerman, 1972; Mezirow & Irish,1974; Kemp, 1977; Dede, 1996; Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1997). Amongthe benefits of technology delivery are the potential for less required trainingtime; greater mastery and better transfer of skills; more consistency in deliveryof content (a particularly important outcome of skill training); and greater studentpersistence, completion, satisfaction, collaboration, and self-direction (Grow,1991; Moore, 1993). In some situations, experience has shown that highly selfdirectedstudents may be able to undertake and complete advanced studies withlittle or no direct assistance or intervention from the institution, increasingefficiency through the “unbundling” of learning from direct teaching (Massy &Zemsky, 1999, pp. 2–3). In the best examples, technologies increase learning,enhance learner satisfaction, stabilize costs, and raise the visibility and appeal of(and potential revenues from) existing programs (Oberlin, 1996).While positive effects are possible in teaching with media, they are notautomatic. Internal consistency of objectives is critical: multimedia technologiesmust be congruent with the organization’s learning model and actual teachingpractices, as well as with students’ expectations and capabilities for autonomyand self-direction (Grow, 1991). If tools are chosen for their technologicalcapabilities alone, there is a risk of failing to fit with the organizationalenvironment (Helm & McClements, 1996; Mayer, 2001; Welsch, 2002), resultingin potentially disastrous technology implementation “mistakes” (Quinn &Baily, 1994).Despite differing characteristics, useful online training technologies have incommon the effect of bringing the student into timely and productive contact withthe tutor, the content, and peers, thereby reducing the “transactional distance”in distance learning, the communications gap or psychological distance betweengeographically separated participants (Moore, 1989; Chen & Willits, 1998). Thedifferences in how various media accomplish their effects are important to theirpotential usefulness. Figure 1, for example, compares instruction delivered byhuman and technological means (Fischer, 1997).8 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Illustrated in Figure 1 are some of the trade-offs inherent in the decision to useteaching media, as opposed to traditional forms of delivery alone. If a criticalvalue for a program is met by tutor-based delivery, and resources are plentiful,it may be chosen without regard for cost. Where economy is important, however,the “best” delivery solution may not be affordable; a less costly but still adequatesolution may have to be chosen. (This was the purpose of Bloom’s [1984] “twosigma”challenge, to find a teaching medium as effective as one-on-one tutoring.The search, of course, continues with multimedia.) Analysis such as the abovemay assist in identifying the trade-offs involved in the choice of one medium ortechnology over another and may suggest compensating strategies to improvethe effectiveness of whatever tool is chosen (Wolfe, 1990).Besides cost and accessibility (Bates, 1995), another issue in selecting media isthe type of experience or learning outcomes intended by the training (DeSanctis& Gallupe, 1987). Picard (1999), for instance, sees the key contribution of media

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as their ability to promote relationship building, and not merely informationexchange, in work or learning.Figure 1: Comparison of characteristics of human- and technology-basedinstructionNote: Elements: Fisher, 1997 (pp. 29-30).Training element Human-delivered training Technology-based trainingPlanning and preparation Able to design training tocorrespond to the trainingplan; able to monitorconsistencyMust be systematicallydesigned to conform to thetraining planExpertise Presenters hired fromindustry usually represent themost current knowledge andhighest expertiseMust be designed to conformto industry standards;currency with standards mustbe maintainedInteractivity Instructors tend to train thegroup, ignoring individualneedsAble to focus on individualneeds in content, pacing,review, remediation, etc.Learning retention Retention rates vary Can be up to 50% higher thaninstructor-led group trainingConsistency Instructors tend to adapt tothe audience, sacrificingconsistencyRigorously maintainsstandards but may also bedesigned to adapt to learner’sperformance or preferencesFeedback, performancetrackingHuman instructors especiallygood at constant, ongoingevaluation, response totrainee performanceBetter at keeping records andgenerating reports, butdesigning cybernetic systemsto adapt instruction based onfeedback is costly, complexPlanning for Multimedia Learning 9Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.From Figure 2, we see the following:• When relationship-building and information exchange needs are both low,audio media alone may suffice.• When both relationship-building and information-exchange needs are high,audio, video, and information exchange (including text) should all bepresent.• Relationship-building is enhanced by combining audioconferencing andvideo together with data, especially text. (Text alone has substantialrelationship-building capabilities, as anyone who has ever had a pen pal, orexchanged love letters, can attest.)In relation to learning, technologies have potential directly to address common

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teaching tasks. In Figure 3, the views of several theoreticians regarding tasks orconditions essential to learning are compared. Two points should be noted in thiscomparison: (a) there is considerable apparent agreement among authorities onelements essential to effective teaching and learning, and (b) there appear to beobvious roles for multimedia in supporting some of these tasks.Figure 2: Relation of data, audio, and video technologies to informationexchange and relationship-building outcomesSource: Picard (1999).| | (High)| Audio + data | Audio + data +| | video| || |Information |_______________________ |___________________Exchange | || Audio only | Audio + video| || ||(Low)___________________|____________________Relationship-building10 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Figure 3: Comparison of models of effective teaching and learning: roles for multimediaBloom (1984) Chickering & Gamson(1989)Gagne (1985) Joyce & Weil (1980) Moore (in Garrison,1989)Tutorial instruction Student–facultyinteractionPresenting new material;describing objectives;gaining learner’sattentionPresenting stimuli,objectives; sequencinglearning tasksCommunicating in anunderstandable mannerReinforcement Student–facultyinteractionRecalling previouslearning; enhancingretention and recallIncreasing attention;promoting recallGeneral supportCorrective feedback Proper feedback Providing feedback onperformancePrompting and guiding FeedbackCues and explanations Student–facultyinteractionLearning guidance Prompting and guiding GuidanceStudent participation Active learning; studentreciprocity andcooperationStudent performance Evoking performance Active involvementTime on task Time on task;communicating highexpectations

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Assessing performanceAssessing and enhancinglearner’s reading andstudy skillsRespecting diverse waysof learningPlanning for Multimedia Learning 11Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.A broader point in this discussion is made in Figure 3: technologies havecapabilities to assist in specific teaching tasks, if used within their identifiedlimitations as presentation and delivery media. The purpose of research on mediais to identify characteristics (capabilities and limitations) that can then be appliedin the ID phase, thus avoiding use of the wrong tool for a specific pedagogicalpurpose. Previous media research can be useful in identifying multimediaimplementations able to supply or support the following:• Instruction—CAL (computer-assisted learning), including various typesof simulations, can be used, supported by varieties of CMC (e-mail,synchronous and asynchronous IP-audio- and IP-videoconferences, textchat,file exchanges, and data access).• Reinforcement, corrective feedback, and cues and explanations—CAL and, especially, CML (computer-manager learning) can be useful.• Participation, engagement, time-on-task—Strategies for collaborationand cooperation with peers and authorities include various forms ofproblem-based learning, using Internet-based communications tools. Motivationaladvantages are gained from the scope of access and the immediacyof interaction provided by the Web.• Assessing and respecting diverse learning styles, preferences—Though not cited by all the authorities in Figure 3, this may be one of themost powerful arguments for multimedia delivery. (As Fletcher [1992]recognized more than a decade ago, individualization is both “a moraleimperative and an economic impossibility”—unless, it is argued here, use ismade of well-designed multimedia resources.)As noted earlier, technologies vary in their immediacy and interpersonal impact.For example, video affects the likelihood and, according to some research, thespeed with which relationships will grow in mediated interaction, while simpledata exchange may do little to promote relationships in virtual work teams(Walther, 1996; Picard, 1999). The objectives of the instruction should dictate themedia to be used and must be grounded in the media’s demonstrated capabilities;the choice of media thus both affects and reflects the relative emphasis ondifferent desired learning outcomes.Multimedia and the InternetMultimedia are increasingly associated with the Internet, which offers bothdelivery advantages and challenges to users: advantages arise from the Internet’senormous capacity to link and interconnect, but there are potentially serious12 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.problems related to lack of inherent structure and tutor control (Thaler, 1999;Stafford, 1999; Campbell, 1999). Advantages of the Internet for teaching, underideal conditions, include the following (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino,1996, p. 263):• Engrossing: The opportunity for deep involvement, capturing and holdinglearner interest.• Multisensory: The incorporation of sounds and images along with text (butsee Mayer’s [2001] multimedia principles, below, regarding the limits of

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sensory channels).• Connections: Learners can connect ideas from different media sources,for example, connecting the sound of a musical instrument with itsillustration.• Individualized: Web structure allows users to navigate through theinformation according to their interests and to build their own unique mentalstructures based on exploration.• Collaborative creation: Software allows teachers and learners to createtheir own hypermedia materials; project-based learning provides opportunitiesfor authentic collaboration.Some of the more common problems with the Internet for teaching, and as aplatform for multimedia delivery, are as follows (Heinich et al., 1996, p. 263):• Getting lost: Users can get confused, or “lost in cyberspace.”• Lack of structure: Those whose learning style requires more structure andguidance may become frustrated. Some less-experienced or less welldisciplinedusers may also make poor decisions about how much informationthey need.• Noninteractive: Programs may simply be one-way presentations of informationwith no specific opportunities for interaction or practice withfeedback. A further problem is that, due to poor design, what may beintended as interaction is sometimes more accurately called feedback(Helm & McClements, 1996).• Time-consuming: Because they are nonlinear and invite exploration,hypermedia programs tend to require more time for learners to reachprespecified objectives. Because they are more complex than conventionalinstructional materials, hypermedia systems require more time to master(“Workers find,” 2000).• Bandwidth: This continues to be a critical barrier to Web-based multimediause for some potential users. While broadband availability is increasingPlanning for Multimedia Learning 13Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.worldwide (PC Magazine, 2003), especially outside North America(“Where’s the broadband boom?,” 2002), online speeds still prevent manyusers from accessing multimedia efficiently or reliably (Howard, 2001;Miller, 2002).The above inherent limitations of the Internet as a multimedia delivery tool arisefrom its very nature. In order for these limitations to change, the Internet wouldhave to become more structured, limiting user choices. This is unlikely, as thesechanges would make the Web a very different entity from what it is today(Greenaway, 2002).Planning Issues with MultimediaDesign and Development PrinciplesThe potentials and challenges discussed above underscore the importance ofplanning and design in the implementation of multimedia. Fortunately, researchoffers principles that can guide instructional designers and instructors in thedevelopment and use of multimedia. Mayer’s (2001) work is particularly useful.His examination of the impact of multimedia on learning, based on how the humanmind works to process verbal and visual information (p. 4), has producedimportant insights about media and learning, including the following:• Words and pictures, although qualitatively different, complement oneanother and promote learning, if learners are successful in mentallyintegrating visual and verbal representations (p. 5).• True learning is more a process of knowledge construction than information

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acquisition (p. 12).• Deep learning is evidenced by retention and transfer (lack of whichindicates no learning, or merely superficial rote learning) (pp. 5, 16–17).In Mayer’s model, there are three key assumptions underpinning a cognitivetheory of multimedia learning: (a) humans have dual channels for processinginput as part of learning, the visual and the auditory; (b) while the two channelsexist in most people, humans are limited in the amount of the information they canprocess in each channel at one time; and (c) learners must actively processinformation and experience as part of learning, by a process that includesattending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information intocoherent mental representations and integrating mental representations withother knowledge (p. 44).14 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Mayer (2001, p. 41) concluded that successful learning requires students toperform five actions, with direct implications for the design of effectivemultimedia instruction:1. Select relevant words from the presented text or narration.2. Select relevant images from the presented illustrations.3. Organize the selected words into a coherent verbal representation.4. Organize selected images into a coherent visual representation.5. Integrate the visual and verbal representations with prior knowledge.Mayer articulated seven principles useful for guiding the design of multimediainstruction. Under these principles, students have been shown to achieve greaterretention and transfer (Mayer, 2001, p. 172):1. Multimedia principle: Students learn better from words and pictures thanfrom words alone.2. Spatial contiguity principle: Students learn better when correspondingwords and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other onthe page or screen.3. Temporal contiguity principle: Students learn better when correspondingwords and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.4. Coherence principle: Students learn better when extraneous words,pictures, and sounds are excluded rather than included. (“Extraneous” canrefer either to topical or conceptual relevance, with the latter being moreimportant.)5. Modality principle: Students learn better from animation and narrationthan from animation and on-screen text. (This principle assumes use of aconcise narrated animation, text that omits unneeded words.) (See p.135.)6. Redundancy principle: Students learn better from animation and narrationthan from animation, narration, and on-screen text. (This principle isbased on capacity-limitation hypothesis, which holds that learners havelimited capacity to process material visually and auditorily [p. 152].Eliminating redundant material results in better learning performance thanincluding it [p. 153]).7. Individual differences principle: A particularly important finding is thatdesign effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for highknowledgelearners, and for high-spatial learners than for low-spatiallearners (p. 184).Planning for Multimedia Learning 15Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.The above are examples of design principles under which learning may beenhanced by the use of various display or delivery media. Principles such as

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these are particularly important, as they are research-based and tested (Mayer,2001). Any design principles adopted should meet similarly stringent empiricaltests.Multimedia, Productivity and PerformanceThe previous discussion suggests that multimedia implementation, while potentiallyvaluable to learning, requires strategic planning to exploit pedagogicpossibilities and avoid the pitfalls of misapplication. The point has further beenstressed that the existing literature on technology-based learning is applicable tomultimedia planning, especially the known pedagogic and representationalcharacteristics of individual media identified in actual learning situations. Thereare nonpedagogic considerations, too, related to organizational impacts andvarious costs from the use of multimedia.A realistic decision to incorporate multimedia in ODL should recognize thatmultimedia, like most technologies, are unlikely initially, or perhaps ever, to savethe organization time or money (Quinn & Bailey, 1994; Burge, 2000; Cassidy,2000). In fact, multimedia may in the short-term increase operational complexity,create “organizational chaos” (Murgatroyd, 1992), and promote time-wastingbehaviors by users throughout the organization (Laudon, Traver, & Laudon,1996; Fernandez, 1997; Evans, 1998; Fahy, 2000; Dalal, 2001). The early effectsof multimedia, like other technologies in complex organizations, may well includelower organizational productivity (Black & Lynch, 1996).Another caveat is financial: the economics of technologies generally suggest thatthe total cost of ownership (TCO) of multimedia technologies will constantly rise(Oberlin, 1996), and that no genuine cost savings may ever actually be achievedby some users (Welsch, 2002). The rationale for adopting multimedia technologies,therefore, is more related to performance enhancements, such as greaterflexibility, improved learning, and higher satisfaction and completion rates forusers, than to cost savings (Oberlin, 1996; Daniel, 1996; Fahy, 1998).This point is significant, because, historically, technology users have sometimesconfused performance and productivity outcomes in technology implementations,underestimating the costs and long-term impacts of technology, while, tothe detriment of realistic expectations, overestimating and overselling possibleproductivity benefits (Dietrich & Johnson, 1967; McIsaac, 1979; Mehlinger,1996; Strauss, 1997; Lohr, 1997; Wysocki, 1998; Greenaway, 2002; Hartnett,2002). For the future of multimedia, avoiding these kinds of mistakes is critical:unrealistic expectations produce disappointment, and may result in skepticism16 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.among instructors and managers about the value of educational innovationgenerally, and educational technologies in particular (“Nothing travels through aneducational vacuum like a technological bandwagon.”)Organizational Issues in Multimedia AdoptionRealistic expectations of multimedia require compatibility with the adoptingorganization’s culture, structure, and finances (Welsch, 2002).The culture of any organization includes its various values, beliefs, myths,traditions, and norms, as well as its historic practices and typical ways of doingbusiness (including how it adopts or rejects innovations). Organizational culturemay present the most serious challenges to those responsible for the strategicplanning (Rogers, 1983; Stringer & Uchenick, 1986), including the problem ofdistinguishing whether any resistance encountered is due to simple unwillingnessor to real inability (Welsch, 2002). (In the latter case, resistance may be rationaleand appropriate, a sign that conditions are not right for an innovation to succeed.)The problem is thought to be particularly acute in slow-to-change enterprisessuch as public education (Senge, 1990).

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Another problem for adoption of complex innovations such as multimedia is theattitude in some organizations that training is an optional activity (Gordon, 1997).Ironically, it is technologically illiterate managers and administrators who mostoften resist training initiatives, both for themselves and their staff, to avoidembarrassment in an area in which they know their expertise is not as great astheir subordinates’. The needs analysis stage of planning is the best place toassure that cultural issues like these are recognized and evaluated in advance.Planning for multimedia implementation need not be timid. The needs assessmentshould carefully distinguish climate from culture and respond accordingly.Climate consists of the commonly held viewpoints and opinions in the organization,directly influenced by widely recognized measures of organizational healthand success, such as enrollment or student achievement and performancerelative to competitors. Climate is more “constructed” and temporary thanculture, based upon elements such as student and staff perceptions of how wellthe organization is performing its fundamental tasks. By its nature, climate ismore manageable than culture. Managers, by their reactions to external developments,can influence how staff members interpret the outside events that mayshape climate. Climate is an area in which planning can have an impact, throughthe efforts of planners to influence the internal recognition and interpretation ofoutside events.In addition to culture, structural factors within the organization may also affectmultimedia innovations. The presence and adequacy of the required technologiPlanningfor Multimedia Learning 17Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.cal infrastructure, including software, hardware, communications, and networkingsystems, should be assessed. Personnel in the form of knowledgeablemanagement, maintenance, training and support staff, key consultants, and costeffectivecontract help are also critical structural elements. If not alreadyprovided for, the costs of system upgrades and ongoing maintenance (includinginitial and recurrent training for staff) should be assessed in a structural review,preceding the introduction of multimedia systems. Ongoing costs should beidentified in budget projections.Finances are a vital part of any multimedia adoption in ODL. Assessingorganizational finances also introduces complexity into the planning process, ascosts are inherently difficult to predict accurately, sometimes even to identifycompletely. While precise accuracy in cost analysis may be difficult, potentialpurchasers of technologies should be aware that, as noted above, the total costof ownership of multimedia technology will likely be well above the purchaseprice, exceeding the purchase price by many times (Oberlin, 1996; Black &Lynch, 1996; Khan & Hirata, 2001; Welsch, 2002). Using a definition ofproductivity as the ratio of benefits to costs (Massy & Zemsky, 1999), the highcost of a technology may not be disqualifying if the payback is clear. Costs alonedo not necessarily change the justification for a technology, but they couldconstitute a shock to an organization that has not adequately anticipated them.Part of the rationale for investing in multimedia is the fact that technologyprovides flexibility: technologies are more scalable than human resources, if thisaspect is exploited in the organizational vision. In general, scalability means thatprogram growth may be more easily accommodated with technology thanwithout it; costs do not escalate in line with growth as they do where enrollmentincreases are borne strictly by hiring more instructors and support staff.Multimedia resources may be augmented or trimmed without reference tocollective agreements or other commitments. Another difference is that technologiessuch as multimedia tend to become more efficient the more use is madeof them, lowering the break-even point and increasing their efficiency (Matkin,

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1997; Harvard Computing Group, 1998; Watkins & Callahan, 1998).The decision to acquire technology is fundamentally a strategic one, becausetechnologies are means to various ends. Bates (1995) suggested that accessibilityand cost are the two most important discriminators among technologies,and thus the most critical criteria in a technology acquisition process. A decisionto “build” or develop a new multimedia technology option should bear in mind thatthere is now a rapidly increasing amount of available software (Gale, 2001). Acareful analysis of needs and a search of available options should be performed,especially before a decision to develop is authorized, as even professionalprogramming projects, in general, often end in failure (Girard, 2003), andinstructors who lack special instructional design (ID) training are particularly apt18 FahyCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.to become bogged down in the development of ultimately mediocre materials(Grabe & Grabe, 1996).Another factor in assessing the financial viability of various multimedia technologiesis the potential target audience in relation to the expected costs ofproduction. Perry (2000) cautioned that custom multimedia training coursewarewill likely not be cost-effective for fewer than 1,000 users. Bates (1995, 2000)also offered figures and usage considerations that help with the assessment ofcosts and benefits. Costs and time frames can be formidable: Szabo (1998)reported nearly a fourfold range (40 to 150 hours per hour of instruction) fordevelopment of very basic computer-assisted learning (CAL) in health education,and another study reported that a 6 hour module in weather forecasting,involving a production team of instructional designers, meteorologists, hydrologists,graphics artists, media specialists, computer scientists, and SMEs, consumeda year and cost $250,000 (Johnson, 2000).ConclusionsPresented in this chapter was a discussion of factors (inherent, pedagogic, andorganizational) that may impact planning for multimedia use. The suggestion hereis that multimedia are more likely to affect pedagogical performance (how wellthe program or the organization does its work) than productivity (measured byprofitability). In planning for multimedia implementation, it was suggested,performance outcomes should be the focus (improvements in quality of service,as measured by timeliness, accessibility, convenience, and responsiveness ofprogram offerings and supports), rather than “bottom-line” outcomes.Strategic planning in the form of ID promotes proper uses of multimediatechnologies, especially (at the awareness and adoption stages). The bestpedagogical arguments for use of multimedia technologies (providing morelearner convenience, satisfaction and success) may be compelling enough, butproblems in relation to existing organizational culture, structure and financesshould not be overlooked. The adoption process includes distinguishing climatefactors from culture (the former being more amenable to influence by effectiveleaders); considering the needs of affected groups in planning; acknowledgingand respecting users’ expectations; providing existing managers with training, sothey can provide effective leadership; accurately assessing existing and neededtechnical resources; avoiding overselling potential benefits, thus keeping expectationsrealistic; and selecting, adapting, or (rarely) building products on the basisof demonstrable advantages, especially accessibility and costs.Planning for Multimedia Learning 19Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Pedagogically, the principal contributions of multimedia technologies in teachingand training are likely to be increased flexibility, resulting in greater learneraccess and convenience, and more choices to users, including self-pacing,

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individualization, customization, and learner control. Positive impacts such asthese on aspects of the teaching process can be anticipated, but problems shouldalso be expected; media selection usually involves trade-offs, and the losses andgains in the choice of one delivery or presentation medium over another shouldbe acknowledged.For instructional designers, principles exist to guide development of multimedia.Among the most useful of these are the multimedia principles that address designissues such as contiguity, redundancy, coherence, and choices of delivery modes(Mayer, 2001). Adoption of these principles would, in general, likely result in“lean” multimedia design, with use of audio-textual and visual-pictorial elementsbased more directly upon empirical evidence about how these actually impactlearning, rather than upon their technical features alone. Though perhaps lesstechnologically elegant, such implementations promise to be more pedagogicallyeffective and organizationally compatible.ReferencesBates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education.New York: Routledge.Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Publishers.Berge, Z. (1995). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations fromthe field. Educational Technology, January–February, pp. 22–30.Black, S., & Lynch, L. (1996). Human-capital investments and productivity.American Economic Review, 86, 263–267.Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2-sigma problem: The search for methods of groupinstruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher,June–July, pp. 4–16.Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R.(Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classificationof educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York:David McKay Co., Inc.Bruce, B. C., & Levin, J. (1997). Educational technology: Media for inquiry,communication, construction, and expression. Retrieved October 8, 1997

Chapter II

Toward Effective Useof MultimediaTechnologies inEducationGeraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, AustraliaAbstractWhile multimedia technologies are being used in educational contexts, theeffective use of multimedia in these contexts remains problematic. In anattempt to contribute towards addressing this problem, this chapter presentsa set of conceptual guidelines and a practical planning framework that isintended to inform the planning and design of more effective multimedia

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integration into educational contexts. A mixed-mode approach is advocatedin this chapter. Multimedia technologies are viewed as part of a tool-set andtool selection should be appropriate to curriculum content and to theteaching and learning context.26 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

IntroductionWhether or not multimedia technologies should be used in educational contextsseems to no longer be an issue. Multimedia technology is pervading almost allaspects of existence. The rationale for its use in educational contexts is groundedin social, economic, and pedagogical reasons. However, what does remainproblematic is the effective use of multimedia technology in educational contexts.At the crux of addressing this problem is the notion that effectiveintegration of multimedia in the curriculum depends not on the technology itselfbut rather on educators’ knowledge, assumptions, and perceptions regarding thetechnology and its implementation in the specific learning context (Jackson &Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson, 1999). From a pedagogicalperspective, it is generally accepted that multimedia technologies havethe potential to reshape and add a new dimension to learning (Relan & Gillani,1997; Lefoe, 1998). In reality, however, this potential has largely failed to berealized. The fundamental belief underlying this chapter is that this potential willonly be realized by informed pedagogical decision making and the formulation ofteaching strategies designed to exploit multimedia technologies for maximumeffectiveness within a particular learning situation. From this perspective,educator development that focuses on pedagogical change is a pivotal aspect ofthe effective use of multimedia technologies in educational contexts.The term “multimedia technologies” is being used in this chapter to mean theentirely digital delivery of content using any integrated combination of audio,video, images (two-dimensional, three-dimensional), and text. In its most primitiveform, the term “multimedia” is sometimes defined as content presentationusing a combination of media [i.e., sound, images (static, moving, animated,video), and text]. From this perspective, any presentation that involves the useof, for example, face-to-face teaching, video recorder, and a slide show could beconsidered multimedia.The distinguishing feature of digital multimedia, as used in this chapter (asopposed to the primitive form defined above), is the capacity to support userinteraction. Hence, the term “multimedia technologies,” as used in this chapter,will always imply that there is an element of “interactivity” present. The conceptof interaction is considered along two dimensions: the capacity of the system toallow an individual to control the pace of presentation and to make choices aboutwhich pathways are followed to move through the content, and the ability of thesystem to accept input from the user and provide appropriate feedback to thatinput. Multimedia technologies may be delivered on computer via CD-ROM,DVD, or via the Internet, or on other devices such as mobile phones and personaldigital assistants capable of supporting interactive and integrated delivery ofdigital audio, video, image, and text data. Multimedia technologies as referred toToward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 27Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.in this chapter also encompass new communications technologies such as e-mail,chat, and videoconferencing. Virtual reality technologies are also included.It will be argued later in this chapter that various multimedia technologies areseen as part of a tool set or possible modes of instruction. Other modes includeface-to-face teaching, print materials, and video and audio devices. A “mixedmode”approach will be advocated in this chapter based on the argument that tool

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selection should be appropriate to curriculum content and to the teaching andlearning context.The contents of this chapter have been based largely on the author’s professionaldevelopment experiences with tertiary educators implementing online learning.However, the ideas discussed in this chapter are based on principles of goodpractice that apply to a broad range of teaching and learning contexts, includingprimary, secondary, tertiary, and other training environments.Against this background, this chapter aims to provide a set of conceptualguidelines and a practical foundation (in the form of a planning framework) thatwill be of interest to those involved in planning and designing appropriateprofessional development targeted at promoting effective multimedia integration,and to individual educators in primary, secondary, tertiary, and other trainingenvironments who wish to implement multimedia technologies more effectivelyinto the curriculum.Multimedia Technologies inLearning EnvironmentsWhen computer-based interactive multimedia emerged in the 1990s, innovativeeducators began considering what implications this new media might have if itwas applied to teaching and learning environments. Within a relatively short timeframe, the emerging multimedia and associated communications technologiesinfiltrated almost every aspect of society. So, what was initially viewed as atechnology “option” in educational contexts has for social, economic, andpedagogical reasons become a “necessity.” Many educational institutions areinvesting considerable time, effort, and money into the use of technology.Socially, computer literacy is an essential skill for full participation in society. Theuse of multimedia technologies in educational institutions is seen as necessary forkeeping education relevant to the 21st century (Selwyn & Gordard, 2003).Economically, the belief prevails that the large-scale use of new multimedia andassociated communication technologies for teaching and learning may offercheaper delivery than traditional face-to-face and distance education and will28 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.also help establish and maintain competitive advantages for institutions byallowing them to tap into overseas markets (Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson,1999, p. 207).The pedagogical basis for the use of educational multimedia technologies hasperhaps been the greatest driving force for the massive investments made byeducational institutions into multimedia technologies. Literature abounds withrhetoric about the potential impact of multimedia technologies on traditionalteaching practices. The central theme is that the integration of multimediatechnologies will lead to a transformation of pedagogy from traditional instructivistteacher-centered approaches to the more desirable constructivist learner approachesthat are seen as embodying essential characteristics of more effectivelearning environments (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999; Relan & Gillani, 1997;Willis & Dickson, 1997; LeFoe, 1998; Richards & Nason, 1999). From thelearner-centered perspective, the teacher’s role changes from the traditional(instructivist approach) role of instructor and supplier of knowledge to a rolemore closely aligned with support and facilitation of the active construction ofknowledge by the learner (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999). The learner-centeredapproach implies empowerment of the individual learner and the ability to providethe learner with self-directed, more meaningful, authentic learning experiencesthat lead to lifelong learning. This implication is at the crux of constructivistbasedpedagogical arguments for the integration of multimedia technologies in

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educational contexts (Selwyn & Gorard, 2003; Gonzales et al., 2002).However, despite the well-documented and generally accepted potential ofmultimedia technologies to reshape teaching practices, it has been identified inliterature that the promised impact of multimedia technologies on learning andpedagogical practices have largely not eventuated. There are relatively fewpositive impacts on educational practices for major investments of time, effort,and money by educational institutions (Cuban, 1986; Hammond, 1994; Oliver,1999; Nichol & Watson, 2003; Conlon & Simpson, 2003; Selwyn & Gorard,2003).The reason for this lack of impact is seen to lie not with the attributes of thetechnology itself, but rather with the ways in which the technology has beenimplemented in learning contexts. More specifically, it is the educators’ knowledge,assumptions, and perceptions regarding the technology and its implementationin the specific learning context that will determine its implementation and,hence, its effectiveness (Jackson & Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Priest, &Macpherson, 1999). As is often noted in literature, the potential of multimediatechnologies to reshape learning contexts (Relan & Gillani, 1997; Lefoe, 1998)will only be realized by informed pedagogical decision making and the formulationof teaching strategies designed to exploit multimedia technologies within thecurriculum context.Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 29Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Although it may be recognized by educators that multimedia technologies havethe potential to offer new and improved learning opportunities, many educatorsfail to realize this potential. A number of educators using multimedia technologiesin their learning environments are largely limiting its use to a tool for data access,communication, and administration (Conlon & Simpson, 2003). This is an “addon”approach to multimedia technology use rather than a truly integratedcurriculum approach. This lack of true integration results in minimal (if any)change in both pedagogical strategies and learning environment (Tearle, Dillon,& Davis, 1999; Strommen, 1999).Failure to implement effective technology integration is attributed to the fact thateducators, even experienced educators, are generally unprepared for thechanges demanded by and produced by “technology infusion” (Charp, 2000).While some of the pedagogical “know how” of more traditional learningenvironments possessed by educators may transfer to new interactive multimediacontexts, educators often lack the skills and technical and pedagogicalknowledge to effectively implement those technologies in their learning environments.Rakes and Casey (2002, online) observed the following:…many [educators], especially more experienced teachers, have beenunable to find effective ways to use technology in their classrooms. Onepossible explanation for this lack of success is that the use of technologyin the classroom has been viewed in terms of simple skill acquisitioninstead of as a change process that affects the behavior of individuals ona very profound level.If there is a lesson to be learned from the last few decades of “educationaltechnology” development, it is that technologies themselves offer very little tothe learning process. Conlon & Simpson (2003, p. 149) warned that if educatorsare “hastened” into adopting multimedia technologies without any clear educationalvision of change, then significant transformation of teaching practice isunlikely. The importance of focus on educator development and resources thatwill foster continuous pedagogical growth and “re-engineering” becomes selfevidentand is well documented in literature (Gonzales et al., 2002; Burns, 2002;Pierson, 2001; Charp, 2000; Collis, 1996; Rakes & Casey, 2002).

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Against this context, some of the key issues that need be addressed in educatordevelopment will be identified and discussed. Five key guidelines and a planningframework for facilitating more effective multimedia technologies integrationwill be presented.30 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Toward More EffectiveTechnology IntegrationThe preceding discussion has directed attention to the notion that while multimediatechnologies have the potential to reshape practice, the potential is oftenunrealized due to the fact that educators are often ill-equipped to meet thechallenges of change demanded by multimedia technologies and to exploitchange made possible by them. This notion is supported by an earlier study(Torrisi & Davis, 2000) conducted by the author into the experiences of tertiaryeducators developing online multimedia materials.The data from the study highlight some of the key issues that need to beaddressed in educator development efforts. Educators in the study were askedto identify what they believed were key competencies that students shoulddevelop as a result of undertaking study in the subject. Each educator was alsoasked to clarify what they believed to be the role of online materials in theircourse. Table 1 juxtaposes individual educator’s responses for key competenciesagainst the educator’s stated intended use of online materials. Uponexamination of responses as shown in Table 1, a lack of congruency betweenwhat educators identified as key competencies for their students and the stateduse of online materials was found. This lack of congruency between stated keycompetencies and intended use of online materials is indicative of multimediatechnology that is not truly integrated with the curriculum goals, content,objectives, and context, rather use is limited to being add-on or supplemental.Insight into reason for supplemental use of multimedia technologies was revealedin interviews with the tertiary educators, whose comments suggested theyperceived the use of multimedia online technologies as an exercise in translatingmaterials into another medium, mostly for access and alternative to face-to-faceor printed content delivery. This perception of technology use does not fosterpedagogical change. It leads to counterproductive strategies that replicate moretraditional methods with the new medium. The result is no impact or evennegative impact on the learning environment. Rather, what is required isconceptualization of multimedia technology use in educational contexts as aprocess of transformation that acknowledges, and strives for, change in practice.In addressing this problem, it is useful to consider the idea of progressivetechnology adoption found in the literature.Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer (1997) suggested that supplemental use ofmultimedia technologies as was observed in this study should be viewed as thefirst stage of a continuum of change that culminates in a third stage of fullintegration and transformation of practice. The idea of progressive technologyadoption is supported by others. For example, Goddard (2002) recognized fiveToward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 31Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Table 1: Comparison of stated key competencies cited by teaching staff asimportant for students to acquire for their subject area to staff member’sstated intended use of the online materialsNote: Examination of responses shows a general lack of congruency between key competenciesrequired and staff member’s stated intended use of online materials, indicative of poor curriculumintegration.Source: Adapted from Torrisi & Davis (2000, pp. 172–173).

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Key competencies as stated by individualeducators for students in theirteaching/subject areaIntended use of the online materials as statedby individual educatorsEducator ACritical analysisAbility to researchStandard academic writing skillsAn adjunct to face-to-face teaching; studentscould access lectures if they could not come tolecturesIt’s the way things are goingEducator BRhythmic perceptionRhythmic literacyProgramming skillsWanted to have a more efficient way of doingthingsStudents access the materials (notes, exercises)before coming to lecturesTo decrease degree of coordination becauselinks are made obvious on the Web pageAccess to materials off campusEducator CChallenge their assumptionsAnalyze the thinking, underlying practicesConnect theoretical material with their ownlife experiencesThink through how values can beincorporated into a real-life situationA Web site that students could move around inrather than work linearly and that would getthem thinking; to really engage themWanted to use class contact time for studentsto engage with each other on the basis ofcontent they already encountered rather thanusing time for presenting content aloneEducator DAnalytical skillsMathematical skillsThe case study approach is commonly used.Resource that would be accessed in tutorialsTo reduce but not replace lecture hourseventuallyEducator EDevelop problem-solving skillsUnderstand the material covered rather thanjust memorize it, and then apply what theyhave been taught to new situationsBecome more creative in the tasks assignedThe key advantage to the students was greateraccessibility and a more convenient way ofdelivering of course materialsThrough supplementary activities such asreading, research, foresee what is going to betaught and contribute more to the class, ratherthan "being a clean slate" when material ispresentedEducator FAnalysis, synthesis, creativityDevelop an analytical way of thinking andproblem analysisResource would have the same attributes asopening a bookStudents have access to the content, but itreally is only an add on32 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.stages of progression: knowledge (awareness of technology existence); persuasion

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(technology as support for traditional productivity rather than as curriculumrelated); decision (acceptance or rejection of technology for curriculum use—acceptance leading to supplemental uses); implementation (recognition thattechnology can help achieve some curriculum goals); and confirmation (use oftechnology leads to redefinition of the learning environment—true integrationleading to change).It is proposed here that framing the educational use of multimedia technologiesin terms of progressive levels of use and integration is valuable in that it forcesconceptualization of effective technology integration as a process of “change”inherently leading to practice transformation rather than as simple skill acquisitionrequired for translation of materials into a new medium.Adopting the view that technology integration is a process leading to transformationand innovation directs attention also to the need to include elements ofreflective practice in any educator development guidelines and frameworks. Theterm “reflective practice” is being used here to encompass the idea thateducators consciously make judgments about their performances and success ofstrategies. The notion of evaluation (both formal and informal) is inherent in theidea of reflective practice. According to Ballantyne, Bain, and Packer (1999),lack of reflection leads to lack of awareness of the “appropriateness of…methodsin bringing about high quality student learning” (p. 237), resulting in theperpetuation of traditional or ineffective teaching methods. The need foreducators to reflect on their practices cannot be understated. Development ofnew strategies that appropriately integrate multimedia technologies into thecurriculum will only take place, according to Tearle, Dillon, and Davis (1999),when the educator has “re-examined his or her approach to teaching andlearning” (p. 10).In the 2000 study conducted by Torrisi and Davis, another key finding was thatamong the concerns about the production process by educators, the principalconcern was the lack of knowledge about the attributes and possibilities of themedia and feelings of inadequacy in terms of how to exploit the potential of themedia available. Consistent with other findings on professional development(Ellis, O’Reilly, & Debreceny, 1998), it appears that educators are primarilyinterested in learning the technical aspects of multimedia technologies onlyinsofar as this knowledge is useful in informing pedagogical decisions andoptions. The implication of this observation is that teaching development effortsaimed at effective integration of multimedia technologies in educational contextsmust teach educators how to use the technology within the context of “matchingthe needs and abilities of learners to curriculum goals” (Gonzales et al., 2002,p. 1).Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 33Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.The view upheld in this chapter is that using multimedia technologies within thecurriculum context implies appropriate use of technologies. This view ofappropriate technology use supports a mixed-mode approach to curriculumdesign. That is, the emphasis is on exploiting the attributes of various multimediatechnologies and other strategy options in terms of their appropriateness tocontent requirements, context, learner needs, and curriculum goals. Someguidelines and a development framework that encapsulate these views arediscussed below.Guidelines and aDevelopment FrameworkIn the discussion above, some key issues to be addressed in teacher developmentresources and approaches have been identified by drawing upon data from an

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earlier study (Torrisi & Davis, 2000). The author’s perspective on addressingthose issues was also alluded to. Drawing on issues identified in the precedingsections, this section presents the following:1. A set of guidelines useful for guiding educator development activities2. A planning framework that may be used to guide teacher development orby individual teachers in order to facilitate the effective integration ofmultimedia technologies in learning environmentsA brief case study is also described in order to illustrate implementation of thenotions presented.Educator Development Activities—Five Key GuidelinesIt has been established in the preceding sections that while multimedia technologiesare seen as having the potential to reshape practice, the fact remains thatimplementation often results in little impact on the teaching space. The attributesof the multimedia technologies are not effectively exploited to maximize andcreate new learning opportunities. At the crux of this issue is the failure ofeducators to effectively integrate the multimedia technologies into the learningcontext. The following guidelines are suggested for guiding educator developmenttoward the effective integration of multimedia technologies into learningenvironments.34 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

• Guideline 1: The goal of implementing multimedia technologies intolearning spaces is to exploit the attributes of multimedia technologiesin order to support deeper, more meaningful learner-centeredlearning. Realization of this goal necessarily transforms the teachingand learning space. The knowledge-delivery view of multimediatechnologies must be challenged, as it merely replicates teacher-centeredmodels of knowledge transmission and has little value in reshaping practice.Constructivism is the guiding philosophy.• Guideline 2: Transformation is only achieved through integration ofmultimedia technologies into the learning space. Integration impliesthat technology use is inextricably linked with the total curriculum asopposed to the superficial add-on approach that is the result of a view oftranslation.• Guideline 3: Integration and subsequent transformation is achievedvia an ongoing evolutionary process through which educators’knowledge of multimedia technologies draws more closely towardinextricable linkages with curriculum goals and the educator’sknowledge of pedagogy.• Guideline 4: Equipping educators with knowledge about the potentialof the multimedia technologies must occur within the context ofthe total curriculum needs rather than in isolation of the academic’scurriculum needs.• Guideline 5: Evolutionary process leading to transformation andintegration of multimedia technologies is fueled by sustained reflectionon practice. Sustaining reflection on practice from the beginning ofendeavors in online materials development through to completion stages,after which debriefing and further reflection feed back into a cycle ofcontinuous evolution of thought and practice. Collaborative work andsharing of experiences and ideas with other educators is also of benefithere.In addition to the above guidelines, two considerations as identified by Torrisi andDavis (2000) are important to recognize as contributing to effective professionaldevelopment conducive to long-term transformation in practice.

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First, it is important that professional development programs are not designed inisolation of the educators operating context. Traditional training workshopsremoved from the immediate teaching context of the educator fail to beeffective. Programs must empathize with and address concerns that arise fromeducators’ earlier attempts at innovation through technology. Ongoing supportopportunities, both technical and pedagogical, must be inextricably linked withToward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 35Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.educators’ everyday practice. If appropriate technology use is to be a reality,then professional development must do as Fatemi (1999) stated:…more than simply show teachers where in a curriculum they cansqueeze in some technology....Instead, it helps them learn how to selectdigital content based on the needs and learning styles of their students,and infuse it into the curriculum rather than making it an end in itself. (p.1)Professional development programs will be most effective, as Bennet et al.(1999) stated, if educators are able to “connect the use of new technology to theirown teaching experiences” (p. 212). The planning framework described belowfocuses on these ideas.Second, in order for educators to be willing to use multimedia technologies in theclassroom, it is necessary that they feel confident in their use from a technicalperspective. Hence, professional development programs need to provide opportunitiesfor developing basic computer competencies necessary for developingconfidence in using technology as a normal part of teaching activities. Again, itis stressed that learning technical aspects must occur not in isolation ofeducators’ teaching contexts, but rather in parallel with and integrated withpedagogical development. In this way, acquisition of technical knowledge isappropriate to the needs of the educators and is thus more likely to be relevant.A Planning FrameworkThe five key guidelines above, together with issues discussed in this paper, canbe embodied in a framework that provides a more concrete approach tocurriculum planning conducive to the integrated use of multimedia technologies.The framework may be used to guide educator development (as has been doneby the author) or may be useful as a guide for individual educators as they planfor multimedia technology use. The framework aims to highlight the use ofmultimedia technologies as part of the set of tools that is available for educatorsin executing teaching and learning strategies.The framework is thus directed toward appropriate and judicious use ofmultimedia technologies. It also encourages educators to consider the attributesof them and then consider how to exploit those technologies for producing moremeaningful and varied learning experiences; in so doing, allowing technology useto be an integral part of “knowledge spaces” which “allow users to explore asthey wish” (Brown, 1997).36 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Consistent with learner-centered approaches, the process begins with ananalysis of learner characteristics and of learner needs in relation to the contentthat is to be taught. In defining learner needs, the demands of the content mustalso be taken into account. As stated in Jamieson (1999), “The content of studentlearning (what is taught) logically precedes the method of teachingcontent…without content there is no teaching method” (p. 2). On the basis of thisanalysis, desired learner outcomes and objectives are identified.In formulating teaching and learning strategies, the framework demands that thechoice of tools be an informed choice based on integrated knowledge of strategy,

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learner needs, content requirements, environmental constraints (location, availableequipment, funding, etc.), and tool attributes. Thus, the aim of technologyintegration more naturally precipitates from using the framework.The fundamental view expressed by the model is that multimedia technologiesand other emerging technologies are part of a tool set that, along with otheravailable options (face-to-face teaching, print, etc.), are available choices forFigure 1: Framework for appropriate integration of multimedia technologiesinto the learning environment. Environment attributes include humanresources, financial resources, and other infrastructure and institutionallimitations. Multimedia and other emerging multimedia technologies formpart of the set of tool choices that the educator might choose on the basisthat the attributes of the chosen tool(s) best fits with the learning contextand desired outcomes.Source: Adapted from Torrisi-Steele (2001).Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 37Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Table 2: Some common tool choices for teaching and learning and theirmain advantages and disadvantagesTool Advantages DisadvantagesTextbook andother printmaterialsPortable, inexpensive, simple, “lowtech,”easy to use, preorganizedquantities of information, accessiblewithout special equipment, can beinexpensive, most educators familiarwith this medium and have productionexpertiseBecome outdated, cannot update easily, staticinformation presentation, no interactionpossibilitiesVideo Motivational, sound and images toconvey information, readily available,easy to use, inexpensiveLinear information presentation, multiple copiesfor student access at home can beproblematic/expensive, video production can beexpensive and time consuming, requires VCRaccess and display mechanismFace-to-faceteachingCan respond to needs of studentsdynamically, can be used to promotediscussion, collaborative learning,enables clarification and analysis ofinformationNo flexibility for students in terms of attendance,access limited to on campusMultimediaCD ROMCan convey information using video,audio, sound and text; once produced,inexpensive to replicate for studentaccess; option for nonlinearinformation presentation, so learnersare able to explore at their own pace,forming their own pathways; highinteractive learning potentialCostly both in terms of time and money toproduce; production requires a high level oftechnical expertise; software and content becomeoutdated—cannot update easily withoutundergoing another development and productionrunWorld Wide

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Web—Websites andrelatedInternettechnologiesIncreasingly supporting multimodalpresentation—text, images, sound,video, and higher levels of interactivepossibilities; access to up-to-dateinformation; potential for collaborativelearning with learners in multiplelocations (e.g., chat,videoconferencing); potential foranytime, anyplace; highlymotivational; updating of informationrelatively easyWealth of up-to-date informationavailable along with nonlinear nature,interactivity and multimodalpresentation can support discoveryorientated strategiesRequires costly technical infrastructure(networks, workstations, video conferencingfacilities)Development of own online materials: complexrequiring expertise; can be costly and timeconsuming;involves a high level of commitmentUpdating Web materials can bedifficult/frustrating if not technically competentto some degreeSophistication of Web materials available tostudents is limited by access factors such asbandwidth, modem capabilitiesNot all educators are familiar with/comfortablewith the new media technologies—steep learningcurve both in technical understanding andimplementation strategies; lack of awareness ofthese issues is one of the greatest pitfalls inadopting multimedia technologies; astechnology capabilities increase, so docomplexity, commitment required, and thepotential of “things not working”38 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.strategy implementation. Inherent in the presented framework is the philosophythat learning about multimedia technologies is an exercise in identifying theattributes of that technology and, at the same time, considering those attributesin terms of usefulness in the curriculum (Table 2). This approach addresses theproblem of the “blanket approach” to multimedia technologies use that sometimesarises when the hype surrounding a new technology emphasizes thetechnology itself rather than learning as the primary concern. The proposedframework does not exclude the use of more traditional approaches or tools suchas print, etc., if they are deemed appropriate to the learning situation.It is also worth noting that the framework encourages evaluation of strategyoutcomes and reflection on existing as well as new strategies. Consideration ofthe use of multimedia technologies occurs with the goal of modifying or replacingexisting strategies that, upon reflection, are considered ineffective. This isconsidered an important characteristic of the framework for two reasons:1. It promotes the perspective that multimedia technologies are implementedwith the primary goal of pedagogical change (thus helping to dispel the ideaof a simple translation approach to technology adoption).2. This encourages educators to draw on prior knowledge and experienceswith prior teaching and make stronger connections between these experiencesand the use of the technology (Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson, 1999).

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This is an important aspect of professional development efforts aimed atfacilitating technology adoption for two reasons: perceptions of relevanceare increased; and feelings of inadequacy that may be experienced byeducators in dealing with new technology are minimized (Torrisi & Davis,2000).Reflective practice forms the cornerstone of the framework and is consistentwith the notion of an evolutionary approach to technology integration. Executionof the strategy must be followed by a careful analysis of congruency of intendedand actual outcomes. This analysis may involve formative and summativeevaluation methods as well as personal reflection. The key question nowbecomes the following: Are the desired/anticipated outcomes congruent withactual outcomes? If they were, then the strategy is a success. Any discrepancies,however, need to be considered in the light of reflection of the process—Why did the discrepancies occur? In what ways might the strategy be changedor improved? Were the tool choices appropriate? The approach thus leads to acycle of reflection followed by modified implementation followed again byreflection. Reflection on the process is not limited to assessment of whetheroutcomes were satisfactory, but rather encourages inspection of each stage ofthe planning process in order to identify shortcomings in either analysis orstrategy. Aside from facilitating better technology integration into the curricuTowardEffective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 39Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.lum, this approach may assist in overcoming some of the resistance to technologyadoption, in that technology adoption becomes motivated by the need to improvepractice.The brief case study below illustrates an application of the framework and thebeliefs expressed in this chapter.A Case StudyThe following case study is for a course in human services at tertiary level study.The case study summarized in Table 3 illustrates the key tenet of the frameworkdescribed above that requires decision making regarding the tool choices forstrategy implementation to be based on consideration of learner characteristics,desired learner outcomes, discipline requirements, and environmental considerations.Table 3: Based on the planning framework described, this table illustrateshow, for a tertiary-level human services course, decision making about toolchoices for implementing strategies satisfies the constraints and demandsof environment, learner characteristics, discipline requirements, and desiredoutcomes as well as addresses issues with previously used strategies. Fromthe perspective of multimedia technology use, multimedia technologies areexploited in terms of attributes that will satisfy these demands and constraints.This facilitates appropriate and integrated technology use.Tool choice (indicated by *)Issue/considerationMultimedia-basedWeb siteWebcommunicationstechnologiesPrint video Faceto-faceEnvironment: Good technicalinfrastructure (computerlaboratories and Internet access)allowing for on-campus accessoutside working hours; the majorityof students have computer andInternet access at home; regular oncampuscontact time is alsoscheduled* * * *

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40 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Table 3: continuedTool choice (indicated by *)Issue/considerationMultimedia-basedWeb siteWebcommunicationstechnologiesPrint video Faceto-faceLearner characteristicsMostly mature (nonschoollearners) learners, with a highproportion of learners in fulltimeemployment, with a crosssection of abilities, backgrounds,and experiences; on-campusattendance is sometimesproblematic* * *Desired learner outcomes“Challenge their ownassumptions”* * *“Analyze the thinkingunderlying practice”* *“Connect theoreticalmaterial with their own lifeexperiences”* * *“Think through how valuescan be incorporated into areal-life situation”* * *Discipline requirements:Off-campus practicumsessions— need for easilyportable materials and offcampusaccess as well ascommunication with peers offcampus;thinking through andchanging beliefs is a core goal ofthe subject* * * * *Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 41Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Resulting Subject FormGiven the adequate technical infrastructure, a subject Web site is used as theprincipal organizing medium for the subject and also as the primary means ofpreparation before engaging in face-to-face contact time. The Web site outlinesweekly schedules and presents appropriate simulations and interactive exercisesto introduce learners to course content and begin the process of self-reflectionon beliefs and practices. The potential of multimedia-based Web sites to be usedfor more dynamic and engaging presentation of content prior to class time isexploited. Interactive case scenarios are presented via the Web site where theyencourage students to explore their existing knowledge. This will “free-up” faceto-face class time for more valuable, deeper discussions rather than pure contentpresentation and initial reflection. Participation in discussion is important inhelping students to analyze their own assumptions and in exposing them to thefeelings and thoughts of others. The sharing of experiences, particularly afterpractical placements, is an important mechanism in this subject. Face-to-facecontact is seen as an important tool for achieving learner outcomes that focus onanalysis of beliefs and practices.Tool choice (indicated by *)Issue/considerationMultimedia-based

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Web siteWebcommunicationstechnologiesPrint video Faceto-faceIssues with previously usedstrategy relying on face-to-facecontact with print materials:Students failing to engage withreading materials prior to class,so much of valuable face-to-facecontact time is used for deliveryof content rather than activediscussionSome students miss out onclasses on occasion, becausethey are working or have othercommitments*Web multimediamaterials Moreinteractive andstimulating—encourage moreactive involvementwith content*Table 3: continued42 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.The Web site also enables students to have around-the-clock access to classmaterials. Chat rooms are useful in enabling students to support each other andcollaboratively solve problems, especially when away from campus on practicum.Support is also available from tutors at certain times of the week, during whichstudents can log in while off campus. This is an important mechanism for helpingstudents to connect theoretical knowledge with the experiences they areundergoing at the time. E-mail is also useful in encouraging and maintainingstudent–faculty contact during practical and other off-campus times.Print materials will still be used but primarily as an easily portable referencesource, especially while on practicum, rather than as a primary source ofinformation prior to attendance at face-to-face class times.Future TrendsThe range and nature of multimedia technologies are constantly changing. In aneducational context, the challenge is to develop approaches to planning that canbe used to facilitate integration of existing and future technologies. By conceptualizingthe role of technologies in the learning context as a component of a setof tools, it is intended that the framework and ideas presented in this chapter beone step in the direction of “generic” planning approaches that will provideguidance to educators and those involved in their professional development inboth current and future technological environments. Planning approaches needto be contextually framed so that the key focus is to exploit the attributes withthe aim of providing deeper, more meaningful learning experiences that will equipstudents with the lifelong learning skills demanded in the present and the future.Evidently, with the dynamic nature of multimedia technologies, there will alwaysremain a need for ongoing professional development that will present opportunitiesfor educators to investigate the attributes of multimedia technologies asthey emerge in terms of usefulness for their particular teaching contexts. Fromthis perspective, ongoing research focusing on which technologies are being usedin what contexts and what results are being obtained becomes important. Suchresearch will highlight the attributes of the technology that are worth exploitingand for what purposes and could result in models of implementation so thateducators could draw upon one another’s experiences.

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Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 43Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

ConclusionsThe framework and ideas presented in this chapter precipitated from concernabout the ineffective and often inappropriate use of multimedia and associatedtechnologies in learning contexts.The fundamental belief expressed in this chapter is that effective use ofmultimedia and other technologies in teaching and learning environments occurswhen multimedia technologies are integrated fully and appropriately into thecurriculum. The primary goal for integrating multimedia and associated technologiesinto the curriculum is to provide for a learning environment that espousesmore meaningful and deeper learning.It is advocated throughout this chapter that multimedia and associated technologiesare considered as part of a tool set available for strategy implementation. If,how, and when to integrate technologies are decided by taking into accountconstraints and conditions imposed by the environment, learner characteristics,desired learning outcomes, and the nature of the content, and by reflecting onsuccess or otherwise of previously used teaching practices. Also highlighted isthe important role of reflective practice. Another key theme is the need to fosterthe view that technology integration is an evolutionary, transformative processrather than an exercise in translation of strategies to another medium. The fiveguidelines for multimedia technology use and the planning framework presentedin this chapter incorporate these views.The dynamic, rapidly evolving technological environment characteristic of thepresent and the future represents ongoing challenges for educators striving tomake use of these new tools to the best advantage for a more effective learningenvironment and more meaningful learning outcomes. Despite the dynamicnature of technical environments, it is the author’s belief that there is at least oneconstant premise upon which educator development aimed at multimedia technologyintegration efforts can develop—that is that change in practice isinextricably linked with successful integration of multimedia technologies inteaching and learning contexts. Nurturing the acceptance of this premise needsto be a matter of priority in current and future educator development efforts inthe area of educational application of technologies.ReferencesBallantyne, R., Bain, J. D., & Packer, J. (1999). Researching university teachingin Australia: Themes and issues in academics’ reflections. Studies inHigher Education, 24(2), 237–257.44 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Bennet, S., Priest, A., & Macpherson, C. (1999). Learning about online learning:An approach to staff development for university teachers. AustralianJournal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 207–221.Brown, T. (1997). Multimedia in education—Conclusions. Retrieved September27, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://129.180.87.4/Units/CurricSt/CSIT513/573/573_12.htmlBurns, M. (2002). From black and white to color: Technology, professionaldevelopment and changing practice. T.H.E. Journal, 29(11), 36–42.Charp, S. (2000). Technology integration. T.H.E. Journal, 29(11), 8–10.Collis, B. (1996). Pedagogy. Retrieved September 10, 2002 from the WorldWide Web: http://www2.openweb.net.au/TT96University/BC.htmlConlon, T., & Simpson, M. (2003). Silicon Valley versus Silicon Glen: The impactof computers upon teaching and learning: A comparative study. British

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Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 137–150.Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technologysince 1920. New York: Teachers College Press.Ellis, A., O’Reilly, M., & Debreceny, R. (1998). Staff development responsesto the demand for online teaching and learning. Paper presented atASCILITE ’98 conference, Wollongong. Retrieved March 20, 2003 fromthe World Wide Web: http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wollongong98/ascpapers98.htmlFatemi, E. (1999). Building the digital curriculum. Education Week on theWeb. Retrieved July 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.edweek.org/sreports/tc99/articles/summary.htmGoddard, M. (2002). What do we do with these computers? Reflections ontechnology in the classroom. Journal of Research on Technology inEducation, 35(1), 19–26.Gonzales, C. L. P., Hupert, N., & Martin, W. (2002). The Regional EducationalTechnology Assistance Program: Its effects on teaching practices. Journalof Research on Technology in Education, 35(1), 1–18.Hammond, M. (1994). Measuring the impact of IT on learning. Journal ofComputer Assisted Learning, 10, 251–260.Jackson, B., & Anagnostopoulou, K. (2000). Making the right connections:Improving quality in online learning. Teaching and Learning Online:New pedagogies for new technologies. International Centre for LearnerManaged Learning, Middlesex University. Retrieved April 15, 2003from the World Wide Web: http://webfeedback.mdx.ac.uk/_lmlseminar/_private/_abstract14/finland.htmToward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 45Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Jamieson, P. (1999). Improving teaching by telecommunications media:Emphasising pedagogy rather than technology. Paper presented at theEd-Media 1999 World conference on Educational multimedia, hypermediaand telecommunications, Charlottesville.Lefoe, G. (1998). Creating Constructivist learning environments on theWeb: The challenge of higher education. Paper presented at ASCILITE’98 conference, Wollongong. Retrieved March 20, 2003 from the WorldWide Web: http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wollongong98/ascpapers98.htmlNichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Editorial: Rhetoric and reality—The presentand future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology,34(2), 131–136.Oliver, R. (1999). Teaching and learning with technology: Learning fromexperience. In On the Edge Leading the learning revolution. Paperpresented at the Proceedings of the Australian Curriculum Assessment andCertification Authorities Conference, Perth.Pierson, M. E. (2001). Technology integration practice as a function of pedagogicalexpertise. Journal of Research on Computing in Education,Summer, 413–430.Rakes, G. C., & Casey, H. B. (2002). An analysis of teacher concerns towardinstructional technology. International Journal of Educational Technology.3(1). Retrieved March 30, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.outreach.uiuc.edu/ijet/v3n1/rakes/index.htmlRelan, A., & Gillani, B. (1997). Web-based instruction and the traditionalclassroom: Similarities and differences. In B. H. Khan (Ed.), Web-basedinstruction. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.Richards, C., & Nason, R. (1999). Prerequisite principles for integrating (not

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just tacking-on) multimedia technologies in the curricula of tertiaryeducation large classes. Paper presented at the ASCILITE ’99 Conference.Brisbane. Retrieved March 30, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/brisbane99/papers/papers.htmSandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. (1997). Teaching with technology.New York: Teachers College Press.Selwyn, N., & Gorard, S. (2003). Reality bytes: Examining the rhetoric ofwidening educational participation via ICT. British Journal of EducationalTechnology, 34(2), 169–181.Strommen, D. (1999). Constructivism, technology, and the future of classroomlearning. Retrieved April 15, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/construct.html46 Torrisi-SteeleCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Tearle, P., Dillon, P., & Davis, N. (1999). Use of information technology byEnglish university teachers. Developments and trends at the time of theNational Inquiry into Higher Education. Journal of Further and HigherEducation, 23(1), 5–15.Torrisi, G., & Davis, G. (2000). Online learning as a catalyst for reshapingpractice—The experiences of some academics developing online materials.International Journal of Academic Development, 5(2), 166–176.Torrisi-Steele, G. (2001). Appropriate use of multimedia technologies in tertiarylearning environments. Staff and Educational Development International,5(2), 167–176.Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 47Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Chapter III

InteractiveMultimedia forLearning andPerformanceAshok Banerji, Monisha Electronic Education Trust, IndiaGlenda Rose Scales, Virginia Tech, USAAbstractDevelopments in information and communication technologies (ICT) arerapidly transforming our work environments and methods. Amongst thesechanges, the advent of interactive multimedia technology has meant newapproaches to instruction, information and performance supportimplementations. The available resources can be amalgamated in a suitableway to create an enabling environment for learning, training and performing.Concise descriptions of the salient aspects are presented along with basicdesign principles for communication and performance support. Guidelinesfor design and suggestions for implementation are provided for the benefitof the practitioners.48 Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

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IntroductionUndoubtedly, the advent of computers and communication technology hasforever changed our daily lives. Today, we have the fantasy amplifiers (computers),the intellectual tool kits (software and hardware), and the interactiveelectronic communities facilitated by the Internet that have the potential tochange the way we think, learn, and communicate. However, these are onlytools. The late Turing Award winner Edsger Dijkstra said, “In their capacity asa tool, computers will be but a ripple on the surface of our culture. In theircapacity as intellectual challenge, they are without precedent in the culturalhistory of mankind” (Boyer et al., 2002). The onus is on us, our innovative ideasas to how we harness the technology for education, training, and business in orderto lead or lag in the new social order. In this regard, we may remember thatCharles Darwin said, “It’s not the strongest of the species who survive, nor themost intelligent, but the ones most responsive to change.”In this chapter, we will review these current developments in teaching andlearning from a broader performance support systems perspective. Then we willsuggest a performance-centered design approach in support of developingteaching and learning solutions for the knowledge worker of today.Lessons from the PastThere are many examples from the past indicating the rush to implement cuttingedgetechnologies (Marino, 2001). All of these began with a grand promise as atotal solution to a long-standing problem. For example, in 1922 Thomas Edisonpredicted that “the motion picture is destined to revolutionize” the educationalsystem and will largely supplement textbooks. Radio was hailed with the promiseto “bring the world to the classroom.” Similarly, educational television was toutedas a way to create a “continental classroom” (Cuban, 1986). How much of thesehopes have been met as of today?On similar lines, recently, there has been much hype about interactive multimediaand the Internet as the remedies for all problems in training and education.However, as a knowledge resource, multimedia productions, the Internet, and alibrary have similar attributes. It is particularly wrong to assume that putting allthe information on the Internet will make learning happen. The Internet is useful,but it does not guarantee learning any more than a good library ensures creatingknowledgeable persons (Clark, 1983).From a technocratic perspective, there is a tendency to assume that installingcomputers and networks will solve every conceivable problem. However, theInteractive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 49Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.value and benefits of technology will come only through leveraging it for dynamicand strategic purposes that place the focus first on learning and performing andsecond on the technology (Dede, 1998; Bare & Meek, 1998).The key lessons from the past indicate that including performance-centereddesign techniques tends to improve the usability of the information or learningsystems. As we move from the “Information Age” into the “Knowledge age,”it is important to consider technological solutions to support teaching and learning(Reeves, 1998). In the transition from the “Old Economy” to the “NewEconomy,” a key outcome of the transformation is a dramatic shift frominvestments in physical capital to investments in human or intellectual capital. Awell-designed holistic approach toward training and development is thereforeneeded to support the learning needs of the knowledge worker (McArthur,2000). In this regard, we need to consider the benefits of a user- and performance-centered approach from the standpoint of design. The remaining portionof this chapter will discuss how the electronic performance support systemsapproach can help in the challenges associated with the new paradigm.

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Performance Support SystemsThere are three primary impacts of information and communication technologies(ICT). These are the methods in which the following occur:(a) Information is distributed and retrieved.(b) Knowledge and expertise are stored and acquired.(c) Skills are learned and transferred.These technologies have made important impacts in transforming education,training, and skill development approaches. In 1991, Gloria Gery introduced aframework for electronic support (Gery, 1991, 2002). While definitions vary, itis widely agreed that performance support systems do the following:• Enable people to perform tasks quickly, because they provide integratedtask structuring, data, knowledge, and tools at the time of need• Do not tax the performer’s memory or require performers to manipulate toomany variables• Enable task completion, with learning as a secondary consequenceTaking a broader view, we can say that an electronic performance supportinvolves “a human activity system that is able to manipulate large amounts of task50 Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.related information in order to provide both a problem solving capability as wellas learning opportunities to augment human performance in a job task” (Banerji,1999a). Such systems provide information and concepts in either a linear or anonlinear way, as they are required by a user. The EPSS concept provides aholistic design framework encompassing a custom-built interactive guidance,learning, information, and knowledge support facility that is integrated into anormal working environment. Such systems are concerned with effectivehuman–task interaction in which the computer provides an interface to variousjob tasks and becomes an aid in achieving efficient task performance.Components and Types of EPSSIn most modern workplaces, computers are used for decision making, taskperformance, task sequencing, planning, and also learning, thereby replacingmany manual methods. In such situations, the work is not done solely by peopleor solely by computers but by human-computer systems. The computers andcommunication technology thus act as a powerful tool by providing an interfaceto the basic job tasks that are involved. People and computers thus tend to workcooperatively and symbiotically, combining the advantages of the powers of eachin order to achieve more effective job performance (Licklider, 1960).Thus, human-task interaction within the human activity system (HAS) forms thefoundation of EPSS. The HAS involves the following three subsystems, as shownin Figure 1:(a) The tool subsystem(b) The task subsystems(c) The people subsystemThe tool subsystem provides an interface to various job tasks and becomes aneffective aid in achieving efficient task performance. It can also be a means forimproving performance. However, the performance generally gets hindered inthe absence of an appropriate “interface.” These are the barriers of taskperformance that a support system should strive to minimize. The dimensions ofthese barriers include knowledge, skill, information, decision, processes, andprocedures. The function of an EPSS would be to reduce the “permeability” ofthe interface through appropriate means. These include eLearning facility andKnowledge Management, among many others (Dickelman & Banerji, 1999).There could be three principal ways in which the “tools system” interfaces the

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“task system,” and, three broad classifications of EPSS can be made dependingon how they render support in task performance:Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 51Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Type 1: In this type, tasks are performed with computer and software tools, suchas word processors, spreadsheets, and so on. Support for this type ofapplication is tied with the software tools and, therefore, can be calledsoftware-integrated EPSS. The simplest examples are cue cards, animatedhelp in Microsoft applications (Figure 2), and wizards.Type 2: In this type, computer-based tools mediate the organizational tasks andpractices, such as banking systems, enterprise resource planning systems,air ticket booking, along with hotel and car booking systems, and so on.Supports are needed as an integrated part of this type of application so thatthe user can perform competently with minimal training. These types ofapplications can be called job-integrated EPSS.Type 3: In this type, computer-based systems mediate and facilitate the variousoperations and job roles, such as knowledge-based tasks, repair andmaintenance jobs, and so on. Support for this type of application can becalled operation-integrated EPSS. The emerging technologies involvingwearable computers and virtual reality applications supporting repair jobsfall in this class of applications.Numerous examples of EPSS applications are available in the literature (Banerji,2003; Dickelman, 2001; Gery, 1991; Hall, 2003). However, detailed discussionof specific EPSS tools is not possible within the confines of this chapter.Figure 1: Concept map of human activity systemTaskSystemPeople SystemTools SystemINTERFACEHuman Activity System52 Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Interactive Technologies forCommunicationLet us now examine multimedia technology as a tool for communication andinformation transfer. Communication is central to the development of humansociety and is responsible for all the knowledge that we have accumulated so far.By the word “communication,” we mean the process of transmission of data andinformation from one person to another, which ultimately may lead to knowledgeafter processing in the mind of the recipient.The communication process for information transfer is usually bidirectional. Thechain of events starts with a trigger in the mind of the sender (Person A), who,in turn, gives the idea a form by encoding it in a language or expression or picture.The encoded message (signal) is then transmitted to the receiver (Person B),who must have the appropriate decoder to understand the message conveyed bythe signal. The receiver may appropriately respond by similarly returning amessage to the sender after suitable encoding.The process of communication, however, continues only if the receiver has the

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appropriate decoder/encoder. This model is shown in Figure 3. This model canalso be easily modified for human–computer communication by replacing“Person B” in the model with a computer. The developments in multimedia andInternet technologies provided the necessary impetus for this evolving human–computer symbiosis utilizing the various communication modes and channels.Their possible applications are limitless, as the technology is under constantevolution.Figure 2: Animated help in Microsoft applicationsInteractive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 53Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.In the case of human-computer communication, interaction with the computerand the communicative dialogue takes place through some limited modes andchannels. The modes are mainly visual, audio, and tactile. Within each mode,there can be various channels. Examples include text, graphics, animation, andvideo channels in visual mode; voice, sound, and music in audio mode; discreteand continuous tactile interaction modes using keyboard and mouse/joystick, etc.The effectiveness of this communication depends on how well the modes and themedia components have been selected and combined. Various interactivetechnologies are available for this purpose. Detailed discussion on these will bebeyond the scope of this chapter. However, the above model is important forconceptualizing and realizing the three types of EPSS discussed earlier.Design PrinciplesThe foregoing discussions on human–task interaction and interactive technologiesfor communication give us the necessary foundation for appropriate designof interactive multimedia for learning and, particularly, for performance support.Although the complexity of the application domain can vary considerably, we canFigure 3: Encoder-decoder and channel model of communicationInformation source: The process responsible for selecting or formulating the desired message.Message: The material that the information source wishes to transmit.Signal: The form in which the message is actually sent to the recipient.Transmission channel: The medium through which the message is sent.Source: Adapted from Wilbur Schramm’s model (1954), as referred to in Tannenbaum (1998).54 Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.design an appropriate performance support solution based on a set of 10fundamental principles and guidelines. These are listed in Table 1. The 10 basicprinciples formulate the design strategies for EPSS, including its major supportingcomponents—eLearning and knowledge management (Banerji, 1995).Table 1: Basic principles of performance support_________ _ ___ ___________ ____ ________ __ _ ______________ _______________________________________ ________________________

___ __________ ___________ ______________________________ ______________ _______ ___ ___ _____________ ______________ _______________________ __________________ ___________________________________________ ________________ _________________________________ __________________________________________ ___ ______________________________ ___________ __________ ________ ___ ____ ______________________________ __________________________________________________________ _______________________________ __________________ _ __________________________________________ __ ________________________________ ____ _________ _

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_________ ______ ___________________ __ _________________________________________________!__ ____________________________ __ ________ _"____ ___ _"_________ _"____________ ___ _____________________________________ __________________ ______________#__ !________________ ________________________ ________________________________________________$____ __ ___%&'()____ ________ ______ *_____________________ _______________________________________________________________________"_#___#____________ ____________ _________ ______$________________________________________________+__ !_____________ ______________________________ ______________ _ , _______ ____________________________%___________ _________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ __________ __-__ Identify appropriate groups of people who have the expertiseneeded to solve demanding problems and provide theinfrastructure necessary to ___ ___________.___ ___/__ !_____________ ________________ __ ____________________&________ ________________%_)_ ___ _________ _________________________%_)______________________ ___ ____0____ _____ _______________________%_)___________._____________________________________ _______________'(_(!)_______________ _________________*___ _____+___________1__ _______________________ ____________________________________.__________ ___________________________________________________________ ___ _________________________________________________________________,________________________ ________ _______ _____'____ ___________ )______________________ __ _____________________________________ __ ______________Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 55Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Implementation ApproachPerformance means to complete a task such as a piece of work or a dutyaccording to a usual or established method. It also means mastering the taskusing the most efficient and effective techniques. One aspect of mastering a taskusing a performance support system is the reliance upon the cognitive partnershipbetween the user and the performance support tool. The important functionsand performance measures are as follows:(1) Reduction in task performance time(2) Reduction of operational error(3) Improvement of the quality of task performance(4) Reduction in costThese can be achieved through appropriate design of EPSS (Barker & Banerji,1995; Banerji, 1999a; Gery, 2002).EPSS for Teaching and LearningThe four parameters, time, error, quality, and cost, form the justification for theuse of the EPSS approach in any workplace design/redesign. For example, theseare equally applicable in any academic institution or corporate university forsupporting (a) the students in their learning tasks, (b) the faculty in their tasks of

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delivering knowledge, and (c) the employees in their management tasks andfunctions. Let us elaborate one approach.Despite the advent of powerful, inexpensive, easy-to-use computer technology,the uptake of computer-assisted learning and computer-based training methodswithin most academic institutions had so far been slow. However, a new wavein the form of Virtual Classroom, Virtual University, Web-Based Training iscurrently sweeping across most institutions all over the globe. These are clubbedunder the term eLearning (or e-learning), which provides opportunities for newmodes of information exchange, information transfer, and knowledge acquisition.It is conceivable that for some time to come, lectures will continue to be themainstream mechanism for the bulk dissemination of information and knowledgeto large groups of students. Given this situation, it is important to address the issueof how best to leverage technology to improve the quality of students’ learningexperiences and at the same time provide a more effective and efficientframework for the faculty to develop and present material. One way in which thiscould be done is to create an electronic performance environment that simulta56Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.neously fulfils the needs of both faculty and students. The model of requiredsupport for this purpose is shown in Figure 4.The model shown in Figure 4 is based on the recognition of the currently acceptedstrategy. It suggests how we can incorporate the new strategy in making the shift(a) from teacher-centered instruction to student-centered learning, (b) frominformation delivery to information exchange, and (c) from passive learning toactive/exploratory/inquiry-based learning.The distinguishing characteristic of knowledge and skill is that it derives from andfinds its meaning in activity. Knowledge is dynamic. Its meaning is constructedand reconstructed as the individual grapples with the use of knowledge throughconceptualization, analysis, and manipulation. This naturally has importantimplications for curriculum development. The objectives of education in anydiscipline are conventionally attained through (a) classroom training (conceptualunderstanding), (b) tutorials (analysis), and (c) laboratory practice (practical skillor manipulation).However, in view of the rapidly changing practices, revitalizing education andtraining, particularly technical education, has become a matter of concern. ThisFigure 4: Concept map of support system for teaching and learningElectronic collaborationGoal Students: Efficient in problem solving, domain understanding, performingLecturers: Up-to-date and skilled in knowledge transfer, teachingSkill refinement, rehearsal,practice, collaborateKnowledge acquisition &transferSkill and knowledgeassessmentBasic skilldevelopmentLectures & Methods Tutorials Workshop & LaboratorySupport Multimedia CBTeLearning andKnowledgeManagementinfrastructure Virtual LabFunctionsElectronic MentorInteractive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 57Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.is because of two factors. First, setting up an appropriate up-to-date laboratoryis costly and takes time. Second, accessibility of the laboratory is limited to fixedavailable hours. The existing practices therefore do not support open and flexible

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learning (Barker, 1996; Baker et al., 1995). Therefore, the central challenge liesin how to provide cost-effective learning opportunities for a larger and morediverse student population. Following on the human activity system model(Figure 1) and the basic principles of performance support system design (Table1), Figure 4 suggests an approach for a support system for teaching and learning.This can be achieved by incorporating the virtual laboratory, multimedia computer-based training (CBT), including eLearning, knowledge management infrastructure,and the support components made available through the Internet andcommunication facilities, as shown in Figure 4.ConclusionsThis chapter described design approaches to assist the knowledge worker oftoday by leveraging technology to support learning and performance. The basicpremise of the approach is incorporating new techniques to deliver just-in-timelearning into an EPSS design. Design for this purpose needs sound judgment anddecision about pedagogy, which is often the main cause of failure, not thetechnology. It should be realized that merely hosting Web pages with all theinformation about the subject is not what eLearning is about. Better learning willnot occur if only a conversion of media is effected—from paper to digital.With sound design, the potentials of interactive multimedia technologies forlearning and performing are many. Technology is available now to make learninginteresting and activity oriented. It is possible to create low-cost alternatives forlearning with active experimentation through virtual laboratories, where learningoccurs through practicing and visualizing the concepts. Most importantly, it ispossible to make these benefits available in a consistent way to a wider crosssectionof people covering a large geographical area.Gary S. Becker, Nobel laureate and professor of economics and sociology at theUniversity of Chicago, argues the following (Ruttenbur, Spickler, & Lurie, 2000):The beginning of this century should be called “The Age of Human Capital.” Thisis because the success of individuals and economies succeed will be determinedmainly by how effective they are at investing in and commanding the growingstock of knowledge. In the new economy, human capital is the key advantage.(p. 12)In the knowledge-based economy, organizations as well as individuals need tofocus on protecting their biggest asset: their knowledge capital. Therefore, the58 Banerji & ScalesCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.leaders of companies competing in the knowledge economy have to recognizethe importance of efficient knowledge management as well as the importance ofdeveloping and enhancing their intellectual capital leveraging technology.The increasing economic importance of knowledge is blurring the boundaries forwork arrangements and the links between education, work, and learning. In thisregard, the electronic performance support approach provides a holistic frameworkfor workplace design and redesign.Of course, the human mind is not going to be replaced by a machine, at least notin the foreseeable future. There is little doubt that teachers cannot be replacedwith technology. However, technology can be harnessed as a tool to support thenew paradigm. We can derive much gain by adopting information and communicationtechnologies appropriately, especially as we look for new solutions toprovide the knowledge worker with immediate learning opportunities.ReferencesBanerji, A. (1995). Designing electronic performance support systems. Proceedingsof the International Conference on Computers in Education(ICCE95) (pp. 54–60). Singapore, December 5–8.

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Banerji, A. (1999a). Performance support in perspective. Performance ImprovementQuarterly, 38(7). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.pcd-innovations.com/piaug99/PSinPerspective.pdfBanerji, A. (1999b). Multimedia and performance support initiatives in SingaporePolytechnic. SP Journal of Teaching Practices. Retrieved from theWorld Wide Web: http://www.vc.sp.edu.sg/journals/journals_intro.htmBanerji, A. (Ed.) (2001). The world of electronic support systems. RetrievedFebruary 6, 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epssworld.com/Bare, J., & Meek, A. (1998). Internet access in public schools (NCES 98-031). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center forEducation Statistics.Barker, P., & Banerji, A. (1995). Designing electronic performance supportsystems. Innovations in Education and Training International, 32(1),4–12.Barker, P., Banerji, A., Richards, S., & Tan, C. M. (1995). A global performancesupport for students and staff. Innovations in Education and TrainingInternational, 32(1), 35–44.Boyer, R. S., Feijen, W., et al. (2002). In memoriam Edsger W. Dijkstra 1930–2002. Communications of the ACM, 45(10), 21–22.Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 59Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without writtenpermission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.Clark, R. E. (Winter 1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media.Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459.Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technologysince 1920. New York: Teachers College Press.Dede, C. (1998). Six challenges for educational technology. Retrieved fromthe World Wide Web: http://www.virtual.gmu.edu/SS_research/cdpapers/ascdpdf.htmDickelman, G., & Banerji, A. (1999). Performance support for the nextmillennium: A model for rapidly changing technologies in a global economy.HCI 99 Conference, Munich.Dickelman, G. J. (Ed.) (2003). EPSS design contest awards. Retrieved February6, 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pcd-innovations.com/Gery, G. (2002). Performance support—Driving change (pp. 24–37). TheASTD E-Learning Handbook, Ed. Allison Rossett. New York: McGrawHill.Gery, G. J. (1991). Electronic performance support systems: How and whyto remake the workplace through the strategic application of technology.Boston, MA: Weingarten Publications.Hall, B. (Ed.) (2003). Retrieved February 6, 2004 from the World Wide Web:http://www.brandonhall.comLicklider, J. C. R. (1960). Man–computer symbiosis. IRE Transaction ofHuman Factors in Electronics, HFE-1(1), 4–11.Marino, T. (2001, July/August). Lessons learned: Do you have to bleed at thecutting edge? The Technology Source. Retrieved from the World WideWeb: http://ts.mivu.org/default.asp?show=article&id=860#optionsMcArthur, K. E. (2000). Teachers use of computers and the Internet inpublic schools (NCES 2000090). U.S. Department of Education, Washington,DC: National Center for Education Statistics.Reeves, C. T. (1998). The impact of media and Technology in Schools. Aresearch report prepared for the Bertelsmann Foundation. Retrieved fromthe World Wide Web: http://www.athensacademy.org/instruct/media_tech/reeves0.htmlRuttenbur, B. W., Spickler, C. G., & Lurie, S. (2000). eLearning the engine of

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the knowledge economy. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:www.morgankeegan.com; http://www.masie.com/masie/researchreports/elearning0700nate2.pdfTannenbaum, R. S. (1998). Theoretical foundations of multimedia (Chapter5). New York: W.H. Freeman & Co. Computer Science Press.

Bab I Perencanaan untuk Multimedia Pembelajaran Patrick J. Fahy, Athabasca University, Kanada Abstrak Multimedia alat, diterapkan dengan kesadaran akan realitas organisasi budaya, struktur dan keuangan, telah terbukti meningkatkan kinerja sistem belajar. Jika beberapa perangkap diprediksi dihindari, dan terbukti desain prinsip-prinsip pedagogis dan kendaraan yang sesuai (Termasuk Internet) digunakan secara efektif, multimedia dapat mengizinkan lebih besar individualisasi, pada gilirannya mendorong belajar lebih baik, kepuasan peserta didik, dan penyelesaian tarif. 2 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Pengenalan Efektif penggunaan multimedia dalam pembelajaran terbuka dan jarak jauh (ODL) tergantung pada berbagai faktor, beberapa intrinsik ke media sendiri, dan lain-lain terkait dengan berbeda tugas pedagogik dan lingkungan organisasi di mana alat ini diperkenalkan. Bagi mereka merencanakan penggunaan multimedia, mungkin berharga untuk mempertimbangkan dampak yang mungkin dari alat-alat pada pengajaran dan pembelajaran praktik dan hasil, dan pada struktur organisasi dan proses, karena mereka cenderung berbeda dalam lingkup dan besarnya dari orang-orang dari pembelajaran tradisional inovasi. Bab ini membahas beberapa karakteristik multimedia dalam kaitannya dengan dasar pedagogik tugas dan realitas organisasi. Tujuannya adalah untuk

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mengingatkan pengguna baru masalah yang sering timbul dalam implementasi multimedia dan berpengalaman untuk membantu pengguna dalam menilai strategi mereka, dengan menguraikan beberapa pertimbangan mendasar umum yang mempengaruhi pelaksanaan multimedia. Baik baru dan berpengalaman pengguna teknologi diharapkan akan menemukan diskusi berguna untuk merenungkan pilihan, dan mengantisipasi tantangan pedagogik dan administrasi potensial, mereka bergerak dari sederhana untuk kombinasi yang lebih kompleks media untuk mengajar. Bab ini dimulai dengan diskusi tentang multimedia panjang, termasuk tinjauan dari beberapa karakteristik (termasuk manfaat pedagogik umum dan potensi masalah) dari media tertentu. Berdasarkan analisis ini, beberapa kondisi di mana multimedia mudah mungkin mendukung tugas-tugas belajar dieksplorasi. Akhirnya, dampak dari multimedia sebagai suatu inovasi pada aspek organisasi budaya (termasuk struktur dan keuangan) dibahas. Mendefinisikan Multimedia Sementara istilah "multimedia" tidak selalu berhubungan dengan komputer (Roblyer & Schwier, 2003, hal. 157), tidak ada keraguan bahwa itu adalah penggabungan semakin kuat authoring alat berbasis komputer dengan konektivitas Internet yang bertanggung jawab untuk meningkatnya minat dan penggunaan instruksi multimedia, di kedua jarak dan tatap wajah lingkungan. Kecenderungan ini didorong oleh tumbuh bukti bahwa yang dirancang dengan baik pengiriman online, terlepas dari media digunakan, dapat meningkatkan retensi, memperluas ruang lingkup dan sumber daya yang tersedia di situasi belajar, dan meningkatkan motivasi pengguna (Fischer, 1997; Bruce & Levin, 1997; Mayer, 2001). Untuk alasan ini, istilah "multimedia" sekarang tegas terkait dengan komputer berbasis pengiriman, biasanya melalui Internet dan disertai dan didukung oleh interaksi disediakan melalui beberapa bentuk computermediated komunikasi (CMC). 

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Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 3 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Definisi multimedia bervariasi dalam hal khusus tapi cenderung setuju pada substansi. Mayer (2001, hal. 1) didefinisikan multimedia hanya belajar sebagai "penyajian bahan menggunakan kedua kata dan gambar. "Roblyer dan Schwier (2003) diamati bahwa definisi yang bermasalah, karena semakin sulit untuk membedakan multimedia dari alat-alat lain dengan yang tampaknya akan konvergen. Mereka juga mencatat bahwa multimedia terkadang telah didefinisikan oleh menyederhanakan penyimpanan perangkat yang mereka gunakan, misalnya, CD-ROM, videodisc, DVD, dll, praktek mereka anggap jelas tidak memadai. Roblyer dan Schwier ditawarkan definisi multimedia: "Suatu sistem komputer atau komputer produk sistem yang menggabungkan teks, suara, gambar / grafis, dan / atau audio "(hal. 329). Mereka menambahkan bahwamultimedia menyiratkan tujuan "informasi komunikasi" (hal. 157). Sesuai dengan di atas, dalam bab ini, istilah "multimedia" mengacu pada penyediaan berbagai audio dan video elemen dalam mengajar dan materi pelatihan. Biasanya, pengiriman media adalah dengan komputer, dan semakin, melibatkan Internet dalam beberapa cara, namun penyimpanan dan perangkat pengiriman, seperti disebutkan di atas, adalah sekunder dengan bentuk rangsangan yang mencapai pengguna. Definisi ini mengasumsikan bahwa media yang digunakan, tetapi tidak membahas masalah desain seperti pilihan khusus media untuk tujuan pedagogik yang berbeda dan tingkat kontrol pengguna. Dasar untuk mempertimbangkan bagaimana media tertentu memberikan kontribusi untuk efektivitas atau ketidakefektifan multimedia adalah diskusi singkat tentang penelitian yang tersedia di teknologi dalam pembelajaran. Multimedia teknologi selalu terdiri dari media dengan efek pada pembelajaran yang telah dipelajari sebelumnya, sehingga

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pengetahuan ini yang bersangkutan dan berlaku di sini (Saettler, 1990). Media dan Pembelajaran Spesifik Media Karakteristik Untuk beberapa waktu, media telah digunakan dengan metode penyampaian yang lebih tradisional (Kuliah, tutorial) untuk mendukung tujuan pengajaran penting, seperti berikut (Wright, 1998): • Menjelaskan dan menggambarkan subyek kompleks • Beradaptasi dengan gaya belajar individu • Meningkatkan retensi dan membantu penarikan kembali • Menjangkau peserta didik nonverbal 4 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Perdebatan terjadi alih peran media yang tepat dalam belajar. Fundamental ketidaksepakatan antara Clark (1983, 1994) dan Kozma (1994) tentang media dan pembelajaran akrab historis dan tidak perlu diulang di sini. Rasanya jelas bahwa (2001) Mayer pandangan multimedia (dibahas nanti) jelas mendukung satu poin yang dibuat dalam debat itu, bahwa dari "saling ketergantungan" dari presentasi media dan metode penyampaian dalam keadaan tertentu, terutama di kolaboratif situasi, dan di mana tingkat tinggi merupakan tujuan pembelajaran (Crooks & Kirkwood, 1988; Juler, 1990; Koumi, 1994). Sebagai Berge (1995, hal. 23) menyimpulkan, dan memiliki telah didokumentasikan oleh Mayer (2001), "Beberapa saluran media mempromosikan tertentu interaksi, dan saluran lainnya dapat menghambat jenis yang sama interaksi. " Sedangkan potensi untuk sukses tingkat tinggi hasil pembelajaran yang hadir dalam media yang digunakan, masalah gigih dalam aplikasi multimedia telah gagal untuk mencapai lebih dari tingkat rendah hasil pembelajaran (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). Helm dan McClements (1996) berkomentar kritis, "Interaktivitas dalam konteks multimedia sering mengacu pada

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kemampuan peserta didik untuk mengikuti link hypertext atau berhenti dan mulai klip video .... Banyak dari apa yang diterima untuk interaktivitas benar-benar harus disebut umpan balik "(hal. 135). Ini serius kritik, membenarkan (2001) saran Mayer, "Alih-alih bertanya yang menengah membuat pengiriman terbaik, kami mungkin meminta yang teknik instruksional membantu membimbing pelajar kognitif pengolahan materi yang disampaikan "(hal. 71). Para berbagai karakteristik media presentasi berbeda dan mode, dan mereka implikasi untuk belajar, memiliki implikasi langsung untuk desain multimedia strategi dan bahan. Suara dapat melengkapi informasi visual dan dapat digunakan untuk menarik perhatian, membangkitkan dan mempertahankan bunga, memberikan isyarat dan umpan balik, bantuan memori, dan menyediakan beberapa jenis materi pelajaran (jantung atau mesin suara, klip suara). Musik dapat digunakan untuk menambah umpan balik, menarik perhatian atau mengingatkan pengguna, dan mendukung suasana presentasi. Pidato sintetis, sementara berguna untuk pengguna cacat, kurang efektif jika terlalu mekanis terdengar. Szabo (1998) menyimpulkan bahwa pencapaian keuntungan karena audio Ia "lemah atau tidak ada." menambahkan bahwa di mana imbalan tersebut terlihat, mereka cenderung terhutang kepada lebih tinggi lisan peserta didik. Masalah dengan biaya pengembangan dan bandwidth untuk pengiriman audio juga bisa signifikan (Wright, 1998; Szabo, 1998). Grafis dan warna dapat digunakan untuk berbagai tujuan, dari dekorasi sederhana ke tingkat yang lebih tinggi interpretasi dan transformasi (membantu pengamat untuk membentuk berlaku mental yang gambar) (Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987). Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa realisme dan detail yang tidak penting dalam grafis dan mungkin, pada kenyataannya, memperpanjang belajar waktu untuk beberapa pengguna; relevansi lebih penting dari detail (Szabo, 1998).Warna juga dapat mengalihkan perhatian beberapa pelajar, kecuali sangat relevan dengan instruksi. Sebuah proporsi yang signifikan dari individu (terutama pria) memiliki beberapa

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tingkat buta warna, menunjukkan warna yang harus ditempatkan di bawah kontrol pengguna mana mungkin. Kontras terbaik dicapai dengan biru, hitam, atau merah di putih atau putih, kuning, atau hijau hitam. Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 5 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Animasi kadang-kadang dapat mempersingkat waktu belajar dengan perubahan ilustrasi di operasi atau keadaan hal; menampilkan berbahaya, peristiwa yang cepat, atau langka, atau menjelaskan konsep-konsep abstrak. Untuk beberapa, animasi meningkatkan minat dan memegang perhatian lebih baik dari teks atau audio, dan pembelajaran yang dihasilkan tampaknya dipertahankan (Szabo, 1998). Secara keseluruhan, bagaimanapun, penelitian menunjukkan bahwa yang dirancang dengan baik dan presentasi lisan imajinatif mungkin mampu menghasilkan hasil yang serupa (Rieber & Boyce, 1990), yang mengarah pada kesimpulan bahwa animasi mungkin tidak memiliki banyak kemampuan instruksional unik. Video (gerakan atau urutan masih grafis) dapat digunakan untuk menunjukkan tindakan dan proses dan untuk menggambarkan peristiwa yang pengguna tidak dapat melihat secara langsung atau jelas secara real waktu. Video, bila digunakan dengan terampil dan artistik, juga dapat bergerak secara emosional pengamat dan dapat menghasilkan dampak yang mempengaruhi sikap serupa untuk di-orang pengamatan peristiwa nyata. Hypermedia adalah menghubungkan dokumen multimedia, sementara hypertext adalahmenghubungkan kata atau frase untuk kata atau frase lain di sama atau lain dokumen (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, hal. 85). Hypertext dan hypermedia mungkin sulit untuk membedakan dan semakin sulit untuk memisahkan dari aplikasi lain dari multimedia (Roblyer & Schwier, 2003). Ketika dipasangkan dengan teks biasa, hypertext telah terbukti menjadi cara yang hemat biaya

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untuk memperpanjang informasi-menyampaikan teks kemampuan, khususnya bagi para peserta mampu lebih.Szabo (1998) menyarankan bahwa hypertext harus digunakan lebih untuk menyediakan akses ke informasi daripada untuk mengajar sebenarnya, sebagai pengakuan atas kebutuhan untuk hypertext bahan untuk ditempatkan dalam konteks untuk pengaruh maksimal (terutama untuk kurang berpengalaman atau kurang mampu pelajar). Hypermedia adalah bentuk yang sangat menjanjikan materi multimedia yang dirancang untuk ODL (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, hal 85;. Roblyer & Schwier, 2003). Dengan kemajuan perangkat keras, perangkat lunak, dan manusia-komputer antarmuka, sekarang secara teknis layak untuk menggunakan sistem hypermedia rutin di online mengajar. Puluhan hypertext dan hypermedia sistem ada, dengan penawaran yang paling tiga dasar keuntungan: • Banyak sekali informasi dari berbagai media dapat disimpan dalam kompak, bentuk mudah diakses, dan mudah dapat dimasukkan dalam bahan belajar. • Hypermedia berpotensi memungkinkan kontrol lebih pelajar (pengguna dapat memilih apakah atau ketika mengikuti link yang tersedia). • Hypermedia dapat menyediakan guru dan peserta didik dengan cara-cara baru berinteraksi, bermanfaat pembelajar yang mengembangkan kemampuan belajar mandiri dan memungkinkan guru harus kreatif dalam bagaimana mereka berinteraksi dengan peserta didik (Marchionini, 1988, hal. 3). 6 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Ada potensi masalah, juga, dalam belajar dengan hypermedia, terkait dengan volume dan struktur dari semua informasi yang ditemukan di Web. Yang besar jumlah informasi yang tersedia dapat membanjiri pelajar, terutama jika struktur adalah 

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tidak memadai atau prosedur seperti pencarian tidak terampil disempurnakan, memungkinkan peserta didik untuk "mengembara" dan menjadi asyik dalam sisi menarik namun tidak relevan topik. Peserta didik yang tidak memiliki kemampuan belajar mandiri tidak mungkin dapat mengelola kerumitan dari hypermedia. Masalah ini mungkin tidak segera jelas, namun, karena mereka tampaknya terlibat dan pada tugas, kadang-kadang sangat begitu. Masalah potensial lainnya dalam mengajar dengan hypermedia termasuk beberapa yang unik untuk ini media dan lain-lain umum untuk semua situasi belajar yang memerlukan keterampilan khusus atau membuat asumsi tentang pelajar atribut dan karakteristik: • Hypermedia memerlukan keterampilan keaksaraan dasar. Meskipun hal ini dapat berubah sejalan dengan meningkatnya bandwidth yang membuat audio dan video yang tersedia, saat ini, Internet dan produk multimedia sangat bergantung pada teks. • Masalah terkait adalah bahwa berinteraksi dengan hypermedia dan multimedia membutuhkan keterampilan keyboard dan mouse, serta memahami dan memanipulasi fungsi kunci. Komputer buta huruf, tidak terampil, atau secara fisik cacat mungkin akan terpengaruh. • Lebih luas, mengakses hypermedia dan multimedia membutuhkan komputer digunakan, termasuk duduk di depan mesin dan membuat rasa isyarat dan menampilkan. Mereka yang memiliki visi, konsentrasi, koordinasi mobilitas, atau masalah, atau mereka yang terganggu atau bingung dengan stimulasi intens warna, animasi, suara, dll, dapat dikenakan sanksi. Fitur tertentu di atas media telah terbukti mempengaruhi kegunaannya untuk mengajar dan belajar. Selain keterbatasan media, titik kunci di sini adalah pentingnya penelitian media historis untuk pembahasan ini: multimedia adalah media, dan tampilan yang diambil dalam bab ini adalah pengetahuan yang sebelumnya diperoleh tentang dampaknya terhadap pembelajaran masih sangat berlaku. Media Karakteristik, Kondisi Pengajaran, dan Hasil Belajar Ketika media yang digunakan bersama-sama, efek mereka dapat berinteraksi, kadang-kadang tak terduga. 

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Dengan media, "lebih banyak tidak selalu lebih baik." Ada belum penelitian menyeluruh kecil terhadap teknologi multimedia untuk menginformasikan desain dan implementasi keputusan, penggunaan penelitian sebelumnya mungkin membantu membimbing hadir praktek. Berikut ini adalah pembahasan beberapa tujuan didaktik kunci Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 7 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. media mana mungkin berlaku, diikuti oleh beberapa catatan tentang Internet sebagai dasar untuk pengiriman multimedia. Evaluasi telah menunjukkan bahwa manfaat mendasar untuk siswa dari penggunaan terbaik teknologi dalam pengajaran adalah pendekatan yang lebih sistematis untuk individualisasi yang dan kustomisasi pengantar (Massy & Zemsky, 1999). Yang dirancang dengan baik, lingkungan belajar berbasis teknologi memberikan siswa dengan lebih banyak pilihan dari biasanya tersedia dalam situasi belajar tradisional, dalam konten, kecepatan, persiapan, dan meninjau prasyarat, dan untuk kegiatan seperti kolaborasi, konsultasi, dan pengujian / evaluasi. Ini adalah tujuan yang telah lama diakui sebagai pedagogis penting (Zimmerman, 1972; Mezirow & Irlandia, 1974; Kemp, 1977; Dede, 1996; Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1997). Antara manfaat teknologi pengiriman adalah potensi untuk pelatihan kurang diperlukan waktu; penguasaan lebih besar dan transfer yang lebih baik keterampilan; konsistensi lebih dalam pengiriman konten (hasil yang sangat penting dari pelatihan keterampilan); mahasiswa dan lebih besar ketekunan, penyelesaian, kepuasan, kolaborasi, dan self-arah (Grow, 1991; Moore, 1993). Dalam beberapa situasi, pengalaman menunjukkan bahwa sangat selfdirected siswa mungkin dapat melakukan dan menyelesaikan studi lanjutan dengan bantuan langsung sedikit atau tidak atau intervensi dari lembaga, meningkatkan efisiensi melalui "unbundling" belajar dari pengajaran langsung (Massy & Zemsky, 1999, hal 2-3). Dalam contoh terbaik, teknologi meningkatkan pembelajaran, 

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meningkatkan kepuasan pelajar, menstabilkan biaya, dan meningkatkan visibilitas dan daya tarik (Dan potensi pendapatan dari) sudah ada program (Oberlin, 1996). Sementara efek positif yang mungkin dalam mengajar dengan media, mereka tidak otomatis. Konsistensi internal tujuan penting: teknologi multimedia harus kongruen dengan model organisasi belajar dan mengajar sebenarnya praktek, serta dengan harapan siswa dan kemampuan untuk otonomi dan pengarahan diri sendiri (Tumbuh, 1991). Jika alat-alat yang dipilih untuk teknologi mereka kemampuan saja, ada risiko gagal agar sesuai dengan organisasi lingkungan (Helm & McClements, 1996; Mayer, 2001; Welsch, 2002), sehingga dalam implementasi teknologi yang berpotensi bencana "kesalahan" (Quinn & Baily, 1994). Meskipun karakteristik yang berbeda, berguna teknologi pelatihan online yang ada di umum efek membawa siswa ke dalam kontak tepat waktu dan produktif dengan tutor, isi, dan teman sebaya, sehingga mengurangi "jarak transaksi" dalam pembelajaran jarak jauh, kesenjangan komunikasi atau jarak psikologis antara terpisah secara geografis peserta (Moore, 1989; Chen & Willits, 1998). Itu perbedaan dalam cara berbagai media mencapai efek mereka adalah penting untuk mereka potensi kegunaan. Gambar 1, misalnya, membandingkan instruksi yang disampaikan oleh manusia dan teknologi berarti (Fischer, 1997). 8 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Diilustrasikan pada Gambar 1 adalah beberapa trade-off melekat dalam keputusan untuk menggunakan media pengajaran, sebagai lawan bentuk-bentuk tradisional pengiriman saja. Jika kritisnilai sebuah program sedang dipenuhi oleh guru berbasis pengiriman, dan sumber daya yang berlimpah, itu dapat dipilih tanpa memperhatikan biaya. Mana ekonomi adalah penting, namun, "terbaik" solusi pengiriman mungkin tidak terjangkau; kurang mahal tapi masih memadai 

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solusi mungkin harus dipilih. (Ini adalah tujuan [1984] Bloom "twosigma" tantangan, untuk menemukan media pengajaran sebagai efektif sebagai salah-satu les.Pencarian, tentu saja, terus dengan multimedia) Analisis. Seperti di atas dapat membantu dalam mengidentifikasi trade-off yang terlibat dalam pilihan satu media atau teknologi atas yang lain dan mungkin menyarankan strategi kompensasi untuk meningkatkan efektivitas alat apa pun yang dipilih (Wolfe, 1990). Selain biaya dan aksesibilitas (Bates, 1995), isu lain di media adalah memilih jenis hasil pengalaman atau belajar yang diinginkan oleh pelatihan (DeSanctis & Gallupe, 1987). Picard (1999), misalnya, melihat kontribusi kunci media sebagai kemampuan mereka untuk mempromosikan pembangunan hubungan, dan bukan hanya informasi uang, dalam pekerjaan atau belajar. Gambar 1: Perbandingan karakteristik manusia dan teknologi berbasis pengajaran Catatan: Elemen: Fisher, 1997 (hlm 29-30). Pelatihan elemen Manusia-disampaikan pelatihan Teknologi pelatihan berbasis Perencanaan dan persiapan Mampu merancang pelatihan untuk sesuai dengan pelatihan rencana; dapat memantau konsistensi Harus sistematis dirancang agar sesuai dengan pelatihan rencana Presenter Keahlian disewa dari industri biasanya mewakili terbaru pengetahuan dan tertinggi keahlian Harus dirancang agar sesuai dengan standar industri; mata uang dengan standar harus dipertahankan Instruktur interaktivitas cenderung melatih kelompok individu, mengabaikan kebutuhan Dapat fokus pada individu kebutuhan dalam isi, mondar-mandir, review, pemulihan, dll Belajar tingkat retensi Retensi bervariasi Bisa hingga 50% lebih tinggi dari 

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dipimpin instruktur pelatihan kelompok Instruktur Konsistensi cenderung beradaptasi dengan penonton, mengorbankan konsistensi Ketat menjaga standar tetapi bisa juga dirancang untuk beradaptasi dengan itu pelajar kinerja atau preferensi Umpan balik, kinerja pelacakan Instruktur Manusia terutama baik konstan, sedang berlangsung evaluasi, respon terhadap peserta pelatihan kinerja Lebih baik menjaga catatan dan menghasilkan laporan, tetapi merancang sistem cybernetic untuk beradaptasi instruksi berdasarkan umpan balik itu mahal, kompleks Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 9 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Dari Gambar 2, kita melihat: • Ketika membangun hubungan dan kebutuhan pertukaran informasi keduanya rendah, media audio saja mungkin cukup. • Ketika kebutuhan membangun hubungan dan pertukaran informasi yang tinggi, audio, video, dan bertukar informasi (termasuk teks) semua harus hadir. • Hubungan-bangunan ditingkatkan dengan menggabungkan audioconferencing dan video bersama-sama dengan data, khususnya teks. (Teks sendiri memiliki substansial membangun hubungan kemampuan, sebagai orang yang pernah memiliki sahabat pena, atau surat cinta dipertukarkan, bisa membuktikan.) Sehubungan dengan pembelajaran, teknologi memiliki potensi langsung untuk mengatasi umum mengajar tugas. Dalam Gambar 3, pandangan dari beberapa teori mengenai tugas atau kondisi penting untuk belajar dibandingkan. Dua hal harus dicatat dalam perbandingan: (a) ada kesepakatan yang jelas antara otoritas yang cukup

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besar pada elemen penting untuk pengajaran yang efektif dan pembelajaran, dan (b) tampaknya ada jelas peran untuk multimedia dalam mendukung beberapa tugas. Gambar 2: Hubungan data, audio, dan video untuk teknologi informasi pertukaran dan membangun hubungan hasil Sumber: Picard (1999). | | (Tinggi) | Audio + data | Audio + data + | | Video | | | | Informasi | _______________________ | ___________________ Bursa | | | Audio hanya | Audio + video | | | | | (Rendah) ___________________ | ____________________ Membangun hubungan 10 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Gambar 3: Perbandingan model pengajaran yang efektif dan belajar: peran untuk multimedia Bloom (1984) Chickering & Gamson (1989) Gagne (1985) Joyce & Weil (1980) Moore (dalam Garrison, 1989) Tutorial Siswa instruksi-fakultas interaksi Menyajikan materi baru; menggambarkan tujuan; mendapatkan itu pelajar perhatian Menyajikan rangsangan, tujuan; sequencing tugas-tugas belajar Berkomunikasi dalam suatu dimengerti cara Penguatan Mahasiswa-fakultas interaksi Mengingat sebelumnya belajar; meningkatkan 

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retensi dan mengingat Meningkatkan perhatian; mempromosikan recall Dukungan umum Umpan balik umpan balik korektif yang tepat Menyediakan umpan balik pada kinerja Mendorong dan membimbing Saran Isyarat dan penjelasan Mahasiswa-fakultas interaksi Bimbingan belajar Mendorong dan membimbing Bimbingan Mahasiswa partisipasi Belajar aktif; mahasiswa timbal balik dan kerja sama Kinerja siswa Membangkitkan keterlibatan kinerja Aktif Waktu di Waktu tugas pada tugas; berkomunikasi tinggi harapan Menilai kinerja Menilai dan meningkatkan pelajar membaca dan studi keterampilan Menghargai berbagai cara pembelajaran Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 11 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Sebuah titik yang lebih luas dalam diskusi ini dibuat pada Gambar 3: teknologi memilikikemampuan untuk membantu tugas pengajaran tertentu, jika digunakan dalam mengidentifikasi mereka keterbatasan sebagai presentasi dan media pengiriman. Tujuan penelitian pada mediaadalah untuk mengidentifikasi karakteristik (kemampuan dan keterbatasan) yang kemudian dapat diterapkan dalam fase ID, sehingga menghindari penggunaan alat yang salah untuk pedagogis tertentu tujuan. Sebelumnya penelitian media dapat berguna dalam mengidentifikasi multimediamampu menyediakan atau mendukung implementasi berikut: • Instruksi-CAL (dengan bantuan komputer pembelajaran), termasuk berbagai jenis simulasi, dapat digunakan, yang didukung oleh varietas CMC (e-mail, 

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sinkron dan asinkron IP-audio-dan IP-Video Conference, textchat, pertukaran berkas, dan akses data). • Penguatan, umpan balik korektif, dan isyarat dan penjelasan- CAL dan, terutama, CML (komputer-manager pembelajaran) dapat berguna. • Partisipasi, keterlibatan, waktu-on-tugas-Strategi untuk kolaborasi dan kerjasama dengan rekan-rekan dan pihak berwenang termasuk berbagai bentuk pembelajaran berbasis masalah, menggunakan Internet berbasis alat komunikasi.Motivasi keuntungan yang diperoleh dari lingkup akses dan kedekatan dengan interaksi yang disediakan oleh Web. • Menilai dan menghormati gaya belajar yang beragam, preferensi- Meskipun tidak dikutip oleh semua pihak berwenang di Gambar 3, ini mungkin salah satu paling kuat argumen untuk pengiriman multimedia. (Sebagai Fletcher [1992] diakui lebih dari satu dekade lalu, individualisasi adalah baik moral "sebuah penting dan kemustahilan ekonomi "-kecuali, ia berpendapat di sini, digunakan adalah terbuat dari sumber daya yang dirancang dengan multimedia.) Seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, teknologi bervariasi dalam kedekatan mereka dan dampak interpersonal. Misalnya, video mempengaruhi kemungkinan dan, menurut beberapa penelitian, para hubungan kecepatan yang akan tumbuh dalam interaksi dimediasi, sementara sederhana pertukaran data dapat berbuat banyak untuk mempromosikan hubungan dalam tim kerja virtual (Walther, 1996; Picard, 1999). Tujuan dari instruksi harus menentukan media yang akan digunakan dan harus didasarkan pada kemampuan media menunjukkan; pilihan media sehingga baik mempengaruhi dan mencerminkan penekanan relatif padaberbeda hasil pembelajaran yang diinginkan. Multimedia dan Internet Multimedia semakin terkait dengan internet, yang menawarkan pengiriman keuntungan dan tantangan untuk pengguna: keuntungan timbul dari Internet kapasitas besar untuk menghubungkan dan interkoneksi, tetapi ada yang serius 12 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media

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cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. masalah yang berkaitan dengan kekurangan struktur yang melekat dan kontrol guru (Thaler, 1999; Stafford, 1999; Campbell, 1999). Keuntungan dari Internet untuk mengajar, di bawah kondisi ideal, termasuk berikut (Heinich, Molenda, Russel, & Smaldino, 1996, hal. 263): • mengasyikkan: Kesempatan untuk terlibat dalam, menangkap dan menahan pelajar bunga. • Multisensor: Penggabungan suara dan gambar bersama dengan teks (tapi melihat Mayer [2001] prinsip multimedia, di bawah, mengenai batas-batas sensorik saluran). • Koneksi: Peserta didik dapat menghubungkan ide-ide dari sumber media yang berbeda, misalnya, menghubungkan suara alat musik dengan nya ilustrasi. • Individual: struktur Web memungkinkan pengguna untuk menavigasi melalui informasi sesuai dengan kepentingan mereka dan membangun mental yang unik mereka sendiri struktur berdasarkan eksplorasi. • penciptaan Kolaborasi: Software memungkinkan guru dan peserta didik untuk menciptakan mereka sendiri hypermedia bahan; belajar berbasis proyek menyediakan kesempatan untuk kolaborasi otentik. Beberapa masalah yang lebih umum dengan Internet untuk mengajar, dan sebagai platform untuk pengiriman multimedia, adalah sebagai berikut (Heinich et al, 1996, hal 263..): • Mendapatkan hilang: Pengguna dapat menjadi bingung, atau "hilang di dunia maya." • Kurangnya struktur: Mereka yang belajar gaya memerlukan struktur lebih dan bimbingan dapat menjadi frustrasi. Beberapa yang kurang berpengalaman atau kurang welldisciplined pengguna juga dapat membuat keputusan yang buruk tentang berapa banyak informasi yang mereka butuhkan. • noninteractive: Program mungkin hanya satu arah presentasi informasi tanpa peluang khusus untuk interaksi atau praktek dengan 

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umpan balik. Masalah selanjutnya adalah bahwa, karena desain yang buruk, apa yang mungkin dimaksudkan sebagai interaksi kadang-kadang lebih tepat disebut umpan balik (Helm & McClements, 1996). • Waktu memakan: Karena mereka nonlinier dan mengundang eksplorasi, program hypermedia cenderung membutuhkan lebih banyak waktu untuk peserta didik untuk mencapai prespecified tujuan. Karena mereka lebih kompleks dari konvensional materi pengajaran, sistem hypermedia membutuhkan lebih banyak waktu untuk menguasai ("Pekerja menemukan," 2000). • Bandwidth: Ini terus menjadi penghalang penting untuk berbasis web multimedia gunakan untuk beberapa pengguna potensial. Sementara ketersediaan broadband meningkat Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 13 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. seluruh dunia (PC Magazine, 2003), khususnya di luar Amerika Utara ("Di mana ledakan broadband?," 2002), kecepatan online masih mencegah banyak pengguna dari mengakses multimedia secara efisien atau dapat dipercaya (Howard, 2001; Miller, 2002). Keterbatasan yang melekat di atas internet sebagai alat pengiriman multimedia timbul dari sifatnya. Agar keterbatasan ini berubah, Internet akan harus menjadi lebih terstruktur, membatasi pilihan pengguna. Ini tidak mungkin, karena ini perubahan akan membuat Web entitas yang sangat berbeda dari apa yang sekarang ini (Greenaway, 2002). Perencanaan Masalah dengan Multimedia Desain dan Pengembangan Prinsip Potensi dan tantangan yang dibahas di atas menggarisbawahi pentingnya perencanaan dan desain dalam pelaksanaan multimedia. Untungnya, penelitian menawarkan prinsip-prinsip yang dapat membimbing desainer instruksional dan instruktur dalam pengembangan dan penggunaan multimedia. (2001) karya Mayer sangat berguna. Pemeriksaan-Nya dari dampak multimedia pada pembelajaran,

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berdasarkan bagaimana manusia pikiran bekerja untuk memproses informasi verbal dan visual (hal. 4), telah menghasilkan penting wawasan tentang media dan pembelajaran, termasuk yang berikut: • Kata-kata dan gambar, meskipun secara kualitatif berbeda, saling melengkapi satu lain dan mempromosikan belajar, jika peserta didik berhasil dalam mental mengintegrasikan representasi visual dan verbal (hal. 5). • pembelajaran sejati adalah lebih merupakan proses konstruksi pengetahuan dari informasi akuisisi (hal. 12). • belajar Deep dibuktikan oleh retensi dan transfer (kekurangan yang menunjukkan tidak belajar, atau belajar hafalan hanya dangkal) (hal. 5, 16-17). Dalam model Mayer, ada tiga asumsi utama pendukung sebuah kognitif teori pembelajaran multimedia: (a) manusia memiliki saluran ganda untuk pengolahan masukan sebagai bagian dari belajar, visual dan pendengaran, (b) sedangkan dua saluran ada pada kebanyakan orang, manusia terbatas dalam jumlah informasi yang mereka dapat proses dalam setiap saluran pada satu waktu, dan (c) peserta didik harus aktif memproses informasi dan pengalaman sebagai bagian dari pembelajaran, dengan proses yang meliputi memperhatikan informasi yang masuk yang relevan, mengorganisir dipilih informasi ke koheren jiwa representasi dan mengintegrasikan representasi mental dengan lain pengetahuan (hal. 44). 14 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Mayer (2001, hal. 41) menyimpulkan bahwa belajar yang sukses membutuhkan siswa untuk melakukan lima tindakan, dengan implikasi langsung untuk desain yang efektif multimedia instruksi: 1. Pilih kata yang relevan dari teks disajikan atau narasi. 2. Pilih gambar yang relevan dari ilustrasi yang disajikan. 3. Atur kata-kata yang dipilih ke dalam representasi verbal yang koheren. 4. Mengatur foto yang dipilih ke dalam representasi visual yang koheren. 

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5. Mengintegrasikan representasi visual dan verbal dengan pengetahuan sebelumnya. Mayer diartikulasikan tujuh prinsip yang berguna untuk membimbing desain multimedia instruksi. Di bawah prinsip-prinsip ini, siswa telah terbukti untuk mencapai yang lebih besar retensi dan transfer (Mayer, 2001, hal 172.): 1. Prinsip Multimedia: Siswa belajar lebih baik dari kata-kata dan gambar dari dari kata-kata saja. 2. Kedekatan prinsip Spasial: Siswa belajar lebih baik bila sesuai kata dan gambar yang disajikan dekat daripada jauh dari satu sama lain pada halaman atau layar. 3. Kedekatan prinsip Temporal: Siswa belajar lebih baik bila sesuai kata dan gambar disajikan secara bersamaan dan bukan berurutan. 4. Koherensi prinsip: Siswa belajar lebih baik ketika kata-kata asing, gambar, dan suara yang dikeluarkan daripada disertakan. ("Asing" bisa menunjuk pada relevansi topikal atau konseptual, dengan yang terakhir ini lebih penting.) 5. Modalitas prinsip: Siswa belajar lebih baik dari animasi dan narasi daripada dari animasi dan teks pada layar. (Prinsip ini mengasumsikan penggunaan animasi diriwayatkan ringkas, teks yang menghilangkan kata-kata yang tidak diperlukan.) (Lihat hal. 135.) 6. Redundansi prinsip: Siswa belajar lebih baik dari animasi dan narasi daripada dari animasi, narasi, teks dan di layar. (Prinsip ini berdasarkan kapasitas-pembatasan hipotesis, yang menyatakan bahwa peserta didik memiliki kapasitas terbatas untuk memproses materi visual dan auditorily [hal. 152]. Menghilangkan hasil materi yang berlebihan dalam kinerja belajar lebih baik dari termasuk itu [hal. 153]). 7. Individu perbedaan prinsip: Temuan penting adalah bahwa efek desain lebih kuat untuk rendah pengetahuan peserta didik daripada highknowledge peserta didik, dan untuk-spasial siswa dari rendah-spasial peserta didik (hal. 184). Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 15 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

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Di atas adalah contoh dari prinsip-prinsip desain pembelajaran di mana mungkin ditingkatkan dengan penggunaan berbagai tampilan atau media pengiriman. Prinsip seperti ini sangat penting, karena mereka adalah berbasis penelitian dan diuji (Mayer, 2001). Prinsip desain apapun harus memenuhi diadopsi sama empiris ketat tes. Multimedia, Produktivitas dan Kinerja Uraian di atas menunjukkan bahwa implementasi multimedia, sementara berpotensi berharga untuk belajar, membutuhkan perencanaan strategis untuk mengeksploitasi pedagogik kemungkinan dan menghindari perangkap dari penggunaan yang tidak semestinya.Intinya telah lebih jauh telah menekankan bahwa literatur yang ada pada teknologi pembelajaran berbasis berlaku untuk multimedia perencanaan, khususnya pedagogik dikenal dan representasi karakteristik media individu diidentifikasi dalam situasi belajar sebenarnya. Sana pertimbangan nonpedagogic juga berkaitan dengan dampak organisasi dan berbagai biaya dari penggunaan multimedia. Sebuah keputusan yang realistis untuk menggabungkan multimedia di ODL harus mengakui bahwa multimedia, seperti teknologi yang paling, tidak mungkin awalnya, atau mungkin sebelumnya, untuk menyimpan saat organisasi atau uang (Quinn & Bailey, 1994; Burge, 2000; Cassidy, 2000). Bahkan, multimedia mungkin dalam kompleksitas peningkatan jangka pendek operasional, menciptakan "kekacauan organisasi" (Murgatroyd, 1992), dan mempromosikan membuang-buang waktu perilaku oleh pengguna di seluruh organisasi (Laudon, Traver, & Laudon, 1996; Fernandez, 1997; Evans, 1998; Fahy, 2000; Dalal, 2001). Awal efek multimedia, seperti teknologi lainnya dalam organisasi yang kompleks, juga dapat mencakup lebih rendah produktivitas organisasi (Black & Lynch, 1996). Peringatan lain adalah keuangan: ekonomi teknologi umumnya menyarankan bahwa total biaya kepemilikan (TCO) dari teknologi multimedia akan terus meningkat (Oberlin, 1996), dan bahwa tidak ada penghematan biaya asli pernah dapat benar-benar dicapai 

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oleh beberapa pengguna (Welsch, 2002). Alasan untuk mengadopsi teknologi multimedia, oleh karena itu, lebih berhubungan dengan peningkatan kinerja, seperti lebih besar fleksibilitas, pembelajaran ditingkatkan, dan kepuasan yang lebih tinggi dan tingkat penyelesaian untuk pengguna, dari penghematan biaya (Oberlin, 1996; Daniel, 1996; Fahy, 1998). Hal ini penting, karena, secara historis, pengguna teknologi memiliki terkadang bingung kinerja dan hasil produktivitas dalam implementasi teknologi, meremehkan biaya dan dampak jangka panjang dari teknologi, sementara, untuk merugikan harapan yang realistis, overestimating dan overselling mungkin produktivitas manfaat (Dietrich & Johnson, 1967; McIsaac, 1979; Mehlinger, 1996; Strauss, 1997; Lohr, 1997; Wysocki, 1998; Greenaway, 2002; Hartnett, 2002). Untuk masa depan multimedia, menghindari jenis-jenis kesalahan adalah penting: harapan yang tidak realistis menghasilkan kekecewaan, dan dapat mengakibatkan skeptisisme 16 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. antara instruktur dan manajer tentang nilai inovasi pendidikan umumnya, dan pendidikan teknologi khususnya ("Tidak ada perjalanan melalui pendidikan vakum seperti kereta musik teknologi. ") Organisasi Isu dalam Adopsi Multimedia Harapan yang realistis dari multimedia memerlukan kompatibilitas dengan mengadopsibudaya organisasi, struktur, dan keuangan (Welsch, 2002). Budaya organisasi mencakup berbagai nilai, kepercayaan, mitos, tradisi, dan norma, serta praktek bersejarah dan cara khas dalam melakukan bisnis (termasuk cara mengadopsi atau menolak inovasi). Organisasi kebudayaan dapat menyajikan tantangan yang paling serius bagi mereka yang bertanggung jawab untuk strategis perencanaan (Rogers, 1983; Stringer & Uchenick, 1986), termasuk masalah membedakan apakah perlawanan yang dihadapi adalah karena

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keengganan sederhana atau ketidakmampuan yang nyata (Welsch, 2002). (Dalam kasus terakhir, resistensi ini dapat alasan dan tepat, tanda bahwa kondisi tidak tepat untuk sebuah inovasi untuk berhasil.) Masalahnya dianggap sangat akut di lambat-untuk-perubahan perusahaan seperti pendidikan umum (Senge, 1990). Masalah lain untuk adopsi inovasi kompleks seperti multimedia adalah sikap di beberapa organisasi bahwa pelatihan adalah kegiatan opsional (Gordon, 1997). Ironisnya, secara teknologi manajer dan administrator yang buta huruf paling sering menolak inisiatif pelatihan, baik untuk diri mereka dan staf mereka, untuk menghindari malu di daerah di mana mereka tahu keahlian mereka tidak sebesar mereka bawahan. Analisis kebutuhan tahap perencanaan adalah tempat terbaik untuk memastikan bahwa isu-isu budaya seperti ini diakui dan dievaluasi terlebih dahulu. Perencanaan untuk implementasi multimedia tidak perlu takut-takut. Penilaian kebutuhan harus hati-hati membedakan iklim dari budaya dan tanggapan yang sesuai. Iklim terdiri dari sudut pandang umum dipegang dan pendapat dalam organisasi, langsung dipengaruhi oleh ukuran luas diakui kesehatan organisasi dan sukses, seperti pendaftaran atau prestasi siswa dan kinerja relatif terhadap pesaing. Iklim lebih "dibangun" dan sementara dari budaya, berdasarkan unsur-unsur seperti mahasiswa dan staf persepsi seberapa baik organisasi ini melakukan tugas-tugas fundamentalnya. Berdasarkan sifatnya, iklim lebih mudah ditangani daripada budaya. Manajer, dengan reaksi mereka terhadap perkembangan eksternal, dapat mempengaruhi bagaimana anggota staf menafsirkan peristiwa luar yang mungkin membentuk iklim. Iklim adalah daerah di mana perencanaan dapat memiliki dampak, melalui upaya perencana untuk mempengaruhi pengakuan internal dan interpretasi di luar acara. Selain budaya, faktor struktural dalam organisasi juga dapat mempengaruhi multimedia inovasi. Kehadiran dan kecukupan technologiPlanning

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diperlukan untuk Belajar Multimedia 17 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. kal infrastruktur, termasuk perangkat lunak, perangkat keras, komunikasi, dan jaringan sistem, harus dinilai. Personil dalam bentuk pengetahuan pengelolaan, pemeliharaan, pelatihan dan dukungan staf, konsultan kunci, dan costeffective bantuan kontrak juga elemen struktur kritis. Jika belum disediakan untuk, biaya upgrade sistem dan pemeliharaan (termasuk pelatihan awal dan berulang untuk staf) harus dinilai dalam ulasan struktural, sebelum pengenalan sistem multimedia. Biaya berkelanjutan harus diidentifikasi dalam proyeksi anggaran. Keuangan adalah bagian penting dari penerapan multimedia di ODL. Menilai keuangan organisasi juga memperkenalkan kompleksitas ke dalam proses perencanaan, seperti biaya secara inheren sulit untuk memprediksi secara akurat, kadang-kadang bahkan untuk mengidentifikasi sepenuhnya. Sedangkan akurasi yang tepat dalam analisis biaya mungkin sulit, potensi pembeli teknologi harus menyadari bahwa, seperti disebutkan di atas, total biaya kepemilikan teknologi multimedia kemungkinan akan jauh di atas pembelian harga, melebihi harga beli dengan berkali-kali (Oberlin, 1996; Black & Lynch, 1996; Khan & Hirata, 2001; Welsch, 2002). Menggunakan definisi produktivitas sebagai rasio manfaat terhadap biaya (Massy & Zemsky, 1999), tingginyabiaya teknologi tidak dapat mendiskualifikasi jika pengembalian yang jelas. Biaya sendiri tidak perlu mengubah pembenaran untuk teknologi, tetapi mereka bisa merupakan kejutan bagi sebuah organisasi yang telah tidak cukup diantisipasi mereka. Bagian dari alasan untuk berinvestasi dalam multimedia adalah kenyataan bahwa teknologi memberikan fleksibilitas: teknologi yang lebih terukur dari sumber daya manusia, apakah ini aspek dimanfaatkan dalam visi organisasi. Secara umum, skalabilitas berarti bahwa pertumbuhan program yang dapat lebih mudah diakomodasi dengan

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teknologi dari tanpa itu, biaya tidak meningkat sejalan dengan pertumbuhan seperti yang mereka lakukan di mana pendaftaran kenaikan ini ditanggung ketat dengan mempekerjakan lebih instruktur dan staf pendukung. Sumber daya multimedia mungkin ditambah atau dipangkas tanpa mengacu pada kolektif perjanjian atau komitmen lain. Perbedaan lain adalah bahwa teknologi seperti multimedia cenderung menjadi lebih efisien penggunaan lebih dibuat dari mereka, menurunkan titik impas dan meningkatkan efisiensi mereka (Matkin, 1997, Harvard Computing Group, 1998; Watkins & Callahan, 1998). Keputusan untuk memperoleh teknologi secara fundamental yang strategis, karena teknologi adalah sarana untuk tujuan yang beragam. Bates (1995) mengemukakan bahwa aksesibilitas dan biaya adalah dua diskriminator yang paling penting di antara teknologi, dan dengan demikian kriteria yang paling kritis dalam proses akuisisi teknologi.Sebuah keputusan untuk "membangun" atau mengembangkan pilihan teknologi baru multimedia harus diingat bahwa sekarang ada jumlah yang meningkat pesat perangkat lunak yang tersedia (Gale, 2001). Sebuah analisis yang cermat dari kebutuhan dan pencarian pilihan yang tersedia harus dilakukan, terutama sebelum keputusan untuk mengembangkan berwenang, bahkan profesional proyek pemrograman, secara umum, sering berakhir dengan kegagalan (Girard, 2003), dan instruktur yang tidak memiliki pelatihan desain khusus (ID) instruksional sangat apt 18 Fahy Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. menjadi macet dalam pengembangan bahan akhirnya biasa-biasa saja (Grabe & Grabe, 1996). Faktor lain dalam menilai kelayakan keuangan dari berbagai teknologi multimedia adalah target potensial dalam kaitannya dengan Prakiraan biaya produksi. Perry (2000) mengingatkan bahwa courseware pelatihan kustom

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multimedia mungkin tidak akan menjadi efektif biaya untuk kurang dari 1.000 pengguna. Bates (1995, 2000) juga ditawarkan tokoh dan pertimbangan penggunaan yang membantu dengan penilaian biaya dan manfaat. Biaya dan jangka waktu dapat menjadi tangguh: Szabo (1998) melaporkan hampir berbagai empat kali lipat (40 sampai 150 jam per jam dari instruksi) untuk pengembangan yang sangat dasar dengan bantuan komputer pembelajaran (CAL) dalam pendidikan kesehatan, dan penelitian lain melaporkan bahwa 6 jam modul dalam peramalan cuaca, melibatkan tim produksi perancang instruksional, ahli meteorologi, hidrologi, seniman grafis, media spesialis, ilmuwan komputer, dan UKM, dikonsumsi satu tahun dan biaya $ 250.000 (Johnson, 2000). Kesimpulan Disajikan dalam bab ini adalah pembahasan tentang faktor-faktor (yang melekat, pedagogik, dan ) organisasi yang dapat mempengaruhi perencanaan untuk penggunaan multimedia.Saran sini adalah bahwa multimedia lebih cenderung mempengaruhi kinerja pedagogis (seberapa baik program atau organisasi melakukan tugasnya) dibandingkan produktivitas (diukur dengan profitabilitas). Dalam merencanakan implementasi multimedia, disarankan, hasil kinerja harus menjadi fokus (perbaikan dalam kualitas layanan, yang diukur dengan ketepatan waktu, aksesibilitas, kenyamanan tanggap, dan Program penawaran dan mendukung), bukan "bottom line" hasil. Perencanaan strategis dalam bentuk ID mempromosikan penggunaan yang tepat dari multimedia teknologi, khususnya (pada kesadaran dan tahapan adopsi). Yang terbaik pedagogis argumen untuk penggunaan teknologi multimedia (menyediakan lebih kenyamanan pelajar, kepuasan dan kesuksesan) mungkin cukup menarik, tapi masalah dalam kaitannya dengan struktur yang ada organisasi, budaya dan keuangan tidak boleh diabaikan. Proses adopsi meliputi iklim membedakan faktor dari budaya (yang pertama menjadi lebih setuju untuk mempengaruhi dengan efektif pemimpin); mempertimbangkan kebutuhan kelompok-kelompok yang

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terkena dampak dalam perencanaan; mengakui dan menghormati harapan pengguna '; menyediakan manajer yang ada dengan pelatihan, sehingga mereka dapat memberikan kepemimpinan yang efektif; akurat menilai ada dan dibutuhkan sumber daya teknis; menghindari potensi manfaat overselling, sehingga menjaga ekspektasi realistis, dan memilih, mengadaptasi, atau (jarang) produk bangunan atas dasar dari dibuktikan keuntungan, terutama aksesibilitas dan biaya. Perencanaan Pembelajaran Multimedia 19 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Pedagogis, kontribusi utama dari teknologi multimedia dalam mengajar dan pelatihan kemungkinan akan meningkatkan fleksibilitas, sehingga pelajar yang lebih besar akses dan kenyamanan, dan lebih banyak pilihan kepada pengguna, termasuk diri mondar-mandir, individualisasi, kustomisasi, dan pelajar kontrol. Dampak-dampak positif seperti aspek-aspek pada proses pengajaran dapat diantisipasi, tetapi masalah harus juga diharapkan; pemilihan media biasanya melibatkan trade-off, dan kerugian dan keuntungan dalam pilihan satu media penyampaian atau presentasi di atas yang lain harus diakui. Untuk desainer instruksional, prinsip-prinsip yang ada untuk memandu perkembangan multimedia. Di antara yang paling berguna ini adalah prinsip-prinsip desain multimedia yang alamatisu-isu seperti kedekatan, redundansi, koherensi, dan pilihan moda pengiriman (Mayer, 2001). Adopsi prinsip-prinsip ini akan hasilnya, secara umum, mungkin di "Ramping" desain multimedia, dengan penggunaan elemen audio-tekstual dan visual-bergambar lebih didasarkan langsung pada bukti empiris tentang bagaimana dampak sebenarnya belajar, bukan pada fitur teknis mereka sendiri. Meskipun mungkin kurang teknologi elegan, implementasi tersebut berjanji untuk menjadi lebih pedagogis efektif dan organisasional yang kompatibel. 

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Referensi Bates, A. W. (1995). Teknologi pembelajaran, terbuka dan pendidikan jarak jauh. New York: Routledge. Bates, A. W. (2000). Mengelola perubahan teknologi. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Berge, Z. (1995). Memfasilitasi konferensi komputer: Rekomendasi dari lapangan. Teknologi Pendidikan, Januari-Februari, hlm 22-30. Hitam, S., & Lynch, L. (1996). Manusia-modal investasi dan produktivitas. Amerika Ekonomi Review, 86, 263-267. Bloom, B. S. (1984). Masalah 2-sigma: Pencarian untuk metode kelompok instruksi seefektif satu-ke-satu les. Pendidikan Peneliti, Juni-Juli, hal 4-16. Bloom, BS, Engelhart, MD, Furst, EJ, Hill, WH, & Krathwohl, DR (Eds.). (1956). Taksonomi tujuan pendidikan: Klasifikasi tujuan pendidikan. Buku 1: Kognitif domain. Jakarta: David McKay Co, Inc Bruce, B. C, & Levin, J. (1997). Pendidikan teknologi: Media untuk penyelidikan, komunikasi, konstruksi, dan ekspresi. Diperoleh Oktober 8, 1997 

Bab II Menuju Penggunaan Efektif Multimedia Technologies di Pendidikan Geraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, Australia Abstrak Sementara teknologi multimedia yang digunakan dalam konteks pendidikan, efektif penggunaan multimedia dalam konteks ini tetap bermasalah. Dalam mencoba untuk memberikan kontribusi terhadap mengatasi masalah ini, bab ini menyajikan seperangkat pedoman konseptual dan kerangka kerja perencanaan praktis yang dimaksudkan untuk menginformasikan perencanaan dan desain multimedia yang lebih efektif integrasi ke dalam konteks pendidikan. Pendekatan campuran-mode yang dianjurkan dalam bab ini. Teknologi multimedia dipandang sebagai bagian dari satu set alat-dan Pemilihan alat harus sesuai dengan isi kurikulum dan ke belajar mengajar konteks. 26 Torrisi-Steele 

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Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Pengenalan Apakah atau tidak teknologi multimedia harus digunakan dalam konteks pendidikan tampaknya tidak lagi menjadi masalah. Teknologi multimedia melingkupi hampir semuaaspek eksistensi. Alasan untuk penggunaannya dalam konteks pendidikan didasarkan di alasan sosial, ekonomi, dan pedagogis. Namun, apa tetap bermasalah adalah penggunaan teknologi yang efektif multimedia dalam konteks pendidikan. Pada inti dari mengatasi masalah ini adalah gagasan bahwa efektif integrasi multimedia dalam kurikulum tidak tergantung pada teknologi itu sendiri tetapi lebih pada pengetahuan pendidik, asumsi, dan persepsi mengenai teknologi dan implementasinya dalam konteks pembelajaran tertentu (Jackson & Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Imam, & Macpherson, 1999). Dari pedagogis perspektif, secara umum diterima bahwa teknologi multimedia memiliki potensi untuk membentuk kembali dan menambahkan dimensi baru untuk belajar (Relan & Gillani, 1997; Lefoe, 1998). Namun dalam kenyataannya, potensi ini umumnya telah gagal untuk menjadi direalisasikan. Keyakinan fundamental yang mendasari bab ini adalah bahwa potensi ini akan hanya diwujudkan dengan pembuatan keputusan pedagogis dan perumusan pengajaran strategi yang dirancang untuk memanfaatkan teknologi multimedia untuk maksimum efektivitas dalam situasi belajar tertentu. Dari perspektif ini, pendidik pembangunan yang berfokus pada perubahan pedagogis adalah aspek penting dari penggunaan efektif dari teknologi multimedia dalam konteks pendidikan. Istilah "teknologi multimedia" digunakan dalam bab ini untuk berarti seluruhnya digital pengiriman konten menggunakan setiap kombinasi terpadu audio, video, gambar (dua dimensi, tiga dimensi), dan teks. Dalam sebagian primitif bentuk, istilah "multimedia" kadang-kadang didefinisikan sebagai presentasi konten menggunakan kombinasi media [yaitu, suara, gambar (statis, bergerak,

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animasi, video), dan teks]. Dari perspektif ini, setiap presentasi yang melibatkan penggunaan dari, misalnya, tatap muka mengajar, perekam video, dan slide show bisa dianggap multimedia. Fitur yang membedakan multimedia digital, seperti yang digunakan dalam bab ini (seperti lawan dari bentuk primitif yang didefinisikan di atas), adalah kapasitas untuk mendukung pengguna interaksi. Oleh karena itu, istilah "teknologi multimedia," sebagaimana digunakan dalam bab ini, akan selalu berarti bahwa ada unsur yang hadir "interaktivitas". Konsep interaksi dianggap sepanjang dua dimensi: kapasitas sistem untuk memungkinkan seseorang untuk mengontrol kecepatan presentasi dan membuat pilihan tentang yang diikuti jalur untuk bergerak melalui konten, dan kemampuan sistem untuk menerima input dari user dan memberikan umpan balik yang sesuai dengan yang masukan. Teknologi multimedia dapat disampaikan pada komputer melalui CD-ROM, DVD, atau melalui internet, atau pada perangkat lain seperti ponsel dan personal mampu mendukung pengiriman interaktif dan terintegrasi digital assistant digital audio, video, gambar, dan data teks. Multimedia teknologi sebagaimana dimaksud Menuju Penggunaan Efektif Teknologi Multimedia dalam Pendidikan 27 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. dalam bab ini juga mencakup teknologi komunikasi baru seperti e-mail, chatting, dan konferensi video. Teknologi virtual reality juga disertakan. Ini akan dikatakan kemudian dalam bab ini bahwa teknologi multimedia adalah berbagai dilihat sebagai bagian dari satu set alat atau mode mungkin pengajaran. Mode lainnya termasuk tatap muka mengajar, bahan cetak, dan video dan perangkat audio. Sebuah "mixedmode" pendekatan akan menganjurkan dalam bab ini didasarkan pada argumen bahwa alat seleksi harus sesuai dengan isi kurikulum dan pengajaran dan konteks pelajaran. Isi dari bab ini telah didasarkan sebagian besar pada profesional penulis pengembangan pengalaman dengan pendidik tersier menerapkan pembelajaran online. 

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Namun, ide-ide yang dibahas dalam bab ini didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip yang baik praktek yang berlaku untuk berbagai konteks belajar mengajar, termasuk primer, sekunder, tersier lingkungan pelatihan, dan lainnya. Dengan latar belakang ini, bab ini bertujuan untuk menyediakan seperangkat konseptual pedoman dan landasan praktis (dalam bentuk suatu kerangka kerja perencanaan) yangakan menarik bagi mereka yang terlibat dalam perencanaan dan perancangan yang sesuai pengembangan profesional yang ditargetkan untuk mempromosikan integrasi multimedia yang efektif, dan untuk pendidik individu dalam primer, pelatihan sekunder, tersier, dan lainnya lingkungan yang ingin menerapkan teknologi multimedia yang lebih efektif ke dalam kurikulum. Multimedia Technologies di Belajar Lingkungan Ketika komputer berbasis multimedia interaktif muncul pada 1990-an, inovatif pendidik mulai mempertimbangkan apa implikasi media baru ini mungkin jika diterapkan untuk mengajar dan lingkungan belajar. Dalam waktu relatif singkat frame, multimedia muncul dan terkait teknologi komunikasi menyusup hampir setiap aspek masyarakat. Jadi, apa yang awalnya dipandang sebagai teknologi "pilihan" dalam konteks pendidikan telah selama sosial, ekonomi, dan alasan pedagogis menjadi "kebutuhan." lembaga pendidikan Banyak investasi banyak waktu, tenaga, dan uang ke dalam penggunaan teknologi. Secara sosial, literasi komputer merupakan keterampilan penting untuk partisipasi penuh dalam masyarakat. Itu penggunaan teknologi multimedia di lembaga pendidikan dipandang perlu untuk menjaga pendidikan relevan dengan abad ke 21 (Selwyn & Gordard, 2003). Secara ekonomi, keyakinan berlaku bahwa penggunaan skala besar multimedia baru dan teknologi komunikasi terkait untuk mengajar dan belajar mungkin menawarkan lebih murah dibandingkan tradisional pengiriman tatap muka dan pendidikan jarak jauh dan akan 

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28 Torrisi-Steele Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. juga membantu membangun dan mempertahankan keunggulan kompetitif bagi lembaga oleh memungkinkan mereka untuk memasuki pasar luar negeri (Bennet, Imam, & Macpherson, 1999, hal. 207). Dasar pedagogis untuk penggunaan teknologi multimedia pendidikan memiliki mungkin menjadi penggerak terbesar untuk investasi besar-besaran yang dilakukan oleh lembaga pendidikan menjadi teknologi multimedia. Sastra penuh dengan retorika tentang dampak potensial dari teknologi multimedia pada tradisional pengajaran praktek. Tema sentral adalah bahwa integrasi multimedia teknologi akan mengarah pada transformasi pedagogi dari instructivist tradisional berpusat pada guru pendekatan untuk pendekatan lebih diinginkan pelajar konstruktivis yang dianggap mewujudkan karakteristik penting dari yang lebih efektif lingkungan belajar (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999; Relan & Gillani, 1997; Willis & Dickson, 1997; LeFoe, 1998; Richards & Nason, 1999). Dari pembelajar berpusat perspektif, peran guru perubahan dari tradisional (Pendekatan instructivist) peran instruktur dan pemasok pengetahuan untuk peran lebih erat selaras dengan dukungan dan fasilitasi pembangunan aktif pengetahuan dengan pelajar (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999). Pembelajar berpusat pendekatan menyiratkan pemberdayaan peserta secara individual dan kemampuan untuk memberikan peserta didik dengan mandiri, lebih bermakna, pengalaman belajar otentik yang mengarah pada pembelajaran seumur hidup. Implikasi ini adalah di inti dari constructivistbased pedagogis argumen untuk integrasi teknologi multimedia di pendidikan konteks (Selwyn & Gorard, 2003;. Gonzales et al, 2002). Namun, meskipun potensi terdokumentasi dengan baik dan diterima secara umum teknologi multimedia untuk membentuk kembali praktek pengajaran, telah diidentifikasi dalam literatur bahwa dampak yang dijanjikan teknologi multimedia pada pembelajaran dan praktek pedagogis sebagian besar tidak terwujud. Ada relatif sedikit 

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dampak positif pada praktek pendidikan untuk investasi besar waktu, tenaga, dan uang dengan lembaga pendidikan (Kuba, 1986; Hammond, 1994; Oliver, 1999; Nichol & Watson, 2003; Conlon & Simpson, 2003; Selwyn & Gorard, 2003). Alasan untuk ini kurangnya dampak dipandang berbohong tidak dengan atribut dari teknologi itu sendiri, melainkan dengan cara di mana teknologi telah diimplementasikan dalam konteks belajar. Lebih khusus lagi, adalah pengetahuan pendidik, asumsi, dan persepsi mengenai teknologi dan implementasinya dalam konteks belajar tertentu yang akan menentukan pelaksanaan dan, maka, yang efektivitas (Jackson & Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Imam, & Macpherson, 1999). Seperti sering dicatat dalam literatur, potensi multimedia teknologi untuk membentuk kembali konteks pembelajaran (Relan & Gillani, 1997; Lefoe, 1998) hanya akan diwujudkan dengan pembuatan keputusan pedagogis dan formulasi strategi mengajar yang dirancang untuk mengeksploitasi teknologi multimedia dalam kurikulum konteks. Menuju Penggunaan Efektif Teknologi Multimedia dalam Pendidikan 29 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Meskipun dapat diakui oleh pendidik bahwa teknologi multimedia memiliki potensi untuk menawarkan kesempatan belajar baru dan ditingkatkan, banyak pendidik gagal untuk menyadari potensi ini. Sejumlah pendidik menggunakan teknologi multimedia dalam lingkungan belajar mereka sebagian besar membatasi penggunaannya untuk alat untuk akses data, komunikasi, dan administrasi (Conlon & Simpson, 2003). Ini adalah sebuah "addon" pendekatan penggunaan teknologi multimedia bukan benar-benar terintegrasi pendekatan kurikulum. Kurangnya hasil integrasi sejati di minimal (jika ada) perubahan kedua strategi pedagogis dan lingkungan belajar (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999; Strommen, 1999). 

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Kegagalan untuk melakukan integrasi teknologi yang efektif adalah disebabkan fakta bahwa pendidik, pendidik bahkan berpengalaman, umumnya tidak siap untuk perubahan yang dituntut oleh dan diproduksi oleh "infus teknologi" (Charp, 2000). Sementara beberapa pedagogis "tahu bagaimana" belajar yang lebih tradisional lingkungan yang dimiliki oleh pendidik dapat mentransfer ke multimedia interaktif baru konteks, pendidik sering tidak memiliki keterampilan dan teknis dan pedagogis pengetahuan untuk efektif menerapkan teknologi tersebut di lingkungan belajar mereka.Garu dan Casey (2002, online) diamati sebagai berikut: Banyak ... [pendidik], terutama guru yang lebih berpengalaman, telah tidak dapat menemukan cara yang efektif untuk menggunakan teknologi dalam kelas mereka. Satu penjelasan yang mungkin untuk kurangnya keberhasilan adalah bahwa penggunaan teknologi di kelas telah dilihat dalam hal perolehan keterampilan sederhana bukan sebagai proses perubahan yang mempengaruhi perilaku individu pada tingkat yang sangat mendalam. Jika ada pelajaran yang harus dipelajari dari beberapa dekade terakhir dari "pendidikan teknologi "pembangunan, adalah bahwa teknologi sendiri menawarkan sangat sedikit untuk proses pembelajaran. Conlon & Simpson (2003, hal. 149) memperingatkan bahwa jika pendidik adalah "bergegas" ke dalam mengadopsi teknologi multimedia tanpa pendidikan yang jelas visi perubahan, maka transformasi yang signifikan dari praktek mengajar adalah tidak mungkin. Pentingnya fokus pada pengembangan pendidik dan sumber daya yang akan mendorong pertumbuhan berkelanjutan pedagogis dan "re-engineering" menjadi selfevident dan didokumentasikan dengan baik dalam sastra (Gonzales et al, 2002;. Burns, 2002; Pierson, 2001; Charp, 2000; Collis, 1996; Rakes & Casey, 2002). Terhadap konteks ini, beberapa isu kunci yang perlu ditangani dalam pendidik pembangunan akan diidentifikasi dan dibahas. Lima kunci pedoman dan perencanaan 

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kerangka kerja untuk memfasilitasi lebih efektif integrasi teknologi multimedia akan disajikan. 30 Torrisi-Steele Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Menuju Lebih Efektif Integrasi Teknologi Pembahasan sebelumnya telah mengarahkan perhatian pada gagasan bahwa sementara multimedia teknologi memiliki potensi untuk membentuk kembali prakteknya, potensi sering belum direalisasi karena fakta bahwa para pendidik sering sakit-dilengkapi untuk memenuhi tantangan perubahan yang dituntut oleh teknologi multimedia dan untuk mengeksploitasimengubah dimungkinkan oleh mereka. Gagasan ini didukung oleh penelitian sebelumnya (Torrisi & Davis, 2000) yang dilakukan oleh penulis ke dalam pengalaman tersier pendidik mengembangkan materi multimedia online. Data dari studi ini menyoroti beberapa isu kunci yang perlu ditangani dalam upaya pengembangan pendidik. Pendidik dalam penelitian ini diminta untuk mengidentifikasi apa yang mereka yakini adalah kompetensi kunci yang siswa harus berkembang sebagai akibat dari melakukan studi dalam subjek. Setiap pendidik juga diminta untuk menjelaskan apa yang mereka percaya sebagai peran mereka dalam materi online tentu saja. Tabel 1 mendampingkan tanggapan pendidik individu untuk kompetensi kunci melawan menyatakan penggunaan pendidik dimaksudkan bahan online. Atas pemeriksaan tanggapan seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Tabel 1, kurangnya kongruensi antara apa pendidik diidentifikasi sebagai kompetensi kunci bagi siswa mereka dan menyatakan penggunaan materi online ditemukan. Kurangnya kongruensi antara kunci yang dinyatakan kompetensi dan tujuan penggunaan materi online adalah indikasi multimedia teknologi yang tidak benar-benar terintegrasi dengan tujuan kurikulum,

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konten, tujuan, dan konteks, bukan penggunaan terbatas untuk menjadi add-on atau tambahan. Wawasan alasan untuk digunakan tambahan teknologi multimedia terungkap dalam wawancara dengan pendidik tersier, yang komentar menyarankan mereka dirasakan penggunaan teknologi multimedia online sebagai latihan dalam menerjemahkan bahan ke media lain, kebanyakan untuk akses dan alternatif untuk tatap muka- atau dicetak pengiriman konten. Persepsi penggunaan teknologi tidak mendorong pedagogis perubahan. Hal ini membuat strategi kontraproduktif yang meniru lebih metode tradisional dengan media baru. Hasilnya adalah tidak ada dampak atau bahkan negatif terhadap lingkungan belajar. Sebaliknya, yang diperlukan adalah konseptualisasi penggunaan teknologi multimedia dalam konteks pendidikan sebagai proses transformasi yang mengakui, dan berusaha untuk, mengubah dalam praktek. Dalam mengatasi masalah ini, hal ini berguna untuk mempertimbangkan gagasan progresif adopsi teknologi yang ditemukan dalam literatur. Sandholtz, Ringstaff, dan Dwyer (1997) menyarankan bahwa penggunaan tambahan dari teknologi multimedia sebagaimana yang diamati dalam studi ini harus dipandang sebagai pertama tahap kontinum perubahan yang memuncak dalam tahap ketiga penuh integrasi dan transformasi praktek. Ide teknologi progresif adopsi didukung oleh orang lain. Sebagai contoh, Goddard (2002) diakui lima Menuju Penggunaan Efektif Teknologi Multimedia dalam Pendidikan 31 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Tabel 1: Perbandingan kompetensi kunci lain yang dikutip oleh staf pengajar sebagai penting bagi siswa untuk memperoleh untuk mata pelajaran mereka untuk anggota staf dinyatakan dimaksudkan penggunaan materi online Catatan: Pemeriksaan tanggapan menunjukkan kurangnya kongruensi

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antara kompetensi kunci diperlukan dan anggota staf yang menyatakan tujuan penggunaan materi online, menandakan kurikulum miskin integrasi. Sumber: Diadaptasi dari Torrisi & Davis (2000, hlm 172-173). Kompetensi kunci seperti yang dinyatakan oleh individu pendidik bagi siswa dalam mereka pengajaran / area subyek Tujuan penggunaan dari materi online yang tercantum oleh pendidik individu Sebuah Pendidik  Kritis analisis   Kemampuan untuk penelitian   Standar keterampilan menulis akademik   Sebuah tambahan untuk tatap muka mengajar, siswa  dapat mengakses kuliah jika mereka tidak bisa datang ke kuliah  Ini adalah cara hal tersebut terjadi  Pendidik B  berirama persepsi   berirama melek   Pemrograman keterampilan   Ingin memiliki cara yang lebih efisien untuk melakukan  hal  Siswa mengakses materi (catatan, latihan)  sebelum datang ke kuliah  Untuk mengurangi tingkat koordinasi karena  link yang dibuat jelas pada halaman Web  Akses ke bahan luar kampus  Pendidik C  Tantang mereka asumsi   Menganalisis pemikiran, praktek yang mendasari   bahan teoritis Connect dengan mereka sendiri  pengalaman hidup  Pikirkan bagaimana nilai dapat  dimasukkan ke dalam situasi kehidupan nyata  Sebuah situs Web yang siswa dapat bergerak di sekitar  bukan kerja linear dan itu akan mendapatkan mereka berpikir, untuk benar-benar melibatkan mereka  Ingin menggunakan waktu kelas kontak untuk siswa  untuk terlibat dengan satu sama lain atas dasar konten mereka telah menemui daripada menggunakan waktu untuk menyajikan isi saja Pendidik D 

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Analytical keterampilan   Matematika keterampilan   Pendekatan studi kasus yang umum digunakan.   Sumber Daya yang akan diakses dalam tutorial   Untuk mengurangi tetapi tidak mengganti jam kuliah  akhirnya Pendidik E  Mengembangkan pemecahan masalah keterampilan   Memahami materi yang dibahas bukan  

disajikan 

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Itu 

strategi. 

Kebutuhan Pengembangan 

pilihan. 

hal. 1). 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

desain. 

Beberapa 

dibahas di bawah. 

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1. 2. 

konteks. 

lingkungan. 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

belajar. 

penerjemahan. 

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pada praktek. 

di sini. 

efektif. Bantuan Berkelanjutan 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

(Hal. 1) 

perspektif. 

Sekali lagi, 

Page 79: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Atas dasar ini 

keterbatasan. 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Page 80: Terjemahan MPI

bahan 

keahlian 

kemungkinan 

Berhadapan muka pengajaran 

informasi 

Multimedia 

Page 81: Terjemahan MPI

menjalankan 

terkait Internet teknologi 

Page 82: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Yang diusulkan 

Pertimbangan 

Ini adalah 

1. 

2. 

2000). 

Eksekusi 

Page 83: Terjemahan MPI

refleksi. 

strategi. 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

praktek. 

Studi Kasus 

Dari 

Situs Web Web komunikasi teknologi 

wajah 

Page 84: Terjemahan MPI

dijadwalkan **** 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Situs Web Web komunikasi teknologi 

wajah 

bermasalah *** 

*** 

** 

*** 

*** 

Page 85: Terjemahan MPI

subjek ***** 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

dieksploitasi. 

Berhadapan muka 

Situs Web Web komunikasi teknologi 

wajah 

Page 86: Terjemahan MPI

diskusi 

komitmen * 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

bahan. 

Masa Depan Tren Dalam 

Page 87: Terjemahan MPI

Dari 

Demikian 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Kesimpulan 

kurikulum. 

Jika, 

Kelima 

Page 88: Terjemahan MPI

Referensi 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Australia 

Diakses pada 

Pedagogi. 

Inggris 

Jakarta: Guru Tekan College. 

Makalah disampaikan pada 

Web. 

Jurnal Penelitian Teknologi di 

Jurnal 

Jurnal 

Page 89: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Makalah yang disajikan pada 

Lefoe, G. (1998). 

British Journal of Teknologi Pendidikan, 

pengalaman. Kertas 

keahlian. 

3 (1). 

instruksi. 

Brisbane. 

Mengajar dengan teknologi. Jakarta: Guru Tekan College. 

British Journal of Educational 

belajar. 

Page 90: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

lingkungan belajar. 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Bab III Interaktif 

Belajar dan Kinerja 

Abstrak 

implementasi. 

Pedoman 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Pengenalan 

Page 91: Terjemahan MPI

Pada mereka 

Kemudian kita akan 

Namun, 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

sistem. 

Page 92: Terjemahan MPI

Sebuah 

2000). 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

1999a). 

Page 93: Terjemahan MPI

pada Gambar 1: 

Dimensi 

prosedur. 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Jenis 

Page 94: Terjemahan MPI

Tugas Sistem 

Saya N T E R F Sebuah C E 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Komunikasi 

informasi transfer. 

Itu 

sinyal. 

evolusi. 

Page 95: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

saluran. 

Prinsip Desain 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Semuanya tercantum pada Tabel 1. 

___ 

Page 96: Terjemahan MPI

__________________________ 

________________________ 

_______________________________   

_____________________________________________ _ 

__________________________________ 

______________________________ 

______________________________ 

Page 97: Terjemahan MPI

_________ ______________________ 

________________________________ 

_______ 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Sebagai contoh, ini 

fungsi. 

Page 98: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

strategi. 

Ini 

transfer 

penilaian 

pengembangan 

Page 99: Terjemahan MPI

Pengetahuan Pengelolaan 

Fungsi 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Kesimpulan 

Dasar 

teknologi. 

Page 100: Terjemahan MPI

(Hal. 12) 

Oleh karena itu, 

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. 

Dalam 

di masa mendatang. 

Referensi Prosiding 

Politeknik. 

Diperoleh 

Jakarta: Pusat Nasional untuk Statistik Pendidikan. 

sistem. 

(2002). 2002. 

Page 101: Terjemahan MPI

Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc Menyalin atau mendistribusikan di media cetak atau elektronik tanpa bentuk tertulis izin dari Idea Group Inc adalah dilarang. Mempertimbangkan kembali penelitian pada belajar dari media. 

Jakarta: Guru Tekan College. Diperoleh dari 

Itu 

Hill. 

Sebuah Diperoleh dari 

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