Term Paper on Genetic Engineering & IT Engineering by Meshkat & Nayeem_ICT_3rd Batch_1st...

7/31/2019 Term Paper on Genetic Engineering & IT Engineering by Meshkat & Nayeem_ICT_3rd Batch_1st Semester_2011

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Contents

1.Introduction

2.Definition

2.1 Definition of Genetic Engineering

2.2 Definition of IT Engineering

3. History

3.1 History Of Genetic Engineering

3.2 History Of IT Engineering

4.Literature Review

5.Discussion

6.Conclusion

7.References





Definition of Genetic Engineering :

Genetic engineering alters the genetic makeup of an organism using

techniques that introduce heritable material prepared outside the organism

either directly into the host or into a cell that is

thenfused or hybridized with the host. This involves using recombinant

nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form new combinations of

heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material

either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-

injection, macro-injection and micro encapsulation techniques.Genetic

engineering does not include traditional animal andplant breeding, in vitro

fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion

techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically

modified organism in the process. Cloning and stem cell research,

although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and

genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an

emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by

introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials

into an organism. If genetic material from another species is added to the

host, the resulting organism is called transgenicIf genetic material from the

same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the

resulting organism is called cisgenic.Genetic engineering can also be used

to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a gene

knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with

genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also

refer to conventional breeding methods. Within the scientific community,

the term genetic engineering is not commonly used; more specific termssuch as transgenic are preferred.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritable

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_fusion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microinjection


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-encapsulation



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyploidy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagenesis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_biology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgenic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_knockout


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymous

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymous



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgenic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_biology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyploidy



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_fusion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritable



Definition of IT Engineering :

We use the term information technology or IT to refer to an entire

industry. In actuality, information technology is the use of computers and

software to manage information. In some companies, this is referred to as

Management Information Services (or MIS) or simply as Information

Services (or IS). The information technology department of a large

company would be responsible for storing information, protecting

information, processing the information, transmitting the information as

necessary, and later retrieving information as necessary. This includes

the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication

mediums. In the past few decades, information and communication

technologies have provided society with a vast array of new

communication capabilities. For example, people can communicate in real-

timewith others in different countries using technologies such as instant

messaging, voice over IP (VoIP), and video-conferencing. Social

networking websites like Facebook allow users from all over the world to

remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis. Modern

information technologies have created a "global village," in which people

can communicate with others across the world as if they were living next

door. For this reason, IT is often studied in the context of how modern

communication technologies affect society.

http://www.techterms.com/definition/internet

http://www.techterms.com/definition/realtime


http://www.techterms.com/definition/im


http://www.techterms.com/definition/voip

http://www.techterms.com/definition/socialnetworking


http://www.techterms.com/definition/facebook

http://www.techterms.com/definition/facebook



http://www.techterms.com/definition/voip





http://www.techterms.com/definition/internet



A History of Genetic Engineering :

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years

through artificial selection and more recently mutagenesis. Genetic

engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside

breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s.

Contrary to popular belief, the term "genetic engineering" was not first

coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island,

published in 1951. The term had been used previously in a journal article

in 1949.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_selection


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Williamson

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Williamson


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_selection





1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled

that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by

bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug

Administration in 1982.

The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France

and the USA in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant

to herbicides. The People’s Republic of China was the first country to

commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in

1992.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_v._Chakrabarty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humulin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic_plants

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicide



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic_plants



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humulin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_v._Chakrabarty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court



In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr

Savr tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the

European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the

herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop

commercialized in Europe.

In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection

Agency, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the

USA. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25

countries, the largest of which by area grown were the USA, Brazil,

Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa.

In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute, announced that they

had created the first synthetic bacterial genome, and added it to a cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto#Spin-offs_and_mergers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavr_Savr


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromoxynil

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bt_Potato&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Craig_Venter_Institute

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Craig_Venter_Institute



http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bt_Potato&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromoxynil



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto#Spin-offs_and_mergers



containing no DNA. The resulting bacterium, namedSynthia, was the

world's first synthetic life form.

A History of Information Technology :

Four basic periods

Premechanical,

Mechanical,

Electromechanical, and

Electronic

A. The Premechanical Age: 3000 B.C. - 1450 A.D.

1. Writing and Alphabets--communication.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthia



1.1 First humans communicated only through speaking and picture

drawings.1.2 3000 B.C., the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (what is today southern

Iraq) devised cuniform

1.3 Around 2000 B.C., Phoenicians created symbols

1.4 The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet and addedvowels; the Romans gave the letters Latin names to create the

alphabet we use today.

2 Paper and Pens--input technologies.

2.1 Sumerians' input technology was a stylus that could scratch marks

in wet clay.

2.2 About 2600 B.C., the Egyptians write on the papyrus plant

2.3 around 100 A.D., the Chinese made paper from rags, on whichmodern-day papermaking is based.

3 Books and Libraries: Permanent Storage Devices.3.1 Religious leaders in Mesopotamia kept the earliest "books"

3.2 The Egyptians kept scrolls

3.3 Around 600 B.C., the Greeks began to fold sheets of papyrus

vertically into leaves and bind them together.

4 The First Numbering Systems.

4.1 Egyptian system: The numbers 1-9 as vertical lines, the number 10

as a U or circle, the number 100 as a coiled rope, and the number

1,000 as a lotus blossom.

4.2 The first numbering systems similar to those in use today were

invented between 100 and 200 A.D. by Hindus in India who

created a nine-digit numbering system.4.3 Around 875 A.D., the concept of zero was developed.

5 The First Calculators: The Abacus.



One of the very first information processors.

B. The Mechanical Age: 1450 - 1840

1. The First Information Explosion.

1.1 Johann Gutenberg (Mainz, Germany) Invented the movable metal-

type printing process in 1450.

1.2 The development of book indexes and the widespread use of pagenumbers.

2. The first general purpose "computers"

2.1 Actually people who held the job title "computer: one who workswith numbers."

3. Slide Rules, the Pascaline and Leibniz's Machine.

3.1 Slide Rule.



Early 1600s, William Oughtred, an English clergyman, invented the slide rule

3.2 The Pascaline. Invented by Blaise Pascal (1623-62).

3.3 Leibniz's Machine.

The Reckoner (Reconstruction)

4. Babbage's Engines



4.1 The Difference Engine.

4.2 The Analytical Engine.

4.3 Augusta Ada Byron (1815-52): The first programmer

C. The Electromechanical Age: 1840 - 1940.

1. The Beginnings of Telecommunication.



1.1 Voltaic Battery: Late 18th century.

1.2 Telegraph: Early 1800s.1.3 Morse Code: Developed in1835 by Samuel Morse & Dots and dashes.

1.4 Telephone and Radio: Alexander Graham Bell.

1.5 Followed by the discovery that electrical waves travel through space and

can produce an effect far from the point at which they originated.1.6 These two events led to the invention of the radio: Guglielmo Marconi &

1894

2. Electromechanical Computing

2.1 Herman Hollerith and IBM: Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) in 1880

Early punch cards

2.2 Mark 1.

Paper tape stored data and program instructions.

D. The Electronic Age: 1940 - Present. 1. First Tries.



1.1 Early 1940s

1.2 Electronic vacuum tubes.

2. Eckert and Mauchly.

2.1 he First High-Speed, General-Purpose Computer Using Vacuum Tubes:

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)

2.2 The First Stored-Program Computer(s)



2.3 The First General-Purpose Computer for Commercial Use: Universal

Automatic Computer (UNIVAC).

3. The Four Generations of Digital Computing

3.1 The First Generation (1951-1958)

3.1.1 Vacuum tubes as their main logic elements.

3.1.2 Punch cards to input and externally store data.

3.1.3 Rotating magnetic drums for internal storage of data and programs :

Programs written in Machine language & Assembly language

3.2 The Second Generation (1959-1963)

3.2.1 Vacuum tubes replaced by transistors as main logic element: AT&T's

Bell Laboratories, in the 1940s & Crystalline mineral materials

called semiconductors could be used in the design of a device called

a transistor

3.2.2

Magnetic tape and disks began to replace punched cards as externalstorage devices.



3.2.3 Magnetic cores (very small donut-shaped magnets that could be

polarized in one of two directions to represent data) strung on wire

within the computer became the primary internal storage technology

3.3 The Third Generation (1964-1979).

3.3.1 Individual transistors were replaced by integrated circuits.

3.3.2 Magnetic tape and disks completely replace punch cards as external

storage devices.

3.3.3 Magnetic core internal memories began to give way to a new form,

metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) memory, which, like integrated

circuits, used silicon-backed chips.

3.4 The Fourth Generation (1979- Present).

3.4.1 Large-scale and very large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs andVLSICs)

3.4.2 Fourth generation language software products : E.g., Visicalc, Lotus

1-2-3, dBase, Microsoft Word, and many others. Graphical User

Interfaces (GUI) for PCs arrive in early 1980s

3.4.3 Microprocessors that contained memory, logic, and control circuits (an

entire CPU = Central Processing Unit) on a single chip.Which allowed for home-

use personal computers or PCs, like the Apple (II and Mac) and IBM PC.



Literature Review :

Literature Review :

If Norbert Weiner’s The Human Use of Human Beingshas accustomed us to thinkingabout both human beings and computers as “information organisms” (Galloway 106),



the next logical step is, of course, to consider the body itself as a medium. Thus, in

Andrew Niccol’s Gattaca (1997), we have a representation of these anxieties playingout in the field of bio-informatics and genetic engineering, in which “life itself”

(Foucault) is viewed as an information technology.

According to Alex Galloway’s Protocol: Or How Control Exists After

Decentralization , a key event in this transition to an information, control society came

in Watson and Crick’s 1953 discovery of DNA. It was at this moment, Galloway

argues, that there was a confirmation of the special isomorphism between computers

and human beings, as life itself was recognized to be measurable and manipulatable

as information (Galloway 110-115). Thus, in Gattaca’s dystopian vision

of genetic engineering, human beings have become programmable by virtue of their

DNA, which has been accepted as the source code for human life. In the world of

Gattaca, this programming “determines where you can work, who you should marry,and what you are capable of achieving,” thereby reifying all human experience into a

mere effect of media; or the affordances of your bodily hardware. In Gattaca’s

biopower regime of control, there is no opportunity for resistance against your originor essential materiality, as your genes move “against the entropic force…

conserving information” (Galloway 104) of desirable traits, while eliminating those

which are undesirable (race being among the most conspicuously untouched topics

throughout the duration of the film).

In many ways, this practice of seeing human beings as computers represents both a

departure from and extension of Marshall McLuhan’s essay “Understanding Media,”

as it flattens the hierarchy of importance between subjects and objects implicit inMcLuhan’s concept “extensions of man,” but also takes as its foundational premise

the notion that the medium is the message. This is, of course, not to say that the

materiality (of human beings or computers) does not matter, but that to reduce the

message only to the object can produce some rather nefarious essentializations,

particularly when that medium is the human body.



Discussion:

In recent years, public attention and controversy have blossomed regarding the use

and production of genetically modified organisms (GMO's) and other biotechnologies

used as agricultural inputs or produced as outputs. Two widely used examples of

genetically modified organisms used as agricultural inputs are RoundupTM tolerantcorn, soybeans, canola, and cotton and other plants that carry a gene from the bacteria

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The Bt gene allows plants including corn and cotton to

produce its own insecticide. These two products of biotechnology research have been

adopted more rapidly by farmers than any other comparable technologies in

agricultural history (Fernandez-Cornejo & McBride, 2000; Riley, Hoffman, & Ash,1998). The purpose of this paper is to explore the implications of GMO and other

biotechnology and genetic engineering applications in production agriculture on thehealth and safety of workers.

This is not an article about food safety, though there are valid points and

considerations that justify the regulatory oversight related to food safety by the

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These include potential health

effects related to product toxicity, changes in nutritional qualities, allergenicproperties, antibiotic resistance concerns, and other human health implications that

are theoretically possible when humans ingest genetically engineered products

(Donaldson & May, 1999; Frick, 1995). Nor is it the intent of this paper to explore

environmental health implications in great detail, although there are implicationsrelated to changing products and practices such as pesticide use and toxicity, tillage

practices (and water quality implications), pest resistance, and transfer of genes toother species (Cook, 1999; Wolfenbarger, 2000). In writing this paper I have tried to

be objective and unbiased. I am neither endorsing nor casting doubt on the safety or

viability of genetic modification of food products and inputs used in production

agriculture. However, the fact that little published research exists related to the

impact of GMO technology on worker safety and health suggests a need to make surethat potential risks and benefits to workers get appropriately weighed as regulatoryofficials and policy makers make decisions related to these products.

Embedded within the discussion of biotechnology and genetic engineering isinformation regarding the adoption of information technology, including the Internet

and applications of e-commerce. Information technology will continue to play a role

in the future work of professionals engaged in agricultural safety and health

intervention activities. Biotechnology and information technology are symbiotic in

terms of their potential economic impact for agricultural producers (Ackridge et al.,1997; Boehlje, 1999). The use of biotechnology and especially genetic engineering in

production agriculture stems from science's knowledge of the information encoded in

the genes of the plants and animals that farmers produce.



Farmers who are early adopters of many new technologies tend to operate larger

farms. They are better educated. Their farms are more productive. In general, the

productive use of technology requires that producers be more adept at locating,

processing, recalling, and synthesizing information (Wojan, 2000). Likewise, theprofitable use of biotechnology depends largely on farmers and agricultural workers

possessing and using many of these same skills plus they must have timely and

accurate information related to the food production and processing supply chain.

Agricultural safety and health professionals who work with the farming and food

production industry to prevent injuries and occupational illness, will require basic

knowledge of these trends in information technology as well as biotechnology tohave maximum impact, success, and viability in the future.

Little has been published documenting the human health and safety implications for

workers who produce, handle, store, process or otherwise have contact with

genetically engineered inputs or products. There are worker health and safety

implications that result from exposure to genetically engineered inputs and outputs

themselves. In addition, there are differential exposures that result from production

practices, worker skills and knowledge needed to produce genetically modified

products or use them as inputs during the production process.

Recently published USDA - National Agricultural Statistics Service (1999) data

indicate that nearly half of all U.S. farms now have a computer, and 29% of all farms

have Internet access. More research is needed to determine the importance of the

Internet in communicating agricultural safety and health to producers. Many land-

grant universities and many other public and private institutions now have dedicated

agricultural safety and health web sites. However, a survey by Tripp, Shutske, Olson,

and Schermann (1998) of larger-scale pork producers in Minnesota and summarized

by Shutske, Schermann, Tripp, and Olson (2000) indicates that the Internet was

among the least preferred information sources of worker safety and healthinformation among the 19 listed on the producer survey. Additional research is

needed to determine if agricultural producers' opinions related to the value of

Internet-based safety and health content whether it is useful, or if their rankings have

changed, since in most regions of the country, level of Internet access among farmers

has more than doubled since this survey (USDA - National Agricultural Statistics

Service, 1999). The quantity of on-line information available to producers has also

increased dramatically.This increase in Internet usage and exponential increase in

available content is a double-edged sword. Just because farmers have access does not

necessarily mean that they are seeking out information related to farm safety andhealth.



One trend is certain. The use of electronic commerce among agricultural producers is

increasing. Morehart and Hopkins (2000) found that 15% of the farms with Internet

access are using electronic-commerce to purchase farm inputs and sell products. A

quick search of the Internet using "Google," a widely used search engine, shows 39dedicated agricultural production e-commerce sites. These range from specialty sites

that allow producers to match up unique products with buyers (such as a site that

links licorice growers to candy manufacturers) to firms that allow growers to bid ontraditional inputs like feed, fertilizer, crop chemicals, and veterinary supplies.

This trend toward increasing use of e-commerce is important because many of these

commerce web sites are being set up also as information portals or one-stop

information sources. For example, one website www.rooster.com allows customers to

purchase farm input products and supplies, but it also contains information on

commodity markets, weather forecasts, current farm news, and threaded e-mail listsallowing producers to exchange farming related knowledge and ideas. It appears that

there are many opportunities to add farming health and safety related content on a

variety of topics to these sites. Relationship building work is needed to sort out issues

of intellectual property ownership, licensing, liability, and other farm safety and

health content usage issues.Chronic disease continues to be one of the leading causes

of death and economic loss in most countries today. Hence, it has become a centralproblem for healthcare and many are looking for solutions.

Early detection and prevention of chronic disease is one of the preferred strategies forreducing the incidence of chronic disease and address escalating cost issues. It has

been widely documented that assisting chronic disease management through

information technology tends to facilitate better health outcomes. We are therefore

seeing several health IT projects being initiated and successfully supporting chronicdisease management.

This special issue aims to host a discussion and discourse on the possible applications

of IS/IT (information systems/information technology) to facilitate better chronic

disease management. ICT are a service that is spread worldwide, but not yet reachingall or not all reaching them in the same manner (Benadou, 2005), that is, here too

there is social inequality, which Castells (2002:22) has summarized in two ideas:

first, “web connection and flexibility allow connecting with that which is valuable

and reject that which is valueless, either people, companies or territories”; andsecond, “the extreme underdevelopment of technology infrastructures in most parts of

the world is an essential barrier towards development”.



If in 2000, only 3% of the world population used the Internet, by 20071 the figure

was 16.6%. This increase is positive, but certain clarifications must be made such asIf in 2000, only 3% of the world population used the Internet, by 20071 the figure

was 16.6%. This increase is positive, but certain clarifications must be made such as

that in Canada or the United States the percentage reaches 70%, yet in most countries

in Africa it barely amounts to 4%. Or that Asia (35.6%) and Europe (28.6%) presentthe highest percentage compared to the rest of the world. Although discrimination can

be observed, for example, by gender2, since in childhood girls (76%) use computers

more than boys (71%), but in adulthood this trend is reversed (60% of women and

70% of men) due, to a great extent, to the greater family obligations for females, which condition the time available compared to men to devote to ICT.

In Spain, for example, the profile of an Internet user is male, between 35 and 36,

residing in a province capital, and only 10% access the Internet through broadband,

according to 2006 data.3 All this evidences a digital gap which, in our opinion, must

be overcome in order for the country to progress equally both internally and inrelation to other countries.

We refer to Castells and his Marshall Plan proposal for the Information Era with

various strategic recommendations such as, for example, a social economy based on

high technology for expert on-line systems on healthcare, distance education,

avoiding the bottleneck on information and technology education or preventing the

brain leak of developing countries by extending quality networks worldwide.

Conclusion: Both IT & Genetic Engineering are two basic parts of technology. Genetic

Engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or

other nucleic acid molecules in order to modify an organism or population of

organisms. The term genetic engineering initially meant any of a wide range of

techniques for the modification or manipulation of organisms through the processes

of heredity and reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial selection and

all the interventions of biomedical techniques, among them artificial insemination, in

vitro fertilization sperm banks, cloning, and gene manipulation. But the term now

denotes the narrower field of recombinant DNA technology, or gene cloning in which

DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined. IT which works for

creating global network,can help the people to give easier access in different fields of

Science & Technology including Genetic Engineering.Without the help of IT any

field of science can not be able to get world widew recognition.So we can easily said

that to achieve popularity in the whole world Genetic Engineering have no other

alternative way without taking the help of IT.



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