Theory of Knowledge, Learning & Research

Term Paper

Experiential Learning

‘For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.’

By Aristotle

By

Pulkit Arora Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida

Abstract

This paper explains the Experiential Learning theories and models given by great psychologists and

educators, and how these frameworks are / can be used practically in order to improve upon the

human thought process and understand the learning process in a better way. It provides an in depth

explanation of Kolb’s theory, stating its pros and cons and further, how many more theories evolved in

order to improve upon it.

What is Experiential Learning?

Experiential learning has come to mean two different types of learning:

1. Learning by yourself

2. Experiential education

With so much attention on simulations and action learning in education literature, it's unfortunate that

many people don't know the underlying discipline of these two topics and arguably the foundation of

most everything we learn: Experiential Education.

The concept of experiential learning explores the cyclical pattern of all learning from Experience

through Reflection and Conceptualizing to Action and on to further Experience.

Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes on the role that true experiences play in the learning process.

It is this emphasis that distinguishes itself from other learning theories. Cognitive Learning Theories

emphasize on cognition over affect and Behavioral Learning Theories deny any role for subjective

experience in the learning process.

Scholars in the field of education have two contrasting views when it comes to the concept of

experiential learning. The first view defines experiential learning as a sort of learning which enables

students to apply newly acquired knowledge in a relevant setting. The relevant setting can be a

sponsored institution of learning with trainers, instructors, teachers, or professors to guide the lesson.

The other school of thought defines experiential learning as "education that occurs as a direct

participation in the events of life" (Houle, 1980, p. 221).

Kolb furthers the second definition of experiential learning by developing a model which details

learning process through experiences. Kolb and Fry's (1975) experiential learning model is a continuous

spiral process which consists of four basic elements:

Concrete experience

Observation and reflection

Forming abstract concepts

Testing in new situations

Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation and reflections. These reflections are

assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn

(Kolb & Fry).

According to Kolb and Fry (1975), the adult learner moves to the next step once he or she processes

their experience in the previous step. Thus, learning is not achieved in a formal setting, but in the

practice of reflection of daily experiences.

How did it all start?

Several authors (e.g., Kraft, 1991; Richards, 1977) have pointed out that experiential learning dates

back beyond recorded history and remains pervasive in current society, whether formalized by

educational institutions or occurring informally in day-to-day life. In this sense, experiential learning is

not an alternative approach, but the most traditional and fundamental method of human learning.

‘Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happens to him.’

- Aldous Huxley

What is experience?

Experience refers to the nature of events someone or something has undergone. Experience is what is

happening to us all the time - as we long we exist. Period.

Many of us engaged in professional learning have a broad understanding of the work of David A. Kolb.

His highly influential book entitled 'Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and

development' was first published in 1984 since when his ideas have had a dramatic impact on the

design and development of lifelong learning models. Of course, David Kolb's work can be traced back

to that famous dictum of Confucius around 450 BC:

"Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand."

We take in information through our senses, yet we ultimately learn by doing. First, we watch and listen

to others. Then we try doing things on our own. This sparks our interest and generates our motivation

to self-discover.

Think back on learning to ride a bicycle, use a computer, dance, or sing. We took an action, saw the

consequences of that action, and chose either to continue, or to take a new and different action. What

allowed us to master the new skill was our active participation in the event and our reflection on what

we attained. Experience and reflection taught more than any manual or lecture ever could.

Experiential learning thus involves a direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather than

merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it.

In the book ‘Experiential Learning’, David Kolb describes learning as a four-step process. He identifies

the steps as (1) watching and (2) thinking (mind), (3) feeling (emotion), and (4) doing (muscle). He

draws primarily on the works of Dewey (who emphasized the need for learning to be grounded in

experience), Lewin (who stressed the importance of a people being active in learning), and Jean Piaget

(who described intelligence as the result of the interaction of the person and the environment).

Kolb wrote that learners have immediate concrete experiences that allow us to reflect on new

experience from different perspectives. From these reflective observations, we engage in abstract

conceptualization, creating generalizations or principles that integrate our observations into sound

theories. Finally, we use these generalizations or theories as guides to further action. Active

experimentation allows us to test what we learn in new and more complex situations. The result is

another concrete experience, but this time at a more complex level.

Experiential Learning (Kolb)

David A. Kolb is Professor of Organizational Behavior in the Weatheread School of Management. Born

in 1939, Kolb received his Bachelor of Arts from Knox College in 1961, his MA from Harvard in 1964 and

his PhD from Harvard in 1967. Besides his work on experiential learning, David A. Kolb is also known for

his contribution to thinking around organizational behavior.

Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb

believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of

experience” (1984, p. 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages

shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:

concrete experience (or “DO”)

reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)

abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)

active experimentation (or “PLAN”)

Figure 1. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle.

Kolb’s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts,

which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. The

first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab

session or field work. The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously

reflects back on that experience. The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner

attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed. The fourth stage, active

experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a

forthcoming experience.

Kolb and Fry (1975) argue that the learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points - and that it

should really be approached as a continuous spiral.

Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions

under which learners learn better. These styles are:

Assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider

Convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and

theories

Accommodators, who learn better when provided with “hands-on” experiences

Divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information

Learning style Learning characteristic Description

Converger Abstract conceptualization +

active experimentation

strong in practical application of ideas

unemotional has narrow interests

Diverger Concrete experience + reflective observation

strong in imaginative ability good at generating ideas

interested in people broad cultural interests

Assimilator Abstract conceptualization +

reflective observation

strong ability to create theoretical models

excels in inductive reasoning concerned with abstract concepts

rather than people

Accommodator Concrete experience + active

experimentation

greatest strength is doing things more of a risk taker performs well when required to

react to immediate circumstances solves problems intuitively

Understanding one's preferred learning style has two benefits:

It helps us understand our areas of weakness, giving us the opportunity to work on becoming

more proficient in the other modes.

Or, it helps us realize our strengths, which might be useful in certain social situations, such as

deciding on a career.

Even today, most education is still essentialist, an approach that ignores learner experience. It also

allows teachers to cover materials in a way that best fits the diversity of the classroom.

Elaborations of the Experiential Learning Cycle

Not all forms of skill and knowledge emphasize all the stages of the Cycle to the same extent, and Kolb

has carried the argument further by relating topics and subject areas to the cycle in the following ways:

Concrete Experience corresponds to "knowledge by acquaintance", direct practical experience

(or "Apprehension" in Kolb's terms), as opposed to "knowledge about" something, which is

theoretical, but perhaps more comprehensive, (hence "Comprehension") and represented

by Abstract Conceptualization. This distinction was first made by Aristotle, and has been

discussed by epistemologists ever since.

Reflective Observation concentrates on what the experience means to the experiencer, (it is

transformed by "Intension") or its connotations, while Active Experimentation transforms the

theory of Abstract Conceptualization by testing it in practice (by "Extension") and relates to

its denotations.

Summary: A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic

perspective that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior.

Limitations of Kolb's Theory

Not all writers agree with Kolb's theory. Rogers, for example points out that "learning includes goals,

purposes, intentions, choice and decision-making, and it is not at all clear where these elements fit into

the learning cycle.” Moreover, referring to (Boud et al 1983), it claims that, “Kolb’s theory pays

insufficient attention to the process of reflection itself”. David Kolb is putting forward a particular

learning style. The problem here is that the Experiential Learning Model does not apply to all

situations. There are alternatives - such as Information Assimilation. There are also others such as

Memorization. Each of these may be appropriate to different situations.

As Anderson (1988, cited in Tennant 1996) highlights, there is a need to take account of differences in

cognitive and communication styles that are culturally-based. Here we need to attend to different

models of selfhood - and the extent to which these may differ from the 'western' assumptions that

underpin the Kolb and Fry model.

Major Developments

Peter Jarvis on (experiential) learning

Jarvis (1987, 1995) set out to show that there are a number of responses to the potential learning

situation. He used Kolb's model with a number of different adult groups and asked them to explore it

based on their own experience of learning. He was then able to develop a model of which allowed

different routes. Some of these are non-learning, some non-reflective learning, and some reflective

learning.

Non-learning:

Presumption: This is where people interact through patterned behaviour. Saying hello etc.

Non-consideration: Here the person does not respond to a potential learning situation.

Rejection

Non-reflective:

Pre-conscious: This form occurs to every person as a result of having experiences in daily living that are

not really thought about i.e. skimming across the surface.

Practice: Traditionally this has been restricted to things like training for a manual occupation or

acquiring particular physical skills. It may also refer to the acquisition of language itself.

Memorization

Reflective learning:

Contemplation: Here the person considers it and makes an intellectual decision about it.

Reflective: This is close to what Schön describes as reflection on and in action.

Experiential learning: The way in which pragmatic knowledge may be learned.

Experiential Learning (C. Rogers)

Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The

former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and

the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key

to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner.

Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning:

personal involvement

self-initiated

evaluated by learner

pervasive effects on learner

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all

human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning.

This includes:

setting a positive climate for learning

clarifying the purposes of the learner(s)

organizing and making available learning resources

balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning

sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning

process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation

with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of

assessing progress or success. Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an

openness to change.

Roger's theory of learning evolved as part of the humanistic education movement (e.g., Patterson,

1973; Valett, 1977)

Why Experiential Learning is so Effective (Luckner & Nadler), 2004

Equality

It provides a common and yet novel experience where all participants are equal in their knowledge

about the tasks and projects that will confront them. A unique set of projects and situations requires

people to draw upon genuine team process skills as opposed to just functional ones.

Disequilibrium

The unfamiliarity of the challenges and problems places people in a state of disequilibrium or disorder.

They cannot easily stand behind their normal status, roles, and defenses. This can allow emphasis to be

placed upon both task and process related themes as the group has to organize itself around the

challenge.

Projective technique

In organizing the instability or disequilibrium, the group projects their problem-solving skills, project

management ability, and leadership style onto the experience. The experience provides a unique

opportunity to catch participants doing what they typically do, in spite of knowing otherwise.

Decreased time cycle

The space between the project or challenge and the outcomes are compressed, so the consequences

of organizational decisions can be easily examined and improved. Typically in an organization, there is

more of a time lag and more variables to consider, so any review or learning risks being diluted or

delayed.

Meta Learning

In the experiential 'learning laboratory", as the projections and simulations shed light on the teams

process, the group is asked to step back and evaluate their performance. The review is about

themselves, their leadership, and problem solving skills, teamwork, and communication and managing

change.

Chaos and Crisis in a Safe Environment

Teams are able to experience chaos, disorder, crisis, and changing requirements for success in a safe

environment where the consequences for failure are limited. The team can develop strategies and best

practices for managing these issues both in this environment and back at work.

Kinesthetic Imprint

Experiential learning is an anchor for cognitive material. Participants have a kinesthetic imprint or

whole body learning of cognitive principles because the learning is graphic as it involves physical,

mental, and behavioral dimensions.

Common language / company mythology

The experience provides a common language, experience, and story, which can be related to the work

environment. The experience can provide a short cut in communicating a shared vision very quickly.

The experience (and stories attached thereto) can serve as a catalyst for continuing the theme in the

organization.

Encourage Risk Taking

The experience allows participants to take new risks, try on new roles, and make mistakes with no

danger or cost. Risks are naturally perceived rather than actual. Each person taking a risk pushes others

to take on something outside of their comfort zone.

Diversity of Strengths

The team challenges and activities are designed to include a variety of elements that will challenge a

range of team role skills. In other words input from all team members will be required to produce

outcomes from projects specifically designed not to suit just one team role style or behavior. One

person cannot possibly succeed alone and so the interdependence of the team is highlighted along

with the importance of diversity within the team.

Applications in Computer Science

1. Mei-Fen Chen, “Integrate Experiential Learning to Simulate a Website Design Project Process”,

ISBN 978-1-60558-466-9/08/0008

The current literature suggests that experiential learning is a necessary component of formal

instruction in higher education. Experiential learning as a formal part of college and university curricula

extends across the range of subject areas and disciplines. Based on the conceptualization in

experiential learning and Internet technology development, a teaching and learning project flows in

the practice of web design development is designed to facilitate students in this process. The case

study approach is utilized to proceed through a university service-learning project. Following the

project, students keep tracking qualitative journals based on their weekly learning and execution

experiences; a number of semi-structured interviews are conducted with students and faculty in order

to get an insight into their perceptions and experiences of the learning exercise. This result of study

benefits the academic community with an understanding of the theory to practice between education,

work, and technology. The finding also brings positive impact for program design and development

and operation in web learning community.

2. IGOR M. VERNER, “Robot Contest as a Laboratory for Experiential Engineering Education”, 2005

ACM 1531-4278/04/0600-ART1

Many educators have found that robotics is a suitable subject for project-based learning at

undergraduate and high school levels. Experience in designing, building, and operating robots leads to

the acquisition of knowledge in high-tech engineering areas and promotes development of systems-

thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork skills that are in high demand in industry. The involvement of

students in a robot contest offers the additional educational benefits of a focused, open-ended,

interdisciplinary project that is a strong motivator of student creativity, self-directed learning, and

research. Following the Kolbian approach, this article presents ways to integrate experiential learning

cycles in robot design projects and to evaluate their outcomes. The team has provided an example of

an undergraduate introductory course that uses the fire-fighting contest as the medium for

experiential learning of engineering design concepts and the development of the students’ technical

knowledge and skills.

3. Francis Suraweera, “Enhancing the Quality of Learning and Understanding of First-Year

Mathematics for Computer Science Related Majors”, SIGCSE Bulletin, Vol. 34, No 4, 2002

December

Most courses on discrete mathematics are designed to emphasize knowledge acquisition, and are

given to large first year classes, in general. When the goal is to cover the content, the understanding

takes a second place. This practice leads to non-enjoyment of the course, a great deal of anxiety, poor

performance, and a large percentage of failures. On the surface, it appears that we have to tell stories

and keep them entertained in the classrooms. In contrast, what is actually happening is that they are

assisting the freshmen students in developing strategies to pick up the major concepts (the

abstractions, the theory etc.) by relating to the students’ experience. Effective instruction builds upon

this experience deliberately because functionally individuals will interpret and incorporate new ideas

through their existing frames of reference. The author firmly believes that, as according to Kolb’s

learning model individuals form abstract concepts and generalizations by reflecting on experience,

good instruction should guide students consciously through this process.

4. Ed Crowley, “Experiential Learning and Security Lab Design”, 2004 ACM 1-58113-936-5/04/0010

Awareness of the need for Information Systems Security continues to expand. This expansion has

created a need for security focused lab modules. By design, these lab modules should optimize student

learning experiences. By incorporating Kolb’s experiential learning model helps assure an optimum

learning experience. This work, presents procedures and methodologies utilized in developing security

lab modules. As part of the pre-lab, the students are asked to vision what the lab results will be,

providing the students with a structured opportunity for abstract conceptualization (AC). Prior to going

to the lab, the students are given a demonstration (RO). During the lab, the students work through

structured lab exercises. This provides the students with concrete experience. Here, the students “get

the feel” of the tools by installing, configuring, and using them (AE). Post lab exercises provide more

opportunity for reflecting upon their concrete lab experiences. Finally, the lab finishes with an abstract

section where the students are asked to envision future labs.

A Quick Recap

Experiential learning recognizes that people learn best from their own experiences and their own

reviews.

It subscribes to the notion that what people do is more important than what they know.

Experiential learning renders behaviors and attitudes visible and thereby can become

acknowledged and then addressed.

Experiential learning is built on the premise that it is not enough to explain to people what to do,

they must be shown how to actually do it and then how to improve it

It moves beyond knowledge and into skill by generating a learning experience - the more

experience the greater the skill.

Experiential learning understands that to be remembered over a long period of time the learning

process should be enjoyable, motivating, and rewarding.

References

1. Overview of 9 Experiential Learning Cycle Models

[http://wilderdom.com/experiential/elc/ExperientialLearningCycle.htm]

2. Experiential Learning articles and critiques of David Kolb's theory

[http://www.reviewing.co.uk/research/experiential.learning.htm#26]

3. david a. kolb on experiential learning [http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm]

4. kolb learning styles [http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm]

5. Experiential Learning Cycles [http://reviewing.co.uk/research/learning.cycles.htm]

6. David Kolb, The Theory of Experiential Learning and ESL [http://iteslj.org/Articles/Kelly-

Experiential/]

7. Stavenga de Jong, J.A., Wierstra, R.F.A. and Hermanussen, J. (2006) "An exploration of the

relationship between academic and experiential learning approaches in vocational education

8. Smith, M. K. (2001) 'David A. Kolb on experiential learning', the encyclopedia of informal education,

[http://www.infed.org/b-explrn.htm]