Terminal Management - 1+1

MISE TEAM 2004

TERMINAL MANAGEMENT

PROGRAMME

COMPENDIUM

Terminal Operations and PerformanceIndicators

AUTHORS

David Whitaker

Professor Bernard Francou PhD

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CONTENTS

1. PORTS AND THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN 6

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6

1.1.1 Containers ..................................................................................................... 7

1.1.2 Container Definition ...................................................................................... 7

1.2 Ports .............................................................................................................................. 8

1.3 Supply Chain ................................................................................................................. 8

1.4 Globalisation .................................................................................................................. 9

1.5 Shipping Alliances ........................................................................................................ 10

1.6 Ports – Strengths and Weaknesses .............................................................................. 10

1.7 Hub Ports ..................................................................................................................... 11

1.8 Marine Terminals ......................................................................................................... 121.8.1 Flexibility ..................................................................................................... 12

1.8.2 Continuous Improvement ............................................................................ 12

1.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 13

2. MARINE TERMINAL OPERATIONS 14

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14

2.2 Port Development ........................................................................................................ 14

2.3 Technological Change .................................................................................................. 15

2.4 Functions of the Marine Terminal ............................................................................... 17

2.5 Factors Important to a Terminal’s Design and Operation ........................................... 18

2.6 Types of Terminal ........................................................................................................ 18

2.7 General Cargo or Multipurpose Terminals .................................................................. 20

2.8 Container Terminals .................................................................................................... 212.8.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Containerisation ........................... 212.8.2 Effect of Containership Size on Terminal Design ...................................... 22

2.8.3 Environmental Issues .................................................................................. 22

2.9 Marine Terminal Features ........................................................................................... 232.9.1 The Quay .................................................................................................... 232.9.2 Gatehouse ................................................................................................... 24

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2.9.3 Rail Interface .............................................................................................. 25

2.9.4 Buildings ...................................................................................................... 252.9.5 Lighting ....................................................................................................... 25

2.9.6 Pavement .................................................................................................... 26

2.10 Terminal Security ........................................................................................................ 262.10.1 The Terminal ............................................................................................... 262.10.2 Cargo .......................................................................................................... 272.10.3 Equipment ................................................................................................... 282.10.4 Intruders and Visitors .................................................................................. 28

2.10.5 Security Checklist ....................................................................................... 29

2.11 Emergency Contingencies ........................................................................................... 302.11.1 Responsibilities ............................................................................................ 302.11.2 Emergency Response Plan ......................................................................... 312.11.3 Hazards ....................................................................................................... 31

2.11.4 Port of Refuge ............................................................................................ 33

3. CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT 35

3.1 Factors Determining the Type of Equipment Required ............................................... 35

3.2 Container Terminal Equipment .................................................................................... 373.2.1 The Chassis System .................................................................................... 373.2.2 The Straddle Carrier .................................................................................... 383.2.3 Rubber Tyred Gantries ................................................................................ 413.2.4 The Top-Pick or Top-Lift Truck ................................................................ 433.2.5 The Yard Tractor ........................................................................................ 46

3.2.6 Dockside Container Gantry Cranes ............................................................. 47

4. CARGO PLANNING 50

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 50

4.2 Container Movements .................................................................................................. 51

4.2.1 Flow Patterns .............................................................................................. 51

4.3 Export Cargo................................................................................................................ 514.3.1 Export Cargo Booking List .......................................................................... 51

TERMINAL OPERATIONS AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

MAERSK INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING EDUCATION

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4.3.2 Receiving Refrigerated Cargo .................................................................... 524.3.3 Cut-Off Date for Receiving ....................................................................... 524.3.4 Allocation of Cargo to Storage Locations .................................................. 524.3.5 Confirmation of Cargo to be Loaded .......................................................... 53

4.3.6 Pre-Stowage Plan ....................................................................................... 53

4.4 Import Cargo ............................................................................................................... 534.4.1 Inbound Stowage Plan and Cargo Manifest ............................................... 534.4.2 Preparation of Terminal for Discharge Operations .................................... 54

4.4.3 Inspection of Discharged Cargo ................................................................. 55

4.5 Vessel Operations........................................................................................................ 554.5.1 Prior to Vessel’s Arrival .............................................................................. 554.5.2 After the Vessel’s Arrival ........................................................................... 56

4.5.3 Vessel Stowage ........................................................................................... 56

5. INTERMODAL LINKS 58

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 58

5.2 Definition of Intermodal Transportation ...................................................................... 585.2.1 The Challenges of Intermodal Transportation ............................................. 59

5.2.2 Intermodal Definitions ................................................................................. 60

5.3 The Rail Mode ............................................................................................................. 615.3.1 Rail Development ........................................................................................ 615.3.2 Rail Intermodal Operations .......................................................................... 62

5.3.3 Ship to Rail Container Transfer Facilities .................................................... 62

5.4 The Road Mode........................................................................................................... 635.4.1 Road Transport Development ..................................................................... 63

5.4.2 Innovation ................................................................................................... 64

6. KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS 65

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 65

6.2 Definitions ................................................................................................................... 66



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6.2.1 What is Port Performance? ........................................................................ 66

6.2.2 What is an Indicator? .................................................................................. 67

6.3 Berth Output Indicators ............................................................................................... 686.3.1 Definition ..................................................................................................... 686.3.2 Source and Reliability of the Data .............................................................. 68

6.3.3 Factors Influencing the Result .................................................................... 69

6.4 Berth Service Indicators ............................................................................................. 696.4.1 Definitions ................................................................................................... 696.4.2 Source and Reliability of the Data .............................................................. 70

6.4.3 Factors Influencing the Result .................................................................... 72

6.5 Berth Utilisation Indicators .......................................................................................... 726.5.1 Definitions ................................................................................................... 726.5.2 Source and Reliability of the Data .............................................................. 736.5.3 Factors Influencing the Results .................................................................. 73

6.5.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 74

6.6 Performance Indicators for Handling Operations ....................................................... 74

6.7 Handling Output Indicators ......................................................................................... 746.7.1 Ship Output ................................................................................................. 74

6.7.2 The Gang Output ........................................................................................ 75

6.8 Utilisation Ratios of the Input ...................................................................................... 776.8.1 Utilisation of the Equipment ........................................................................ 776.8.2 Utilisation of the Workers ........................................................................... 776.8.3 Source of Information and Reliability ......................................................... 78

6.8.4 Factors Influencing the Results .................................................................. 78

6.9 Performance Indicators for Storage Operations ......................................................... 786.10 Definition of the Ratios ............................................................................................... 796.11 Source of Information and Reliability .......................................................................... 79

6.12 Factors Influencing the Results ................................................................................... 80

6.13 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 80

6.14 Indicators for Quality of Service ................................................................................. 80

6.15 Flexibility Indicators ..................................................................................................... 816.15.1 Working Hours ............................................................................................ 81

6.15.2 Punctuality .................................................................................................. 82

6.16 Reliability Indicators .................................................................................................... 826.16.1 Security ....................................................................................................... 82



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6.16.2 Commercial Climate ................................................................................... 83

6.16.3 Work Reliability ........................................................................................... 83

6.16.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 83

6.17 Estimate of Port Capacity and Port Planning ............................................................. 84

6.18 Berth Capacities .......................................................................................................... 85

6.18.1 Methodology ............................................................................................... 85

6.19 Storage Capacity ......................................................................................................... 86

6.20 Port Planning ............................................................................................................... 876.20.1 Estimate of the Time of the Congestion ..................................................... 886.20.2 Use of the Indicators for Limiting or Delaying the Congestion ................. 88

6.20.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 88

Answers to Self-Assessment Questions ...................................................................................... 89

Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................................. 91

Resources ................................................................................................................................... 96

PLEASE NOTE

• Self-Assessment Questions have been provided at the end of each chapter. Thesequestions are designed to help you with your study. The questions are for yourpersonal study only; do not send in your answers to these questions as they willnot be assessed.

© Copyright Informa UK Limited, 2003. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the priorwritten permission of Informa UK Limited.



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1. PORTS AND THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN

Learning Outcomes

After successfully completing this chapter, you will have a better understandingof:

• the historical developments of container terminals ;

• how containerisation began;

• how this affected ports;

• what is meant by “supply chain”; and

• how the container terminal can influence the success of globalisation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1-001 Before containers arrived on the scene, ocean freight was carried in general cargo ships.Until the mid-1960s, almost all general cargo was transported in the breakbulk form andit was usually loaded by hand. Ships were designed to accommodate a variety of cargotypes, including breakbulk merchandise and quantities of dry bulk commodities such asgrain or coal, or liquid commodities such as palm oil, latex etc. The loading and unloadingof a ship was very labour intensive. Cargo was well stowed and secured but it wasalways vulnerable to pilferage and damage. Valuable cargo was placed in the open holdsof a ship and mixed with other commodities in a manner best suited to fill the space.There was limited space on the ship and in the terminal warehouse to place valuablecargo behind locked doors.

1-002 The methodology used to transport cargo changed over the years in order to save labour.Breakbulk cargo was unitised to ease the process of loading and discharging. Any cargoof similar size and shape that can be bound together is considered unitised. For example,cartons of canned goods are palletised and pieces of lumber bundled into a package.

1-003 Mechanisation was introduced on board ship in the form of forklifts. Initially, most shipswere not designed for this. The ships’ derricks did not have the capacity to hoist a lifttruck aboard. The surfaces in the ‘tween decks were not “flush” so the lift trucks haddifficulty manoeuvring throughout these spaces. Obstacles were everywhere in the decks,interfering with easy stowage. Many decks within the ship were not designed toaccommodate the combined weight and height of the forklift and loaded pallet.

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1-004 With the introduction of unitised cargo there was a need to redesign ships for the expresspurpose of handling unitised cargo. The well-proven “union purchase” method of riggingderricks was replaced by ship-mounted cranes or sophisticated swinging booms capable oflifting 15 or 25 tonnes. The decks within a ship were built without coamings or other obstructionsthat might impede the movement of a lift truck and the stowage of unitised cargoes.

1-005 Today, most cargo that previously was handled as breakbulk cargo is safely stowed andhidden from view inside containers. Breakbulk cargo now generally consists of neo-bulkcommodities such as bagged agricultural products, forest products and steel, which allmove in large volumes.

1.1.1 Containers

1-006 “Containerisation” is the movement of cargo in standardised re-usable containers. In themodern era, this has come to mean door-to-door service offered to shippers by intermodaloperators. With containerisation, freight need be handled only twice:

• when it is loaded into the container; and later

• unloaded at its destination.

1-007 Intermodal transport of freight takes place when one transport operator contracts tomove cargo from one point to another by more than one means of transport (e.g. truck,rail, ship, plane, barge or pipeline). For this movement, the shipper is issued with one billof lading and one freight charge.

1.1.2 Container Definition

1-008 A general-purpose container is a box of a standard size, constructed of aluminium, steelor fibreglass. It is often ribbed to provide strength and rigidity. It has reinforced cornerposts. Access is gained by double watertight doors, usually at one end. An intermodalcontainer can be easily transported by ship, rail, truck or even air.

1-009 The standard closed 20’ box, when empty, will weigh about 2 tonnes. Such containersare 8’6” high.

1-010 In addition to the closed, general-purpose container there are:

• open top containers (used for bulky cargo which can be loaded through the top);

• flatracks (convenient for machinery or palletised goods);

• refrigerated containers (reefers);

• tank containers; and

• 4’ high open top containers (suitable for heavy cargo such as metal ingots).

For a list of container types, refer to Liner Trade Module II, part 16. Details on ISOcontainer definitions are included in Appendix 1.



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The Expression TEU

1-011 This is a Twenty Foot Equivalent Unit. A 40’ container is, therefore, 2 TEUs. A 45’container can be shown as 2 TEUs or 2.25 TEUs. There is no differentiation for theheight of the container.

1-012 For background information on the beginnings of containerization and the Malcolm McLean,Sealand US story, it is worth researching an article from the Marine Digest, Volume 79,No 11, July 2001. www.marinedigest.com

1-013 The transfer of general cargo to containers gradually brought about the globalisation ofshipping services. It also brought about the “supply chain”.

1.2 PORTS

1-014 Before containers, a port was concerned only with the activities occurring within its ownboundaries. It had little interest in the effectiveness of the transportation network thatlinked the port to its hinterland. In most cases, ports knew little about the dynamics of theconnecting inland transportation network. They did not understand what positive ornegative affect such transportation could have on the port’s business.

1-015 Ports viewed the parties using the port as “users” and not as “customers”.

1-016 Ports acted dictatorially because they felt that the market they served was captive tothem. They chose the nature of the services they would provide and arbitrarily set therules and rates for such services.

1-017 The only specialised facilities within the port were those catering to the bulk trades, suchas coal, grain and liquid commodities. Bulk sites in a port were primarily built as privatefacilities for use by the major shippers of these commodities.

1.3 SUPPLY CHAIN

1-018 A supply chain is an integrated transportation network that transports goods from point oforigin to final destination. It is the seamless movement of goods using various modes oftransport:

• highway;

• rail;

• air; and

• water.

It involves the use of a single bill of lading from point of origin to destination.



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1-019 Containers became the ideal catalyst for the introduction of transportation supply chains.

1-020 Ports were forced to recognise their role as an important link in the supply chain. Theywere obliged to become active participants within the transportation network.

1-021 Ports were compelled to understand the hinterland area of their market, to investigatehow to broaden their potential market and to accommodate the needs of their customers.

1-022 Ports, and the terminals within them, had to collaborate with all modes of transportation tosecure their customer base and to attract new customers.

1.4 GLOBALISATION

1-023 The transfer of general cargo to containers resulted in shipping lines agreeing to worktogether as consortiums, sharing space on each other’s ships. The allocation of space toeach shipping line within the consortium was commonly equal to the number of 20’ slotsits own ships provided in relation to the total space provided by all ships deployed withinthe consortium. In this manner each line was able to offer frequent service to its customerswithout having to operate many ships. In turn, this brought about the globalisation ofshipping services.

1-024 Globalisation of manufacturing placed pressure on to the shipping lines to deliver thefreight “just-in-time”. That is “just-in-time” to allow the manufacturer’s production lineto continue operating without the need for an inventory of parts in storage. Thetransportation system virtually became the warehouse. For many importers, it is moreimportant to know when their goods will arrive rather than how fast they can be delivered.The Logistics module will expand on this subject.

1-025 The global services provided by the container shipping lines began the gradual evolutiontowards larger ships.

1-026 The construction of bigger ships changed the dynamics of shipping and forced the majorshipping lines to switch from using round-the-world services in favour of providing pendulumservices. An example of a pendulum service is one operating from the Far East toNorthern Europe via California and returning via the same route.

1-027 The introduction of pendulum services resulted in the formation of “Hub Ports”. In Asia,these included the ports of:

• Singapore;

• Hong Kong;

• Kaohsiung; and

• Busan.



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1-028 These ports are heavily used for the transshipment of regional and globally destinedcargo between ships providing pendulum services and ships providing regional services.

1-029 Global-shipping services resulted in the development of specialised hub ports that haveminimal or no hinterland of their own. They just happen to be geographically positioned toenable cargo to be transshipped for furtherance to global and regional destinations.Examples of hub ports include container terminals in:

• Panama;

• Jamaica;

• Sri Lanka;

• Freeport in the Bahamas;

• the United Arab Emirates;

• Salalah in Oman; and

• the Port of Tanjung Pelapas in Malaysia.

1.5 SHIPPING ALLIANCES

1-030 The move to larger ships, particularly post-panamax ships, brought about several structuralchanges in the business relationships of the major shipping lines. If you refer to LinerTrade Module II ‘the Maersk Fleet’ you will find excellent examples of ship sizes.

1-031 First was the development of Alliances. With the larger ships, no shipping company couldcontinue to be competitive and offer frequent port calls on its own. By joining togetherwith other large shipping lines and forming an Alliance, each line was able to continue tooffer frequent service to the ports on its trade route. This is clearly highlighted in LinerTrade Module I, Fundamentals of Transportation, part 7.4

1.6 PORTS – STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

1-032 The competitive strength of a regional port is measured by the size of its local market andits ability to service a large hinterland via good intermodal connections. The Ports of LosAngeles and Long Beach are fine examples of this. They have a huge local market plusrail networks that enable the ports to service major markets across the USA.

1-033 For a port to become a hub, it must be geographically located to be able to link regionaltrade with the major trade routes followed by the global container services.

1-034 Another factor that will enhance a port’s strength is the use of free trade zones. Theseenable manufacturers to process global goods without incurring local import taxes.



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1-035 The modern port may also attract major importers and exporters to position their operationsat the port by providing adjacent consolidation and distribution facilities. This, in turn,attracts shipping lines to the port for the opportunity to participate in the shippers’ business.North America, Seattle and Tacoma have successfully employed this strategy.

1-036 The port should also be able to generate two-way trade and provide guaranteed around-the-clock high performance services.

1.7 HUB PORTS

1-037 Factors that can determine the success of a hub port include:

• Geographic Location

The port should be situated close to the major shipping routes in order to minimiseany deviation to the vessel’s course.

• Central Location to Regional Ports

The transshipment port should be central to the ports that it will serve in thatregion to reduce feeder vessel transit time and expense.

• Mainland Location

Although island hubs exist, the ability to offer land transport alternatives to thecustomer is important.

1-038 Which ports will become or will remain the hubs of the future will be determined by whois prepared to invest in:

• The Infrastructure

Are the channels sufficiently deep for the larger ships to approach the berth, tomanoeuvre and remain safely at the berth?

Will the wharves support the larger cranes with the greater outreach?

The entrance and exit facilities help to determine the efficiency of a terminal.

Is the gate large enough to allow for the smooth flow of traffic?

Should the lanes be reversible?

Is there sufficient queuing space for vehicles waiting during peak periods or priorto the gate opening?



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Can containers be weighed?

Is an on-dock rail yard in place?

• Operating and Labour Practices

Do they need to be streamlined in order to increase the efficiency of their containerterminals?

• Training

Without highly skilled staff that must be available day and night, the terminal willbe unable to provide the service expected.

1.8 MARINE TERMINALS

1-039 What part does the marine terminal play in the supply chain?

The marine terminal is the place where the container is interchanged from one carrier toanother, whether it is from ship or between ship, rail or truck (or to air via truck). Theinterchange of containers at the port must be achieved seamlessly to optimise the “just-in-time” supply chains that global merchants now depend on to maintain an uninterruptedflow of goods.

1-040 The shipping industry faces ever-increasing costs. The ability of the marine terminal tohelp reduce some of the carriers’ costs will lead to the success of the terminal and theport.

1.8.1 Flexibility

1-041 Transshipment operations require that a level of flexibility be included in the terminal’soperating procedures to allow unforeseen situations to be addressed. The terminal’semployees need to be empowered to make well-informed decisions to prevent unduedelays to the vessel’s operations. Flexibility is an important indicator when analyzing amarine terminal’s quality of service. Performance indicators will be discussed in moredetail later in this module.

1.8.2 Continuous Improvement

1-042 The terminal must be continuously seeking new and better ways of doing things to maintainsuccess for itself and its customers. This may mean continuing investments in equipmentand in personnel training.



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1.9 CONCLUSION

1-043 The liner industry continues to evolve. Vessel sizes will increase and some lines willconsolidate with others. The shipping industry will continue to seek to reduce costs.Terminal operators, as a part of the “supply chain” must continue to seek ways to helptheir customers. They will need to anticipate their customers’ changing requirements.This will be true whether the terminal is a part of a regional port or a transshipment port.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define “containerisation”.

2. Define “supply chain”.

3. What is meant by “just-in-time” transportation?



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2. MARINE TERMINAL OPERATIONS

Learning Outcomes


• the functions of a port and how it influences terminal design;

• what are the factors important to a terminal’s design;

• the main elements of the terminal;

• site security and contingencies for an emergency; and

• container terminal security procedures in connection with cargoacceptance.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

1-044 Cargoes have been carried by sea for thousands of years. Initially, waterborne trafficexisted over short distances, from one river port to another nearby port, possibly withinthe same river. Then as mariners and merchants gained greater skills in navigation andseamanship, they built larger vessels and sailed them over greater distances.

2.2 PORT DEVELOPMENT

1-045 The port provides a terminal for the transportation system. A “terminal” is defined as the“end” or “end part”. In the case of transportation, a terminal exists at either end of arailway line, an airline route or any shipping route where sheds, hangars, garages, officesand stations to handle freight and passengers are located.

1-046 Traditionally, ports had been developed in natural harbours and they became the hearts ofmany cities.

(a) Terminals originally appeared in the centre of an urban settlement and weredesigned to service that settlement, e.g. London.

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(b) Terminals developed in ports that offered good protection for ships to shelterfrom storms, e.g. Vancouver, San Francisco.

(c) The terminal consisted of a wharf, or wharves, built in line with the localwaterfront.

1-047 In Britain, the port of Felixstowe has developed basically from nothing in the late 1960sinto Britain’s largest container port. At the beginning it was mainly a fishing port with awartime base for seaplanes. But there was trouble in established ports where workerswere concerned about the effect containerisation would have upon the size of the waterfrontworkforce. To by-pass the labour problems, a container terminal was developed atFelixstowe and this has since grown into a port handling 2.7 million TEU (20-foot equivalentunits) annually. Felixstowe’s major advantage over ports that were in a river was that itsaved on the ships’ steaming times as they moved between ports on both sides of theNorth Sea. Good road and rail connections enable the port to serve most parts of the country.

1-048 However, today, ports or marine terminals might be developed wherever they can beeconomically justified.

2.3 TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

1-049 In the latter half of the 20th century, there were many technological changes to ships andto the ports that served them. Land transportation also changed to satisfy the needs ofcommerce.

1-050 Since the Second World War, the cargoship has altered dramatically. Because of highoperating costs, and because of the time and the cost of labour required to work thetraditional general cargoship, the use of such a ship has steadily declined. First, somecargoes were palletised and the handling of the cargo was mechanised. As a result,revolutionary versions of the general cargoship were developed. These included:

• ro-ro (roll-on/roll-off) ships;

• LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship) vessels; and

• containerships.

1-051 Today, the general cargoship has powerful cranes instead of derricks. Cargo can beloaded through the side or over the stern as well as through the many hatches. But mostof the cargo once handled by these ships is now containerised.



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1-052 This led to a swift evolution in the design and development of all types of merchant ship.No sooner had specialised general cargo ships been built when they were replaced bycontainerships. As a result, ports have experienced many changes. In some places,previously efficient piers or docks became empty as general cargo operations moved tothe new container terminals. A similar situation has repeated itself in the movement ofliquid and dry bulk commodities, now employing very large ships, and in facilities built forlarge cruiseships and their passengers.

1-053 These changes significantly affected the design and location of ports and their marineterminals. Large open areas were suddenly needed to accommodate a modern containerterminal, and frequently this has meant the construction of sites outside of cities, often onland created by dredging and other means of landfill. This in itself has posed problems ifthe dredged soils were contaminated. The same situation exists in the development of oiland dry bulk terminals. The large volumes of liquid and dry bulk commodities beingshipped today require specialised facilities with plenty of deep water. Dredging is oneway of providing the deep water but often a causeway is required to carry the landtransportation systems across shallow water areas to the deepwater berth. Such a berthmay be in a location unprotected from the open sea. The disposal of dredged materialcan be difficult and expensive, especially if the sediment is contaminated. Ports areunder pressure not to dispose of the material at sea, but to reuse it if possible. Dredgedmaterial can be used in construction projects. Clean or slightly contaminated materialcan be used in reclamation areas; the sediment can be placed at the bottom of a landreclamation project and covered with clean sand. It may include the restoration of wetlandsand wildlife habitat. This helps in mitigating for any disturbances caused to the environmentwhile a terminal is under construction.

1-054 In the past, the construction or expansion of a port has placed emphasis on its connectionwith the sea. However, as port cities have grown and international trade has expanded,the ability of the port to transfer the cargo from the dock to the end-user has grown inprominence. It has been realised that it is no good to handle the cargo from large shipsunless the shore side transportation infrastructure is also capable of the handling theadditional volumes. In North America, the railroads have had to respond to the continuingacceleration of trade with the Far East and the resultant congestion of rail traffic in theports.

1-055 To overcome this at the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, where about one-quarterof all US waterborne traffic moves, a special agency, “the Alameda Corridor TransportationAuthority” was formed to manage and administer a project that has constructed a dedicatedcargo route between the harbours and the intermodal rail yards near downtown LosAngeles. To accomplish this construction there had to be cost sharing between the ports,the local governments, the various cities along the corridor and with the railroads. ThisUS$2.4 billion project is designed to create a fast and efficient way to carry containersthe distance of 32 kms between the ports and the trans-continental railroad network.



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1-056 Ports are a hive of activity. They have buildings, storage areas and equipment for receiving,storing and re-shipping cargo with connections to rail, road or pipeline transportation.Some ports are located on natural harbours (e.g. Vancouver, British Columbia, Seattleand San Francisco in the USA and Sydney, Australia). Others are built on artificialharbours protected by breakwaters (e.g. Los Angeles or Kobe, Japan. Kobe has in factcreated two large islands, Port Island and Rokko Island, protected by breakwaters andjoined to the mainland by bridges. On these islands they have developed containerterminals, industrial sites and residential and recreational areas). Many ports are locatedfar from the sea on rivers (e.g. Antwerp, Hamburg, Montreal, and Philadelphia).

1-057 Today, ports do face a dilemma. They face the pressure to build large, costly marineterminals for a shipping industry that is under great financial strain. Also, the port and itsterminal operators must be prepared to provide the systems, the service and the appropriatetechnology1 expected by the customer. As ports compete with one another, shipping linescan possibly take advantage of these circumstances in order to secure more favourableconditions and lower rates for their ships and cargoes.

2.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE MARINE TERMINAL

1-058 The operations of all freight terminals are similar in one respect. They are designed tomove cargo, in varying forms, between different modes of transport. In marine terminals,at least one of those modes is by water. The nature of the marine terminal business couldbe:

• To Transfer Cargo

(a) Ship ! " Rail

For example, heavy or oversized equipment.

(b) Ship ! " Road

For example, general cargo, containers.

(c) Ship ! " Ship

For example, cargo being transshipped from one trade route to another.

1 Technology does not just imply the infrastructure. Handling the documentation created for a large container ship is important.Not too long ago, this involved receiving large envelopes of bills of ladings from the ports of loading. Now much of this canbe transmitted electronically. Computers have enabled a progression towards automated systems that speed the release ofcargoes.



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(d) Ship ! " Barge

For example, lumber brought by barge from mill; general cargo movinginland.

(e) Ship ! " Pipeline

For example, crude oil to refinery; tallow from reduction plant.

(f) Ship ! " Air

For example, priority cargoes that combine sea and air transportation forreasons of economy and time; passengers connecting with cruiseships.

• To Store Cargo

For example, using the warehouses to provide care and protection for a customer’sproduct.

• To Consolidate Cargo

For example, to receive cargo from various sources and via different means oftransport, to assemble the commodities in one place prior to the arrival of theship.

• To Package Cargo

For example, to receive a commodity in bulk for bagging at the terminal.

• To Process Cargo

For example, the oil terminal that receives the raw material and refines it.

2.5 FACTORS IMPORTANT TO A TERMINAL’S DESIGN AND OPERATION

1-059 It could be said that planning to handle cargo really begins long before any is handled.The facility must be designed to handle the anticipated products. In order to be competitive,the terminal must be able to accept the size of ships that the trade dictates. The terminalmust be able to berth the ships safely and should have all the appropriate equipmentavailable to handle the cargo, allowing the goods to move efficiently.



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1-060 Terminal operators need to understand that they must handle their clients’ cargo withcare. Poor maintenance of equipment, inadequate warehouses and the poor condition ofthe surface of the storage areas may expose the cargo to contamination, damage and/orloss. The operator should listen to the customers’ suggestions or requirements. Changesmay need to be implemented and the terminal personnel may require special training.

1-061 Factors to consider when planning the marine terminal include:

• land requirements;

• local industrial development;

• anticipated composition and flow of cargo;

• access for ships, to and from the sea – there needs to be good aids to navigation;also ample deep water and manoeuvring space;

• type and size of ships to be expected;

• transportation links to hinterland – good access to highways, railways and/or rivertransportation systems;

• condition of existing facilities;

• environmental issues – wildlife and their habitat, the disposal of contaminateddredging material, air pollution from the effects of the construction and of thecargo operation. Ports have to make sure the air and the water are kept cleanand that ‘foreign’ species are not imported in ships’ ballast tanks;

• economic and financial studies;

• weather conditions that may interrupt the movement of vessels – time lost iscostly to a vessel, especially when it operates in tightly scheduled service; weatherfactors, which affect ports, include wind, rain, fog, snow, and ice; wind is ofparticular concern because it can have an adverse affect upon the operation oflarge machinery, such as ship loaders and unloaders, and container gantry cranes;

• fire protection – essential to serve the interests of the port and its clients;

• security;

• emergency response.



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2.6 TYPES OF TERMINAL

1-062 Terminals exist to suit the needs of different commodities and types of vessel, including:

• bulk terminals, for liquids and/or dry bulk materials;

• grain terminals;

• general cargo terminals, which may handle breakbulk cargoes and containers;

• ro-ro terminals, generally handling wheeled traffic;

• cruiseship terminals;

• container terminals dedicated to the movement of containers only.

2.7 GENERAL CARGO OR MULTIPURPOSE TERMINALS

1-063 Before Container Terminals are discussed it is worth noting that container handlingoperations may also take place at a multipurpose terminal. The term “multipurpose terminal”generally refers to a facility handling commodities that range between container and bulkoperations. Cargoes handled on such a terminal could include the full range of:

• forest products;

• steel;

• project cargoes;

• breakbulk general cargo;

• heavy lifts;

• ro-ro cargoes;

• commodities in bulk; and

• containerised cargo.

1-064 On general cargo terminals, cargo is handled by differing methods. The cargo may be inthe form of cartons, cases, drums, sacks, packages, bundles, pallets or units. The shipsthat are engaged in such trades are relatively small freighters. They will be equippedwith derricks or cranes with sufficient capacity to handle most of the cargo that they arerequired to carry. Bulk cargoes might be handled by fixed or portable pneumatic equipment.Warehouses on the terminals are mostly used for general cargo products that may perishif exposed to rain. In addition to the weather, protection is required from vandalism,pilferage and contamination from any source, including birds or animals.



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2.8 CONTAINER TERMINALS

1-065 As mentioned in the chapter on Ports and the Global Supply Chain, containerisation wasthe idea of Malcolm McLean when he created SeaLand. SeaLand used a 35-foot containerand was quickly followed by Matson using a 28-foot container. These companies werethe pioneers for the way most general cargo is carried today, by homogenising the cargointo one commodity, the container. This change created the equivalent of “mass production”in the shipping industry by introducing mechanisation and standardisation, and evenautomation. It also caused an extremely high capital commitment to the members of theshipping industry.

1-066 When the advantages of this method of transportation became apparent, standards forthe dimensions and capacities of containers were developed, initially by the AmericanStandards Association, but later controlled by the International Standards Organisation(ISO). Ultimately, everyone adopted these standards (see Appendix 1).

2.8.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Containerisation

1-067 The advantages of containerisation are:

• Faster turnaround of ship.

• Reduced time for movement of cargo between shipper and consignee.

• Less handling of actual cargo.

• Less damage.

• Less opportunity for pilferage.

• Reduced labour costs.

• Easier transfer between different modes of transport.

• Less exposure of cargo to the weather.

1-068 The disadvantages include:

• High cost of specialised ships.

• High cost of shore facilities.

• Improperly secured cargo inside a container can be damaged or endanger thecontainer, the ship and other cargoes.

• Specialised containers (e.g. reefers, flat racks) may be limited in use and carryfreight in one direction only, to be returned empty.



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2.8.2 Effect of Containership Size on Terminal Design

1-069 Containerised traffic is continuing to increase at a rapid rate and terminals around theworld are experiencing unprecedented levels of throughput. Also, the dimensions ofcontainerships have changed radically. At first, any containership was of a size thatwould allow it to pass through the locks of the Panama Canal and so the ship-to-shorecranes were designed to reach across “panamax” vessels. Today, many ships are toolarge to transit the Canal and so “post-panamax” cranes are needed. Also, many terminalswere built with berths long enough to hold two large containerships. Today’s containershipsare larger than could be envisaged years ago and many such facilities can now onlysupport one ship at a time.

1-070 The amount of land available for the construction and expansion of container terminals isminimal, while environmental concerns place new but necessary restrictions upon portsand terminal operators. Many innovative designs have been produced to solve the problemsof lack of space. Unfortunately, many of these options are waiting to be built. The highcosts and risks associated with developing new technologies are often prohibitive.

1-071 A container terminal must service the ships as quickly as possible. Containerships operateon a published timetable and cannot afford any delays that will affect their schedule.Efficiency on the terminal depends on the equipment and upon the system and organisation.It is necessary to know the location of and the status (full, empty, damaged, clean etc) atall times. Therefore, the use of computers is essential to permit the speedy movement ofcontainers through the terminal. Computers have also simplified the vessel loading/discharging operations.

Development and design of a Container Terminal will be a workshop activity duringthe Karlslunde seminars

2.8.3 Environmental Issues

1-072 The environment, the air, the land and the water, are all potentially at risk because of theconstruction and operation of a marine terminal. It is essential that the protection of theenvironment be fully considered when planning the facility.

1-073 During construction, the environment can be affected by:

• disturbances to residential areas by additional traffic;

• nuisances caused by noise, vibration, and dust;

• the impact forced upon marine and surface flora and fauna by dredging andexcavation – if wildlife habitat is disturbed it may be necessary to compensate bycreating alternative and comparable sites; and

• disposal of contaminated soils.



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1-074 During operations, the environment can be affected by:

• Ships

- noise (sound of ship’s generators);

- air pollution;

- water pollution;

- erosion of shore line by ships’ wakes.

• Cargo Handling

- noise;

- dust;

- machinery exhaust;

- traffic;

- excessive lighting.

1-075 It may be difficult to make any project completely harmless to the environment. But, withgood planning and strict adherence to regulations, potential damage and risk can be reducedto acceptable levels.

2.9 MARINE TERMINAL FEATURES

2.9.1 The Quay

1-076 One purpose of the quay is to provide restraint for the vessel while having its cargoloaded or unloaded. It must be strong enough to support enormous cranes and largeenough to allow the efficient movement of traffic.

1-077 The quay may be built on piles (see Figure 2), on top of caissons or behind retaining walls.It must support steel crane rails and have a source of high voltage electrical power. It mustbe equipped with a fendering system capable of protecting both the quay and the vessels.



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Figure 2

New Berth on Piles, Under Construction

1-078 The length of the berth depends upon the size of the vessels expected at the facility andhow many ships would be handled at the same time. Sufficient length must be allowedfor a dock gantry crane to be positioned across the extreme ends of a ship. In addition,there must be room for the terminal’s equipment to manoeuvre safely and efficiently atthese positions. The width of the apron must take into consideration the size of thecranes to be installed.

1-079 The waterside crane rail used to be positioned about 2.5 metres from the concrete faceof the quay. This allowed sufficient space for the bollards, the crane’s power cables(perhaps inside a trench) and for the ship’s gangways. However, this is now deemed tobe too close to the edge because of cranes being struck and destroyed by a manoeuvringvessel. Most installations now allow sufficient space for a vehicle service road on thewaterside of that rail.

2.9.2 Gatehouse

1-080 The gateway to a terminal is the place where responsibility for the care of the containertakes place. Information is exchanged between the terminal operator and the highwaydriver. It is at this point where the condition of the container is inspected and recorded. Ifthe container chassis is to be left at the terminal, it also will be inspected.

1-081 The entrance to a container terminal impacts the smooth flow of highway traffic throughthe terminal. There should be sufficient space for trucks to queue if necessary. At theinspection point there must be sufficient room for the inspectors to walk around thecontainer and with the ability to see its roof.



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1-082 In advance of the terminal, there should be clear directional signs identifying the variouslanes, such as:

• inbound;

• outbound;

• empty containers;

• weigh scale; and

• by-pass lane.

Preferably, these signs should be overhead but possibly supplemented by arrows paintedon the road.

2.9.3 Rail Interface

1-083 In North America, many marine terminals now have on-dock railyards since a largepercentage of the container throughput is to travel by rail. This feature does streamlinethe operation and enhance the “seamless movement” of the goods. However, the railoperation does consume valuable waterfront land.

2.9.4 Buildings

1-084 Buildings are required for:

• the gatehouse operations;

• vessel operations;

• maintenance and repair;

• worker facilities (lunchroom and toilets); and

• administration.

2.9.5 Lighting

1-085 Work on the waterfront goes on by day and by night. Therefore, good illumination isrequired to facilitate the operation. There should be:

• uniform light intensity, no sudden sharp shadows;

• no blinding of equipment operators;



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• as few light poles as possible;

• cost efficient and easy maintenance lights.

2.9.6 Pavement

1-086 A pavement is needed to distribute the loads from the heavy mobile equipment and thecontainers to the subsoil. To a large extent, the bearing capacity of the subsoil willdetermine the pavement design. The choice of top layer depends largely upon localcosts. Possibilities include:

• Gravel

Cheap, but it does not meet the needs of the modern marine terminal.

• Asphalt Concrete

Easy to construct, but quite expensive. Asphalt is very flexible which is adisadvantage in the case of concentrated loads and high temperatures.

• Reinforced Concrete Slabs

Subject to cracking under high concentrated loads.

• Concrete Blocks

Flexible and easy to maintain, can be laid mechanically, need to be frost resistantwhere applicable.

1-087 Drainage patterns should avoid excessive and frequent peaks and valleys. Pavementslopes within the container yard should be limited to 1% to 1½% maximum.

2.10 TERMINAL SECURITY

2.10.1 The Terminal

1-088 A marine terminal needs to be kept secure from unauthorised persons in order to:

• protect the large, expensive and technical equipment which is on site;

• protect the intruder from possible harm in a “material handling area”; and ofcourse

• protect the valuable cargoes which might be in storage.

In addition, it must prevent unauthorised persons from boarding a vessel at the terminal.



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1-089 After the events of 11 September 2001, procedures for controlling access to the terminalhave been re-examined and reinforced. Ports are highly vulnerable especially sincemuch of their activities often take place close to a city centre or to industrial areas. A newInternational Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code has been adopted by theInternational Maritime Organisation (IMO) which affects both ships and ports.

1-090 The ISPS Code was developed to establish an international framework involving co-operation between contracting governments, government agencies, local administrationsand the shipping and port industries to detect security threats and take preventive measuresagainst security incidents affecting ships or port facilities used in international trade. Italso established the respective roles and responsibilities of these parties at the nationaland international level for ensuring maritime security and to ensure the early and efficientcollection and exchange of security-related information. This code also provides amethodology for security assessments so as to have in place plans and procedures toreact to changing security levels; and to ensure confidence that adequate and proportionatemaritime security measures are in place.

1-091 The US Customs Service has implemented further security safeguards by introducing the24-hour advance manifest rule. The effective date of implementation was December 2,2002. Since that date all carriers are now required to submit a cargo declaration 24 hoursbefore cargo is laden aboard the vessel at a foreign port. Answers to frequently askedquestions about the 24 hour rule may be found at the US Customs Service website athttp://www.customs.ustreas.gov/xp/cgov/import/carriers/24hour_rule/.

2.10.2 Cargo

1-092 Cargo is often thought of first when security is mentioned. In the case of general cargoes,pilferage was a serious problem before the advent of containers. All general cargoeswere loaded by hand and only the most valuable could be stowed in a secure lockerwhether on the ship or on the terminal. The majority was fully exposed in the open stowof the ship’s holds and tween decks or on the floor of the warehouse. To a large extent,the container revolution eased this problem. It was replaced by a much less costlypractice of “shopping”, whereby an occasional container was opened and a few cases ofthe contents stolen.

1-093 Unfortunately, the criminal threat is now the removal of full containers. In some cases,this is done using forged papers in order to claim the container from the terminal.Sometimes, holes are cut in the fences and a container driven away; other times theentire contents of a container have been removed under cover of darkness.

1-094 Cargo seals are a concern. Even high security bolt-type seals cannot guarantee theintegrity of a container. Such seals may frustrate an intruder but cannot make the containerimpregnable. In general, a seal can only demonstrate that the container has been openedor is still secure. However, police in one port discovered that a local business was makingcopies of “door seals” upon request. These seals would have an identical serial numberto that shown on all documents for the container to be tampered with. Terminal employees



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had been stealing cargo from a container during the night and concealing the thefts byreplacing the seal with an identical one made locally. (The investigation also showed thatnobody seemed to control the issuance of seals for local use. Security seals should belocked away and strict procedures followed to control their issuance and inventory.)

1-095 Other occurrences include the unauthorised modification of data in a computer systemand by the alteration of container numbers. Such cargo crime is a serious and growingconcern. Cargo claims are a major problem for the transport industry and for the insurers.Claims for cargo loss exceed those for personal injury, property, collision and pollutionboth in number and in value.

1-096 Another container security risk is that of tampering with the temperature settings onrefrigerated containers. A valuable shipment will be lost if a change in temperaturecauses the product to perish.

1-097 The loss of a container is not really commonplace but it is the most significant threatfacing the operators of a container terminal. No terminal manager can safely assume itwill not happen to him.

2.10.3 Equipment

1-098 All terminals today have expensive equipment and systems on the site. Much of this isworth many millions of dollars. Tampering with, or the unauthorised use of, such equipmentcould result in costly repairs and/or loss of production. This could translate into delays tothe vessel(s) on berth. On a container terminal, this includes any of the machinerydesigned to handle containers. It also includes the computers, whether they are in theoffices or in the machinery. Without these computers, today’s terminal does not easilyfunction.

2.10.4 Intruders and Visitors

1-099 A stranger, innocently, or with intent, walking or driving through an area dedicated to themovement of cargo, whether by wheeled machines, by conveyor or through a pipeline, isin danger of being hurt or of causing a situation detrimental to the operation of the terminal.

1-100 A safe route for passing through a container yard has to be provided for any visitor,including vessel crewmembers. Often this in the form of painted walkways, which hopefullydeter the pedestrian from walking between rows of containers or through other dangerousareas. However, just because a person follows such a designated path, it does not releasethat person from the responsibility of staying alert and looking out for his safety and forthe safety of those around him.

1-101 Everyone must be made aware that they are in a “Materials Handling Area”.



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2.10.5 Security Checklist

1-102 Security checklist is as follows:

• Fence Line

- Does the perimeter fence extend for the whole of the terminal’s boundary?

- Is the perimeter fencing at least two metres high?

- Is the perimeter fence surmounted by at least three strands of barbed orrazor-edged wire, preferably canted outwards?

- Is the perimeter fence constructed of stout chain link fencing, or better?

- Is the chain link fencing mounted on stout metal or concrete posts anchoredsecurely in the ground?

• Entrances

- Are the gates of the facility capable of being secured in such a manner asto prevent a forced entry?

- Do the lanes at the entrance and exit have any form of road barrier inorder to prevent vehicles being brought on to or off the site during non-working hours?

- Are car parking arrangements compatible with good site security?

• Guards

- Are watchmen employed to patrol the site during non-working hours?

- Are watchmen employed to monitor closed-circuit television camerasduring non-working hours?

• Procedures

- Are keys for outbuildings and perimeter gates retained under conditionsof supervision and security?

- Are the keys accurately signed out and again on return?

- Are empty containers thoroughly inspected when being checked out ofthe terminal?



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- Is a system employed to ensure unauthorised cargo cannot be removedfrom the terminal?

- Is there a formalised system for recording reports of incidents and events?

- Is computer access selectively limited to employees on a need-to-knowbasis?

- Are blank forms and completed documentation kept under secureconditions?

- Are trained, qualified and experienced managers available at any time,night or day, to handle unusual incidents involving the facility or thecargo?

- Are occasional spot checks made by outside personnel, experienced inthe industry, on the terminal’s operating and security procedures?

• Computers

- How vulnerable are the computers to fraud by permanent staff, temporarystaff or outsiders?

- Is the computer room and its equipment adequately protected duringworking and non-working hours?

- Are the computer records adequately backed up in the event of fire,criminal damage or other catastrophe?

2.11 EMERGENCY CONTINGENCIES

2.11.1 Responsibilities

1-103 Safety and emergency response are significant factors in the operation of any industrialplant. Various governmental agencies may have jurisdiction over the activities of aworkplace.

1-104 The safety of all personnel on the terminal is of paramount importance. All equipmentmust be safe and must be operated in a safe manner to protect the well being of theworkers. Drivers of any piece of machinery have to be trained in its safe operation. Inthe interests of safety, the operator must:

• be familiar with the machine’s size and capacity;

• know how to operate the machine;



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• understand the operating procedures at the work site;

• operate in a safe manner; and

• use common sense and be at all times alert.

2.11.2 Emergency Response Plan

1-105 Unfortunately, accidents do happen and regulations require that first aid facilities areavailable for any such occasion. Obviously, if the terminal is situated in or close to anarea serviced by a local hospital, then post-first aid care is readily available. However, ifthe terminal’s location is in a remote area, the transportation of an injured person whorequires hospital care must be planned beforehand, e.g. plane, helicopter, fast boat etc,using the assistance of outside agencies such as the military or Coast Guard if necessary.

1-106 In the event of an accident where there is danger to life or the environment, the appropriateagency, or agencies, must be informed. Also, if it is necessary to warn the public, themedia (radio, television and newspapers) should be advised and kept informed. Thenews media will undoubtedly be aware of any such incident on the terminal and it isadvantageous to provide them with all available information.

2.11.3 Hazards

1-107 An emergency situation could be created by the hazards of:

• fire or explosion;

• spills of chemicals, oil or fuel;

• collision between vehicles, equipment and/or vessels; and

• theft or vandalism.

1-108 Measures can be taken to limit the risks to these hazards by establishing “Standard OperatingPractices” (SOPs) for various elements of the terminal’s operations. SOPs should bewritten to cover situations, such as:

• Fire

Fire prevention can be achieved by:

- prohibiting smoking in buildings;

- thorough housecleaning in warehouses;

- regular inspection of sprinkler systems;



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- enforcing a permit system for any burning or welding conducted on thesite, including on any vessel at the berth; and

- maintaining adequate access to all fire hydrants and extinguishers on thepremises.

• Delivery of Fuel to Terminal

Arrange for the fuel truck to be escorted from the gate to the storage tanks andposition the truck such that any spill can be contained.

• Delivery of Bunkers and Lubricating Oils to Ships

Co-ordinate the delivery time with ship and fuel company and escort fuel truck toship’s side. Provide sandbags to prevent any spilled oil from reaching the harbour.

• Control of Movement and Handling of Dangerous Goods

No dangerous goods should be allowed on the site without a permit provided bythe harbour master or equivalent authority. All dangerous goods should besegregated according to regulations and should be accessible at all times. Lists ofdangerous goods on site should be posted for the benefit of any authority.

• Speed Limits

Establish a safe speed for vehicles operating on or passing through the site andencourage the reporting of offenders. Take action against anyone abusing thespeed limit (whether the offender is an employee or a visitor).

• Security Procedures

Maintain a log of patrols. Control access to the site.

• Vessel arrivals

A terminal official should be present as a witness whenever a vessel arrives ordeparts. A ship when moving, albeit slowly, is capable of causing costly damageto the dock face, the fendering systems or to parked dock gantry cranes.

• Site Inspections

Establish regular inspections of the site to identify and correct any unsafe situation.

Even with safety protocols in place, accidents, caused by humans, machinery ornature, do happen. Therefore, it is necessary to draw up plans to enable workersto respond to the following incidents:



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- fires – minor, major, in mobile equipment, in buildings, onboard ships;

- spills (on land or in the water) – chemical, dangerous goods, fuel;

- collisions – between any combination of vehicle, equipment, ship andpeople (even the emergency landing of an aircraft on site);

- bomb or sabotage threats;

- power outage; and

- major storm, flood, earthquake or volcanic ash fallout.

2.11.4 Port of Refuge

1-109 A ship in distress may be in need of a safe haven. Should permission be granted for thedistressed vessel to enter the port and to berth at your terminal? Traditionally, this hasposed no great problem. But today’s large vessels, with much fuel or dangerous cargo onboard, might have a devastating impact on the port and its operations. This is an issueunder discussion around the world today. Questions being asked include:

• Should a port have to take any vessel in distress, even if it poses a risk to the portand the surrounding areas?

• Would the presence of the vessel disturb the activities of the port and its terminals?

• Can access to the port be reasonably denied and if so, when?

• Will the vessel create an unacceptable risk to the local population, to the coast andport environment?

• Would there be a greater harm to the environment if the vessel were left at sea?

• Is there a threat to the safety of the crew and others on board the distressed ship?

1-110 If the distressed vessel is admitted to the port and to your terminal, is it possible to:

• Discharge any affected cargo?

• Arrange for specialists and equipment to handle the ship and its cargo?

• Provide facilities to make suitable repairs to the ship?

• Protect the environment from harm?



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1. What is the definition of “terminal” with respect to transportation?

2. List five potential functions of a marine terminal.

3. Why is the waterside gantry crane rail positioned a long way from thedock face?

4. What activities take place at the gatehouse?



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3. CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Learning Outcomes


• factors that determine the type of cargo equipment required; and

• the most used types of terminal equipment.

1-111 As a part of the studies pertaining to a container terminal, the types of equipment neededto move the containers must be closely examined.

3.1 FACTORS DETERMINING THE TYPE OF EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

1-112 Factors determining the type of equipment required include:

• space available;

• expected volume of traffic; and

• distance to travel within container yard.

1-113 An analysis must be made of the various operating systems. In the case of a containerterminal, this means comparing the costs of operating with straddle carriers, rubber tyredgantries or top lifting equipment, or using an all-wheeled operation.

1-114 Once the method of operation has been determined, the type of equipment and itsspecifications can be defined. The choice will now depend on:

• availability (what is the delivery time?);

• specifications (to be determined by the purchaser so that the manufacturers’ bidscan be assessed against a common criteria);

• cost;

• performance;

• ease and cost of maintenance;

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• financing/leasing arrangements; and

• warranties.

1-115 Since such machinery is likely to be very expensive, and the price may vary considerablyfrom manufacturer to manufacturer, much detail is needed before final decisions can bemade. In the case of a large item like a dock gantry crane or yard crane, one decision tobe made involves the choice of having it erected on site or delivered fully assembled, seeFigure 3.1 below:

Figure 3.1

New Crane Being Delivered Fully Assembled

1-116 The inventory of spare parts for the machinery, and the availability of the parts, need tobe considered. The location of the port might have a bearing on this decision. If theterminal is located close to a major supplier of parts, where delays to operations would beminimal, then only a small inventory of spares need be maintained on site. However, ifthe facility is in a remote location, the inventory of spare parts must, of necessity, be quitelarge. It may be necessary to have an arrangement in place whereby the manufacturer,or its representative, would provide fast delivery of needed parts in an emergency.

1-117 The provision of a fully equipped maintenance shop on site is most important. This allowsfor equipment repairs to be made, but more importantly, it allows for a systematic“preventive maintenance programme”. Maintenance should be proactive so that its activitiesand resources are under control. The maintenance shop needs to be equipped to handlerepairs or to maintain any or all of the following:

• heavy-duty machinery;

• automotive vehicles;

• hydraulics;



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• electrical systems;

• electronics;

• milling;

• welding;

• plumbing; and

• painting.

1-118 Modern equipment is so sophisticated that it would be next to impossible for the localmaintenance crew to understand every facet of its technology. Facilities close to an urbanarea would have the benefit of expert advice from trade specialists. In remote locations,such advice would likely come at great expense if technicians need to be flown in.

1-119 If the terminal is operating on a tight budget, an emphasis on price might become the keyfactor in the choice of manufacturer of new equipment. But, it is important to considerthe quality of the equipment being purchased. When one breakdown can cause costlydelays to a vessel, there is perhaps a need to ensure that the equipment’s control systemsare reliable and service friendly. In the case of electrical components, reliability may beaffected by moisture and corrosion. In tropical areas water ingress is a concern forelectric motors and switchboards. The designs for these have to consider the affects ofrain coming as a downpour or being driven by high winds. Tropical temperatures maymake air conditioning necessary for electrical enclosures. Air conditioning will reducethe humidity in such an enclosure but care must be taken to prevent condensation formingon the walls as a result.

3.2 CONTAINER TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

1-120 In choosing the equipment to handle containers in the storage area, there needs to bemuch research and discussion. No single system can be applicable to every terminal andsituation. There are various methods of handling containers using different types ofequipment. The following describes the systems and equipment most commonly in usetoday.

3.2.1 The Chassis System

1-121 In the chassis system, or wheeled operation, an import container, when discharged froma ship, is placed directly on to a highway chassis. A terminal tractor then moves thechassis to a place in the marshalling area. The export container is similarly handled – aterminal tractor moves it from the marshalling area to the ship’s side where it is lifted offthe chassis and onto the ship.



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1-122 A drayman, arriving to collect an import load, first processes the documentation at thegate, then locates and locks on to the appropriate chassis in the Container Yard (CY),completes the receipt at the exit gate, and drives away from the terminal with the chassisand container. The empty container can be returned to the terminal, inspected and parkedfor future use, still sitting on the chassis.

1-123 An export load will possibly commence as an empty container sitting on a chassis in theCY. It is collected from there by a drayman, taken to the shipper’s location, packed andthen returned full to the CY. At the gate, the container is inspected once again,documentation is processed, and then the drayman parks the loaded chassis in themarshalling yard.

1-124 Advantages of the wheeled system are:

• There is ready access to every container in the CY at all times.

• Container damage is kept to a minimum.

• The drayman’s turnaround time is also reduced to a minimum.

• Few personnel are required to operate the CY.

• The only equipment required by the terminal operator is a fleet of tractors to movethe chassis and containers to and from the ship’s side.

1-125 Disadvantages of the system are:

• When both ship and gate operations are using the CY, the resulting congestion cancause conflict and loss of production in both operations.

• Much land is needed.

• The CY needs constant monitoring to update container locations.

3.2.2 The Straddle Carrier

1-126 The straddle carrier (see Figure 3.2 on the next page) has the ability to lift vertically and totravel horizontally with the container, providing the user with flexibility and versatility.The machine is able to stack containers three or four high. In some cases, the machine isable to straddle railcars to load or unload containers and move them to their place of rest inthe CY.



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Figure 3.2

Straddle Carrier

1-127 When using a straddle carrier system, the import container is discharged from the ship andplaced on the dock. The straddle carrier will then lock on to the container and travel withit to the CY or CFS (Container Freight Station), if there is one on site. The exportcontainer is picked up by the straddle carrier in the CY and transported to the ship’s sidefor loading to the vessel.

1-128 A truck, which is on the terminal to collect an import container, will be instructed to parkin an area designated for truck loading while the straddle carrier picks up the containerfrom the CY, transports it to the loading area and places it on the truck’s chassis. A truckdelivering a container for export also will park in the designated exchange area. Thestraddle carrier will then lift the container from the chassis and transport it to a plannedlocation in the CY.

1-129 Advantages of the straddle carrier system are:

• Only one piece of equipment is needed for transporting and stacking the container.

• Land utilisation is reasonable (better than chassis system).

• No problem with inadequate chassis supply.

• Because ship-to-shore cranes place the containers on to the ground and not on toa trailer, the cranes are able to operate at maximum capacity.



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1-130 Disadvantages include:

• Maintenance costs on some straddle carriers may be high.

• Operators need to be well disciplined to maintain traffic control.

• Above average damage may occur to sides and roofs of containers.

1-131 A concept recently introduced is the straddle carrier designed only to shuttle containersbetween the ship and the equipment in the storage area. This straddle carrier, known as aShuttle Carrier (see Figure 3.3) is designed to pick up a container and travel with it at highspeeds. It cannot lift the container over another. The low height and high traveling speedmake this carrier the most efficient way of moving containers through the terminal. Itallows the terminal to have the high stacking density provided by the rubber tyred gantryor rail mounted gantry, together with the straddle carrier’s efficient method of movingcontainers.

Figure 3.3

Shuttle Carrier



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3.2.3 Rubber Tyred Gantries

1-132 Rubber Tyred Gantries (RTGs) have long been a feature of the container yard. This typeof machine (see Figure 3.4) operates along a lane of containers that may be stacked three,four or five high and up to seven rows wide. The machine can be taken from that lane toanother by stopping it at a specific spot at the end of the lane. There, the wheels areturned through 90 degrees, allowing the machine to move to the similar location at thechosen lane where the wheels are returned to the original alignment. The RTG does nottravel while holding a container. Instead it lifts the container to transfer it between thetrailer and the stack.

Figure 3.4

Rubber Tyred Gantries

1-133 In the RTG method of operation, the import container is discharged from the vessel to thestevedore’s chassis (bombcart). The unit is then towed to the appropriate RTG, whichwill remove the container from the bombcart and place it into storage. The export containeris taken from the stack by the RTG and placed on to the bombcart. The container is thentowed to the crane for loading to the vessel.

1-134 When a container is being received for export, the trucker will tow it, on the highwaychassis, to a designated container yard location. (This location will have been determined,probably by computer, when the receipt was being completed at the gatehouse.) Thetrucker must then unlatch the container and wait for the RTG to remove the containerfrom the chassis and place it in the stack. If the trucker has come for an import container,he will be directed to position his chassis beside the appropriate block of containers in theCY. An RTG will then remove the container from the stack and place it on to the chassis.The truck driver must now secure the container to the chassis and return to the gatehouseto complete the documentation before leaving the terminal.



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1-135 The RTG offers the following advantages:

• Land is better utilised than under the chassis system.

• The equipment used to move the containers within the container yard costs lessthan the straddle carrier system.

1-136 The disadvantages are:

• Accessibility to a container becomes more difficult as stacking density increases.

• The new RTG is an expensive machine.

• Busy periods cause a shortage of machines to meet all operations.

• The RTG cannot travel with a container attached.

• More labour is needed than with straddle carrier system.

1-137 A machine similar to the RTG is the “Rail Mounted Gantry” (RMG). As the nameimplies, this machine runs on rails, therefore, it is dedicated to work only the area betweenthe rails. This could be a “lane” of containers in the CY (Thamesport in England operatesin this fashion) or perhaps it could straddle the “on dock” rail tracks, as it does at DeltaPort (see Figure 3.5 ) in the port of Vancouver, British Columbia. The machine is morestable than the RTG, and can be designed to handle containers outside of its legs, but asmentioned, is limited to a given area of operation.

Figure 3.5

Rail Mounted Gantry



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3.2.4 The Top-Pick or Top-Lift Truck (FLT)

1-138 The top-pick (see Figure 3.6), sometimes known as a top-lift or top-rack, is a heavy-dutytop lifting truck. It is an economical machine for operating within a small container yard.Such a machine probably has a capacity of 95,000 lbs, and with a top-lift spreader it iscapable of stacking fully loaded 40 foot or 45 foot containers four high. The machine canbe used on its own, carrying containers between the ship’s side and the CY, but it is betterused in conjunction with tractors and bombcarts as in the RTG system.

Figure 3.6

Top Pick

1-139 A variant to the standard, and popular, straight-masted machine is the “Reach Stacker”(see Figure 3.7). This machine is quite versatile with superior capacity, efficiency andsafety. It is capable of reaching across a container to place or recover another in theadjacent row. It can be used at rail sidings where it can reach across a bombcart to therailcar beside it.



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Figure 3.7

Reach Stacker

1-140 Which is better, the well known forklift truck (FLT) or the more modern and versatilereachstacker?

This is a question commonly asked by port equipment operators. Neither machine isbetter than the other. The application that the machine is required for will determine thechoice. Reachstackers are gaining in popularity and may become dominant in the loadedcontainer market, but FLTs still have a role to play, especially for handling empty containers(see Figure 3.8). A decision can only be made after an analysis is made with respect to theavailable stacking areas, the volume of traffic and the flexibility required.



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Figure 3.8

Empty Container Handler

1-141 Safety and ease of handling are other considerations. Reachstackers offer improved visibilityfor the driver although one manufacturer of FLTs has introduced a model where the mastis not in front of the drive axle. Instead, there are two masts behind the axle, one on eachside of the operator. These masts are mounted to the chassis and cannot tilt. Instead, thelifting attachment is able to tilt. Because the load moment is now acting behind the driveaxle, that machine can now be lighter and have a shorter wheelbase or turning radius.

1-142 Manoeuvrability under loaded conditions – the FLT can work well within a 15-metre wideaisle stacking or retrieving loaded containers. The reachstacker can do the same, but maynot be able to offer the second row capability. The true second row reachstacker wouldneed a 16-metre aisle thus reducing the storage capacity of the CY.

1-143 The advantages of the top-pick are:

• The machine is versatile, can travel anywhere, and by replacing the spreaderbeam with forks, it can be used to handle other cargoes.

• It is a comparatively inexpensive machine and is easy to service.



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1-144 The disadvantages of the top-pick are:

• The wheels place heavy stresses upon the surface of the CY.

• More space between the container blocks is needed than with an RTG to allow themachine to manoeuvre.

• Containers are not so easily selected by number because of the size of the storageblocks.

3.2.5 The Yard Tractor

1-145 The yard tractor (see Figure 3.9) has become the major piece of equipment being used inmost container terminals (such equipment is versatile and also used extensively in multi-purpose terminals for moving other cargoes). The tractor, often known as a “yard hustler”,has had to be modified in recent years and even redesigned with a heavier capacity. Anexample of this is the four-wheel drive version designed to haul a string of trailers.

Figure 3.9

Yard Tractor



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3.2.6 Dockside Container Gantry Cranes

1-146 Dock gantry cranes (see Figure 3.10) have had to become faster and larger as the newgenerations of containerships have appeared. They need to be faster to handle the increasedvolumes of containers being carried. They need to be higher because of the increasedheight of vessels and of their on-deck stowage. The booms need to be longer to be able toextend across the modern ship.

Figure 3.10

Dock Gantry Cranes

1-147 A comparison of specifications for cranes built in the early 1970s and those built in the late1990s is given on the following page.



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1970s 1990s

Capacity

- Under Spreader 40 L/Tons 50 L/Tons

- Under Hook 46 L/Tons 60 L/Tons

Outreach 120’ 175’(Panamax) (Super Post-

Panamax)

Height of Spreader Above Dock 76’ 110’

Distance, Bumper to Bumper 94’ 88’

Speed

- Hoist (Full Load) 100’ / Min 170’ / Min

- Trolley 410’ / Min 600’ / Min

1-148 As can be seen, apart from the crane’s width, all dimensions have increased over theyears. The width has diminished to allow two cranes to work more closely together on theship.

1-149 Environmental aspects of the machinery need to be studied when choosing the equipment.Even though most dockside container gantry cranes have electric motors, the RTGs, TopPicks and Straddle Carriers are diesel powered. In addition, if the terminal is not efficientlyoperated, the highway vehicles attending the terminal can be delayed at the gate andinside the CY, with engines running, thus generating many air pollutants.

1-150 Visiting the Container Terminal at Aarhus will give trainees the opportunity to see muchof the above equipment in operation.



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1. What are the pros and cons of a straddle carrier.

2. How does the RTG change lanes?

3. What are the disadvantages of the top pick?

4. When buying new equipment, what criteria will the choice dependon?



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4. CARGO PLANNING

Learning Outcomes


• the reason why planning of cargo movements is so important; and

• how modern technology is helping monitor cargo movements.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

1-151 Preparing for the movement of cargo through the terminal will begin long before it actuallyarrives. This is so whether the cargo in question is in bulk (dry or liquid), breakbulk orcontainerised, or if it involves passengers.

1-152 The use of computers to record and monitor the cargo movements is now commonplace.It is possible for a marine terminal to keep track of shipments from the moment they leavethe manufacturer’s site and then to follow the cargo as it is transported by rail to the port.Once it is removed from the railcars or highway vehicle, inventory of the product can bemaintained until it is loaded to the vessel. In the interests of customer service, it may beadvantageous to allow the shipper access to the marine terminal’s computer, only to seekinformation about its own product. Similarly, it is also sensible to allow the shipping line,or its agents, access to information about cargo being received for its ships. This accesswill also allow the shipping line to update the booking lists and so provide timely detailsand instructions for the terminal’s operations staff.

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4.2 CONTAINER MOVEMENTS

4.2.1 Flow Patterns

1-153 Containers may move through the marine terminal in any of the following patterns:

Import – Ship to gate

Import – Ship to rail

Import – Ship to barge

Export – Gate to ship

Export – Rail to ship

Export – Barge to ship

Transship – Ship to ship (mainline or feeder)

Empties – Import returned empty, export released empty

4.3 EXPORT CARGO

4.3.1 Export Cargo Booking List

1-154 In the case of export cargoes, planning for its handling begins once the line has providedthe terminal with a “booking list”. This should be issued well in advance of the vessel’sarrival. The list will contain pertinent information such as:

• Name of vessel and voyage number (in some trades it is possible to be receivingcargo for more than one voyage of the same vessel).

• Description and quantity of the cargo booked.

• Name of the shipper.

• Port of discharge.

• Booking number.

• Special details, i.e. hazardous cargo information, temperatures for refrigeratedcargo, weights and dimensions of heavy lifts or oversized cargo.



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1-155 The booking list will need to be updated daily, or even more frequently, so that the terminalalways has a complete list. The terminal should not accept any cargo unless there isreference to it on the list. Cargo delivered to the terminal but which does not appear onthe list must be held outside of the premises until such time that the shipping line authorisesits receipt.

4.3.2 Receiving Refrigerated Cargo

1-156 Refrigerated cargoes must not be accepted on the terminal without knowing thetemperature at which the product is to be maintained, or if there are any doubts about itscurrent temperature. It is important always to monitor the temperature that the shipperof the cargo requires, and which scale is to be used. Most frozen products seem to becarried at –18oC, which equates to 0oF. To set the reefer unit at the wrong temperatureis one mistake. To fail to correct it as soon as possible is another.

1-157 To accept a container of refrigerated cargo on to the terminal without possession of therequired temperature settings can be expensive. The last carrier, and in this case, theterminal is a carrier, to receive a container into its care in apparent good order, is responsiblefor the condition of that container and its cargo (this applies to any container or cargo, notjust refrigerated).

4.3.3 Cut-Off Date for Receiving

1-158 To aid in the planning, an important date should be established – the “cut off date”. Theshipping line and the terminal operator must agree on this date. This is the date, and thetime of day, by which cargoes must have been delivered to the terminal if they are to beloaded to the nominated ship. The terminal operator will not want to be receiving cargowhile the ship, particularly a containership, is alongside, and yet both the operator and theshipping line will have to be conscious of the shipper’s wishes and limitations. Successfuldelivery of the cargo to the buyer may mean more to everyone handling the cargo than theinconvenience of receiving it late. The shipper is a mutual customer of both the terminaland the shipping line.

4.3.4 Allocation of Cargo to Storage Locations

1-159 Using the booking list, the terminal can plan the efficient use of its storage areas. Thecargo for a ship will be consolidated by commodity, ports of discharge and by dimension.Today’s terminals usually use computer software to store and process this information

1-160 The storage areas, both within warehouses and outside, will probably be best divided intoa grid. These grids might be large blocks to hold shipments of breakbulk cargoes. In thecase of containers they would appear as a pattern of painted rows of 20 foot, 40 foot and45 foot spots. Each spot or block will have a unique address. The address will be used toplan the receipt of cargo, to maintain control of the cargo while on the site and to use as apoint of reference when the cargo is to be loaded to a ship. All personnel involved in the



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loading operation will be familiar with the “grid” on that particular site and so can delivercargo from storage to the ship’s side without delay. The location of the grid in relation tothe position of the ship in the port will determine the number of machines and the size ofthe workforce needed to support the loading or unloading operation.

4.3.5 Confirmation of Cargo to be Loaded

1-161 Just prior to the ship’s arrival, all information about the cargo to be loaded to the vesselcan be produced. The shipping line, in conjunction with the terminal staff, can confirmwhat cargo has been received and is physically available to be loaded to the ship. Fromthis list they must remove any items that cannot be shipped at that particular time. Thereasons for not shipping cargo could be varied. Possibly there is a “letter of credit” yet tobe produced, or a shipment is incomplete, or because there is insufficient room on theship.

1-162 The shipping line should now issue a confirmation detailing which cargo is to be loaded.

4.3.6 Pre-Stowage Plan

1-163 Using this information, the shipping company can now produce a pre-stow plan, showingthe parts of the ship designated for each port of discharge and for each commodity. Inthe case of a containership, this will distinguish also between the various sizes of containers.

1-164 At this point the terminal’s staff can determine the order in which cargo is to be loaded intoeach part of the ship. Combining this with the information about the cargo to be discharged,if any, they can also plan the efficient use of equipment and labour to handle the cargo.

4.4 IMPORT CARGO

4.4.1 Inbound Stowage Plan and Cargo Manifest

1-165 The shipping line will provide the terminal with a copy of the inbound stowage plan andthe inward foreign manifest. The plan will indicate the type, quantity and location ofcargo that the ship is carrying for each port of discharge. The manifest will provideinformation about the cargo for this port only. It will provide greater details about thecargo than is shown on the plan. In some cases it will help distinguish cargo that may havea priority, which may require special attention, or cargo that may be for direct discharge toa lighter, a railcar or a truck.

1-166 The manifest will indicate:

• The name of the ship and the voyage number.

• Country of registration.

• Name of ship’s master.



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• Port of loading.

• Date of sailing from load port.

• Port of discharge.

• Names and addresses of shippers.

• Names and addresses of consignees.

• Bills of lading numbers.

• Marks and numbers as shown on cargo.

• Description of goods, number and kind of packages.

• Gross weight or measurement weight.

• Remarks.

1-167 From the above, information can be compiled and made available to the terminal’smanagement. This will allow them to prepare for the discharge operation.

4.4.2 Preparation of Terminal for Discharge Operations

1-168 Details that are needed in this preparation include:

• Date and time of arrival.

• Where to berth the vessel.

• What types of cargo are to be handled?

• Where should they be stored?

• Can the cargo be stored outside or does it require inside storage?

• Is it necessary to consolidate cargo already on the dock to make space available?

• What lifting gear is required?

• What mobile equipment is needed?

• Is it necessary to rent additional equipment?



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• How large a workforce is required?

• Will inland transportation have to be co-ordinated to move priority cargoes?

• Is any cargo to be discharged direct to lighter, railcar or truck?

• If so, are the necessary documents and Customs’ clearances available?

4.4.3 Inspection of Discharged Cargo

1-169 Cargo being discharged from a ship must be tallied and inspected for damage. A photographicrecord of damaged cargo should be created. These records are vital should there be anyclaim made about the condition or amount of cargo. The cargo must be sorted accordingto bill of lading and placed in the storage area accordingly. For protection from moistureor damage from the dock surface, some cargoes will need to be placed on dunnage, withdunnage separating the various tiers.

1-170 In the case of a containership, it is almost impossible to inspect the condition of eachcontainer and its seal at the time of discharge. It is generally unsafe to attempt thisbecause of the heavy equipment being used and the danger this exposes workers to.Therefore, all parties must understand, that the first opportunity to inspect a container iswhen it is being delivered to road or rail transport or when it is set down at the terminal’sCFS for destuffing.

1-171 Nowadays, many ports routinely pass containers through a scanner for security reasons.

4.5 VESSEL OPERATIONS

1-172 The initial stages of preparation for loading or discharging a vessel will be similar regardlessof the nature of the cargo or ship.

4.5.1 Prior to Vessel’s Arrival

1-173 Prior to vessel’s arrival:

• Confirm the date and time of arrival.

• Select the appropriate berth for the ship (and possibly the position of the vessel,i.e. port side or starboard side to the berth).

• Discuss and finalise the operation with the ship’s agent, port captain or focal point.

• Order labour and equipment.



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4.5.2 After the Vessel’s Arrival

1-174 After the vessel’s arrival:

• Meet the master and/or chief officer to present any proposed stowage plans orflow sheets, which detail the order of work.

• Present any safety rules and dangerous cargo regulations that must be adhered to,plus a plan of the facility showing the location of gates with the safe routes throughthe terminal to those gates. Also provide the ship with a list of important telephonenumbers to be used to contact port staff or for emergency situations.

• Respond to ship’s requests for fresh water, removal of refuse etc.

• Maintain contact with the ship’s personnel throughout the operation so that everyoneknows what is happening at all times. Keep the master informed about anythingthat could affect the estimated departure time.

4.5.3 Vessel Stowage

1-175 The containers, when placed on the ship must be stowed in a satisfactory manner. Thismeans that:

• The stowage will not cause harm to the ship or her crew or to any other cargoesonboard.

• The cargo will be protected from damage or loss.

• At the ports of discharge, containers will be accessible without causing the costlyand unnecessary movement of others.

1-176 Also, and particularly important today with the high cost of operating a ship, the loadingand discharging operations will need to be completed economically and yet as quickly aspossible.

1-177 The stowage and securing of containers affects the safety of the ship, her crew, and of thecargo itself. It is vitally important that those responsible for planning and supervising theoperation pay proper attention to safety. However, regardless of who plans and supervisesthe loading operation, the ship’s master is ultimately the person responsible for the safetyof his or her vessel and for the cargo. The ship is expected to deliver the goods in thesame condition that they were received onboard.

1-178 Attention must be paid to the concerns and wishes of the vessel’s master and his officers.They may have good reasons for asking the terminal to follow a particular order of work.Perhaps the ship has to complete repairs in a given part of the ship. Perhaps there areproblems with the ballast pumps and they are unable to trim the vessel as speedily as isnecessary to keep pace with the cranes’ production. Their concerns may have a negativeimpact on the terminal’s anticipated productivity but it is their ship and their needs must berespected.



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1-179 It must also be remembered that the ship’s crew, owners and agents are the customers ofthe port. It is they who are responsible for the safe delivery of the ship and its cargo tothe port of discharge, and it is they who must be satisfied if the ship is to continue usingthe port.

1-180 Upon completion of the operation, it will be necessary to provide documentation showingcargo that was loaded to the ship.

1-181 First there will be a stowage plan, detailing how many containers have been stowed ineach hold and for each destination. This plan may be a composite, combining this port’scargo with containers from any previous port of loading.

1-182 Then there will be a list describing any refrigerated cargo and the temperature at whichit is to be maintained. Also there must be a dangerous cargo list for any hazardous cargoloaded to the ship.

1-183 In the case of breakbulk cargo, a “mate’s receipt” should be produced for the mate to sign.Such receipt should show the quantity and full description of the cargo. It can includecomments about the apparent condition of the cargo, especially if it appears to be damaged.


1. What is the purpose of the “cut off date”?

2. Who is ultimately responsible for the stowage and securing ofcontainers on the ship?



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5. INTERMODAL LINKS

Learning Outcomes


• what is meant by intermodal links;

• the historic development of the concept of intermodal links; and

• some of the jargon used in the current language of intermodal transport.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

1-184 Just as it is impossible to consider a port without considering the access and facilities forships, so it is impossible to discuss a port without considering how the cargo is transferredon the landward side. One of the main purposes of a port is to transfer cargo betweenmodes. The modes that connect with the port are road, rail and pipeline. There is also aconsiderable amount of “sea-air” intermodal movements, which are linked by road transport.Waterborne transshipments via other ships or barges are not considered here in this section.This section will look at the rail and road links necessary for a port to be intermodal.

5.2 DEFINITION OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION

1-185 Intermodal transportation takes place when one transport operator issues a single documentof carriage in which he contracts to provide transportation of goods from one point toanother by more than one means of transportation and for which the owner of the goodspays only one overall freight payment.

1-186 Intermodal transportation is sometimes referred to as intermodalism, intermodality,multimodal transportation or multi-modalism. It has been around for a long time, however,the term intermodal transportation and its widespread use really only came into its ownwith the development of the general cargo container.

1-187 It should be noted that intermodal transportation is often considered to be synonymouswith containerisation; however, many bulk cargoes, such as grain, coal and petroleumproducts, are moved intermodally and have been so since long before containers were incommon use.

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5.2.1 The Challenges of Intermodal Transportation

1-188 The challenges of intermodal transportation are:

1. The Problem

Moving goods between different shaped vehicles operating in different mediums. Mostship operators will be extremely keen to encourage marine terminals to improve shipturnaround time in order to save on vessel costs. However, focusing on the vessel alonegives us a very narrow focus on the management of cargo within the port. The ultimatecustomers are the shippers and consignees of the cargo and it is, therefore, necessary tolook at the port productivity by measuring how long the cargo has to be in the port. Theproblem is that the different modal vehicles have very different shapes and capacities.

For example:

• Ship

6,000 TEU capacity – effectively rectangular by use of container cells – mediumwater.

• Train

400 TEU capacity – rectangular and double stacked – medium land.

• Lorry (Truck)

2 TEU capacity – rectangular – medium land.

• Airplane

Cylindrical – medium air.

2. The Challenge

To keep goods moving without delays when goods must be transferred from one mode toanother. Without the change of medium and mode there would be no need for a portexcept for national government requirements for customs, port health etc. This would bethe ideal for the shipper and the consignee, no delay in the movement of goods. However,the challenge for all terminal operators is how to minimise the delay incurred whiletransferring cargo between the different modes. For example, when a large containershipdischarges 3,000 TEU in 24 hours the terminal has to have the space to store that capacityeven if it is only for a few hours for some containers. It is impossible to distribute 3,000TEU immediately. When considering ship to rail movements the vehicles are better matchedin capacity. Trains can be scheduled to coincide with the discharge. Priority rail containers



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can be identified before discharge. Except for a few notable exceptions, like Hong Kong,road traffic has a random arrival pattern and the mismatch in ship to lorry vehicle capacityusually means that it will take several days to distribute the road traffic. For exports, thechallenge is to martial export containers in such a manner as to facilitate the efficientloading of the ship while minimising delays to the cargo shipment.

5.2.2 Intermodal Definitions

1-189 Intermodal definitions are:

• Single Modal Transfers

Single modal transfers occur between vehicles of the same mode and are easierbecause vehicles are similar and operate in the same medium.

• Online Transfers

Online transfers occur between vehicles of the same company and are easier toaccomplish than interline transfers that occur between vehicles of two differentcompanies.

• Intermodal Cargoes

Intermodal cargoes are generally classified as general, bulk and neo-bulk cargoes.

• Documentation

Documentation and data transfer concerning intermodal cargoes is as important asthe intermodal transfer itself. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is increasinglybeing used.

• Liability

Liability in intermodal transportation usually falls on a single operator regardlessof which operator was involved when loss or damage occurred.

• Deregulation

Deregulation of government controls, particularly in railroads and trucking, havemade the advance of intermodal transportation easier.

• Just-In-Time

Just-in-time production processes make extensive use of intermodal transportationbecause of its inherent reliability, frequency and alternate route choices.



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• The Container Revolution

Driven by the desire of operators to improve general cargo handling productivityand to benefit from economics of scale.

• Standardisation

Sea-Land started with 35’ x 8’ x 8’ 6" containers, Matson with 28’ x 8’ x 8’ 6”.The International Standards Organisation (ISO) settled on 20’ and 40’ containers8’ wide by 8’ or 8’ 6” high. Now there are 45’ containers and other lengths andwidths being considered.

• Computer Control

With the rapid transit times affected by containerisation of general cargo, thedocumentation process had to be speeded up. The containers themselves alsorequired a comprehensive inventory control system.

• Door-to-Door Movement

Many early containerisation ventures were operationally driven; however, it wassoon apparent that the ability to offer a door-to-door service allowed the shipper achoice of operator, route and port. Thus the service rapidly became consumerdriven.

• Logistics Management

This is a business management technique that controls the whole manufacturingprocess from source materials to point of sale. The requirement is for efficient,consistent and reliable transportation links to allow stocks to be minimal. This willbe more deeply discussed in your Logistics module.

5.3 THE RAIL MODE

5.3.1 Rail Development

1-190 Rail transportation developed in the early part of the 19th century and for the first timehigh volume, long distance overland movement of freight was possible. Although railroadswere mostly developed with private capital, they had very significant government assistancein obtaining rights of way and in some cases were given government land.

1-191 Railroads soon became very profitable and extremely powerful, both commercially andpolitically. In most countries there were several different private railroads. In a smallcountry such as Britain there were at least six major railroads each with their own Londonterminus and with different rail gauges. Even now a movement through London entails atransfer from one terminus to another.



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1-192 Although privately owned, railroads developed on a national basis. Europe now has avariety of nationally owned railroads, some with differing rail gauges – a true challenge tothe development of a European intermodal network.

1-193 In North America, railroads were of even more significance than in Europe, unlocking thevast potential of the continent. The relative size of North America to Europe and thespatial relationship of its major population centres increased the value of the railroads.

1-194 One major difference between the USA and Canada was that Canada developed singlecompany transcontinental railroads. Despite the size and importance of individual USrailroads, no single company developed a fully transcontinental railroad.

5.3.2 Rail Intermodal Operations

1-195 To railroads in North America, intermodal operations meant the movement of road trailerson railcars, commonly known as piggyback operations. TOFC (Trailer on Flat Car) andCOFC (Container on Flat Car) are both piggyback operations. In the case of COFC, thecontainer is mounted on a road chassis. Rail intermodal services were developed tocompete with truck services. By intermodal, the railroads mean the movement of containersand trailers. Other rail movements, such as grain and coal, although intermodal comeunder the railroads heavy-haul divisions. Import/export services refer to the movementof marine containers from ships to their final destination for imports, or from origin to theship for exports. Rail intermodal movements are extensively used for domestic serviceswithin North America.

5.3.3 Ship to Rail Container Transfer Facilities

1-196 Ship to rail container facilities are:

• Inland Container Transfer Facility (ICTF)

This is a terminal that is usually sited a few miles from the marine terminal. It willserve many marine terminals in the area and usually handle domestic traffic aswell.

• Rail Container Terminal (RCT)

Sited adjacent to or within a port’s boundaries. Such a terminal would normallyhave been built exclusively for marine traffic, but may handle some domestictraffic.



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• On-dock Rail Terminal

On-dock rail facilities (see Figure 5.1) vary from a full size rail terminal to a sidingserviced by the marine terminal’s regular handling equipment. The marine terminalusually operates on-dock facilities, the railcars being switched by the rail company.The advantage of on-dock rail is the quick transfer of containers from ship to rail.A disadvantage is that it may increase switching costs for the rail companies.

Figure 5.1

On Dock Rail Facility

1-197 Note that ICTF and RCT could also refer to inland rail terminals.

5.4 THE ROAD MODE

5.4.1 Road Transport Development

1-198 Road transport preceded rail by several thousand years. However, the infrastructure waspoor and most movements of freight were over short distances and of low volume. Thelimiting factor was the carrying capacity and range of the animals used to transport freight.A typical range was 20 miles per day.



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1-199 Trucks did not make a significant impact until the First World War when their versatilitybecame apparent. Initially, truck traffic was restricted to cartage applications in that theyjust replaced the horse and cart.

5.4.2 Innovation

1-200 Improvements and, where possible, automation of transport distribution and transshipmentof goods has made it possible to save costs and create a continuous efficient traffic flow.

1-201 For the North American railroads, intermodal is where the action is. Except for a period inthe mid-1990s, intermodal traffic has been the segment of their operations with the strongestgrowth. This trend is expected to continue.

1-202 The strategy has improved the image of railways with a focus on scheduled departuresand on-time service. Historically, the railroads have struggled with a poor reputation foron-time performance. There has been a gradual recognition that the rail service had notbeen as good as that provided by the motor carriers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. What advantage does road transport have over rail?



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6. KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

Learning Outcomes

On successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• give the methodology for creating the indicators;

• give, classify and explain the ways of calculating the different indicators;

• research the information needed for each indicator;

• show the meaning and the use of the indicators for establishing a diagnosisand take the decisions; and

• discuss the results of the diagnosis in order to prepare recommendations.

1-203 At the end of this module, you should be able to diagnose the efficiency of the terminal.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

1-204 The efficiency of Port is important because the cost of the ships and the goods at portsdetermine the major part of the maritime transport chain.

1-205 According to several studies, it is admitted that two-thirds of the total maritime cost areincurred in ports, mainly:

• wharfage;

• handling; and

• storage operations.

1-206 However, cost not only includes the port dues and the price invoiced by agents for theoperations, but also the time in ports and the quality of services.

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1-207 This means that the responsibility of the manager of the port is two-fold:

• flexibility – to smooth operations as much as possible; and

• forecasting and planning – to prepare for the future by good planning.

1-208 Despite the fact that more and more ports all over the world have engaged in a processof privatisation, the port authority is still involved in the control of efficiency because thesurvival of the port in a competitive market or the economy of the country in case ofmonopoly, are determined by efficiency.

“Efficiency is the Key Word of Terminal Management”

1-209 Anyway, whatever the status of the port, the operator and/or the port authority must haveobjective information on the actual situation on which to base decisions.

1-210 For this reason, it is important to create tools to continually measure the evolving situationat the terminal, to assess performance and enable timely decisions to improve productivity,heighten service levels and inform investment decisions – these tools are the performancesindicators.

“Performance Indicators Measure Efficiency”

1-211 Such a control instrument or better management information system is nowadays an absolutenecessity for port management due to the complexity and large variety of different activitiesin the port industry.

6.2 DEFINITIONS

6.2.1 What is Port Performance?

Physical Performance

1-212 Physical performance is the output of the existing facilities. We can calculate theperformance of the port as a whole or the performance for each kind of facility (berth,specialised berth, yard, crane, shed, storehouse, labour force etc).

Financial Performance

1-213 Financial performance is the contribution of each category of services provided.



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Quality performance

1-214 Quality performance is becoming a more important factor of competition than price.Reliability, flexibility, application of rules, time spent resolving conflicts and arguments areincluded in the quality of service, as well as the handling capacity. Quality performancedenotes the ability to solve problems.

6.2.2 What is an Indicator?

1-215 An indicator is a tool of measurement of the performance. The indicators are alwaysquantified as mathematical formulas in order to be objective and calculated in a harmonisedway.

1-216 From the above, it is clear that the quality of the indicators depends on the reliability of theinformation.

1-217 The description of the indicators will, therefore, be linked with the kinds of informationwe need and the problems we may meet when collecting the data. These indicators existfor all the operations and for any kind of cargoes or yards.

1-218 Though a port is a whole, when analysing the efficiency of a port we are obliged toseparate the activities and measure their efficiency separately to determine the strengthsand the weaknesses of the port.

1-219 This analysis of the indicators will be followed by the methodology for estimating themaximum capacity of the port’s facilities and the ways to upgrade it thanks to the use ofthe port performance indicators.

Performance Indicators for the Berths

1-220 The berths serve the ships. The first function of a port is to receive ships and providethem with services, such as:

• shelter;

• piloting;

• tugging; and

• mooring facilities.

1-221 The performance indicators for the berth are mainly necessary for the planning departmentsand for the harbour master who is in charge of locating the ships.

1-222 A lack of berths results in waiting time for the ships but an over-capacity of berths is awaste of capital.



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1-223 Therefore, the output, service and utilisation ratios are explained in this chapter from theplanning and the commercial aspects.

6.3 BERTH OUTPUT INDICATORS

1-224 The berth output indicators are very useful for the terminal planner because they showthe evolution of the performance of each berth and determine the terminal capacity.

6.3.1 Definition

1-225 The berth throughput indicator is the total number of teu or units handled on one berth ina stated period (usually a year).

For containers : BT = total TEU/one year on the berth concerned

6.3.2 Source and Reliability of the Data

1-226 The general statistic tables of the terminal are the main source. This should be generallyavailable, but it is necessary to check carefully the following difficulties that we meetwhen we analyse the actual situation:

Containers

1-227 TEU (20 foot equivalent units):

• Conventionally, one 40 ft container is equivalent to two 20 ft.

• When the total tonnage handled includes the containers, the weight of the loadedboxes includes the tares of the containers fully loaded and empty.

Berth

1-228 The berth must be identified. The simple case is one ship for one berth but there aremany other cases, such as:

• Ports are not homogeneous. There are berths of 150, 200, 250 or 300 metresaccording to the traffic they are dedicated to or according to the date of theirconstruction.

• Consequently, two small ships can be operated on the same berth or, inversely,one long ship can be berthed along two short berths.

• The case of the lighterage (timber logs or handling on the both sides of the vessel)the ship is berthed along one berth but the lighters operate on another one.



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• Two ships can be double-banked along the same berth.

• Many other cases can be seen in ports – your experience will show it.

Double Counting

1-229 Some operations imply a double handling of the commodities:

• the transshipment (mainly containers) are registered twice; and

• the shifting from a hold to the other (via the quay only) are counted twice.

6.3.3 Factors Influencing the Results

1-230 Some indicators can be calculated separately to evaluate the weight of each influencingfactor in the present situation. For example:

Direct delivery ratio = TEU directly delivered/total TEU handled.

Average shipload = Total TEU handled/number of ships berthed.

6.4 BERTH SERVICE INDICATORS

1-231 The service indicators are useful for the shipowners and the shippers because the turn-around time the ships spend in ports is paid by the ship owner and also by the shipper(especially in the case of chartered ships because he has to pay demurrage).

6.4.1 Definitions

1-232 The turn-around time is the time spent in the port by all the vessels calling in a specificperiod. It includes:

• Waiting Time (WT)

The delay between the ship’s arrival in port and its tying up at the berth.

Average WT ratio = cumulated time for waiting (in hours)

total number of ships

It can be calculated for a specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole portor calculated for a type of vessels as well.

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• Time at Berth or Service Time (ST)

The time the ship stays berthed (between the berthing and the departure time).

Average ST ratio = cumulated service time


It can be calculated for a specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole portor calculated for a type of vessel as well.

ST includes the working time for operations and the idle time.

• Time in Port (PT) or Turn-round Time

The time that the ship spends in the port from the arrival in front of the port up tothe departure after leaving the limits of the port.

Average PT ratio = cumulated WT + ST


• For Commercial Reasons

It is very frequently calculated as the following ratio:

Grade of waiting = cumulated WT

cumulated ST

1-233 Indeed, the comparison of the waiting time with the service time provides good informationabout what is acceptable to shipowners. They usually accept a 10% rate for bulk andgeneral cargo vessels. Beyond this rate, they consider the port as a low quality one. Forro-ro and containerships, shipowners usually do not accept any waiting time.

1-234 It can be calculated for a specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole port orcalculated for a type of vessel as well.


1-235 The sources of information for calculating such indicators are the office of the harbourmaster. This office registers:

• the date, hour and minute of the arrival of the ships to where the pilot is awaiting;

• the date and time when the ship leaves the berth;



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• the type and size of the ships;

• the time of the nautical operations; and

• the name of the berth that she is alongside.

1-236 When looking at the data, you should be aware of some difficulties which are oftenencountered:

• Berth

As already explained above, the berth must be very well identified. Sometimes,the ship is shifted from one berth to another. The harbour master does notnecessarily register that operation and the calculation of the berth time is thenimpossible to calculate for each berth where the ship has successively been moored.

Is a mooring buoy considered as a quay when the handling operations are performedby lighterage?

• Time

The time in port should be calculated in hours. Any calculation in days is definitelyinsufficient because many ship calls last only 10 hours and many ports are opened24 hours a day.

The calculation is usually not given directly by the database, but must be calculatedby difference between the time of departure and the time of arrival of each ship(EXCEL provides the means for this calculation).

• Type and Size of the Ships

The registration of this information is usually not reliable enough because it issubject to interpretation. It is clear for tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers orintegral container vessels, but it is not clear for the multipurpose ships carryingcontainers on the upper-deck and break bulk cargo in the holds. It is also difficultfor the conventional vessels.

The best and easiest way to rightly register the types and sizes of the ships, is tolink the database of the port with the database of the Lloyd’s Marine IntelligenceUnit. www.LloydsMIU.com



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6.4.3 Factors Influencing the Result

1-237 Influencing factors can be as follows:

1. Topographic and geographic factors, including:

• estuary port;

• tide time;

• locks; and

• weather.

2. Operational factors, including:

• port congestion;

• unavailability of berths;

• priorities of other ships;

• unavailability of pilots or tugs.

6.5 BERTH UTILISATION INDICATORS

1-238 Berth utilisation indicators indicate the actual intensity of use of the berths.

6.5.1 Definitions

1-239 Definitions are given below:

• Berth Occupancy Ratio

This shows the level of demand for services.

Berth occupancy ratio = ∑ service time

hours in a year (or other period)



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• Berth Worked Time Ratios

These show the number of hours that the ships are effectively operated. It givesindication about the quality of services to ships. The formula is:

Berth worked time ratio = ∑ time worked

∑ service time

This indicates whether there is a high idle time or not during the operations. Idletime may have various causes such as: bad weather conditions, opening hours,break down of equipment, insufficient equipment etc

The following ratio is often associated with the following working hours per daythat indicates the daily working (or opening) hours.

Daily working time rate = working hours

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For example, a working time ratio of 50% means that the port works only 12hours a day and the ship is idle 12 hours.


1-240 The information is provided thanks to the timesheets. Some difficulties may be encounteredwhen collating this information:

• If the port authority is operating the port, it is easy to get the timesheets.

• If independent operators or stevedores perform the handling, the port authorityhas difficulties to be provided with the documents.

Other difficulties arise because the operators do not indicate the effective reason of theidle time not to show the weaknesses of their work organisation.


1-241 Influencing factors can be as follows:

• The quality of the handling operations (see the following chapter).

• The opening hours of the port.

• The social climate.

• The weather.



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6.5.4 Conclusion

1-242 The berth related ratios mainly concern the services to ships: they measure the maximumcapacity of the port, the level of services supplied by the infrastructures and are used bythe planners for translating the forecasted demand in requirements for new berths or newterminals.

1-243 But berth operations are not independent from the other activities in the port and the timein ports depends mainly on the productivity of the handling operations between ship andshore, on one hand, and the quay transfer operations, on the other hand.

6.6 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR HANDLING OPERATIONS

1-244 When analysing the berth indicators, only the infrastructure is concerned. As to thehandling operations, they mobilise:

• equipment for operations from sea to shore or vice-versa;

• land equipment for the transfer from/to storage area; and

• the labour force.

1-245 The efficiency of a port is measured by the output it is able to produce during a period oftime and with the means that it mobilises for serving ships and goods.

1-246 We analyse first the efficiency ratios when serving the ships and then the efficiencyratios of the input mobilised for performing the handling tasks.

6.7 HANDLING OUTPUT INDICATORS

6.7.1 Ship Output

1-247 The major commercial argument for a port is the ship output because the shipownerrequires short calls, what a shipowner wants to know is the tonnage that the port is ableto handle in one day. The more the port is able to reduce the time spent in the port, themore satisfied the shipowners are.

1-248 All the indicators, which show the exact situation and the evolution of the call durationare, therefore, very relevant.

Definitions

1-249 Ship output indicators measure the rate at which cargo is handled to and from a vessel.They are clear indicators of how good the cargo handling operations are. There are threeship output (SO) indicators:



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1. WSO – TEU per ship worked hour = ∑ TEU handled

∑ worked hours

2. BSO – TEU per ship at berth = ∑ TEU handled

∑ service hours

3. PSO – TEU per ship hour in port = ∑ TEU handled

∑ hours in port

It is logical that WSO > BSO > PSO

Source and Reliability of Data

1-250 The main source of data to be collected for calculating the ratios is the timesheet formfilled in by the handling supervisor.

1-251 In many ports, the ship output is given in number of boxes per hour. Such a calculationdoes not take into account the size of the containers.

1-252 Other difficulties arise because the operators do not always indicate the effective reasonof the idle time not to show the weaknesses of their work organisation.

Factors Influencing the Results

1-253 The ship output obviously depends on the handling methods at the quay and, therefore,the means mobilised for the handling labour force (number of gangs and equipment).

1-254 It is the reason why we set up ratios related to the gang output and the equipment utilisation.

6.7.2 The Gang Output

1-255 The ship output depends, among other things, on the number of gangs used for the handlingand the efficiency of the gangs. Except in very small old-fashioned ports, the gangincludes not only workers but also the handling equipment for ship to shore operations andquay transfer operations. Therefore, the gang output can vary with the type, capacityand efficiency of the equipment provided.



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Definitions

1-256 As far as the containers handling is concerned, the formula is:

Average output per gang per hour = ∑ TEU (or boxes) handled

∑ (gang x hours worked)

1-257 The ratio can be calculated for a day or for a shift or for an hour. It is not recommendedto calculate it for a year because it is often necessary to fine-tune the analysis and takeinto account the problems related to the peek phenomenon.

1-258 Sometimes, in some ports, the average output is calculated per man x hour. Additionally,the way of calculation depends on the information provided in the timesheets.

1-259 In the majority of cases, the gang output is similar to the crane or gantry crane outputbecause each gang uses a crane or gantry crane.

1-260 For gantry cranes, we usually speak of “movements per hour” (it is then easier to comparethe performances of the different ports because every port has its own mix of 40 ft and20 ft containers).

1-261 It is also relevant to evaluate the mobilisation of the labour force capacities in the port.The number of gangs mobilised for operating one ship is a good indicator of the efforts foraccelerating the operations.

Average number of gangs per ship = ∑ number of gangs

number of ships

1-262 This ratio is usually calculated for each type of vessel.

Source and Reliability of Data

1-263 The difficulties for estimating the gang output are the same as the ones of the ship outputbecause the source of information is the “timesheet” as well.

Factors Influencing the Results

1-264 The gang production depends more on the quality and capacities of the equipment usedthan on the number of workers.



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1-265 All other factors being constant, experience demonstrates:

• quay handling equipment is always more efficient than the ship handling equipment;

• to operate old ships is always more time-consuming than new ones;

• an overstaffed gang does not increase the output; and

• the social climate and the incentive policies.

6.8 UTILISATION RATIOS OF THE INPUT

1-266 Equipment and labour force are the two physical inputs.

6.8.1 Utilisation of the Equipment

1-267 For the purpose of estimating the capacity and the degree of mobilisation of a port, or toevaluate the capacity remaining for additional traffic as well, it is necessary to know thetime of utilisation.

Rate of utilisation of cranes = number of worked hours

number of available hours

1-268 The average rate can be calculated per day or per month or per year.

6.8.2 Utilisation of the Workers

Rate of utilisation of workers = ∑ (men x hours) worked

∑ (men x hours) available

1-269 The average rate can be calculated per day or per month or per year.

1-270 Because of the problems of the peeks, it is preferable to calculate the ratios on a monthlyor daily basis. The yearly average rate does not show the periods when the problemshappen.

1-271 This ratio is very important because it is always the basis for discussion between workersand employers when they determine the level of employment required in the port.



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6.8.3 Source of Information and Reliability

1-272 The source of information is the timesheet with all the difficulties that we have alreadyexplained:


1-273 The main factors influencing the ratio with regard to quay equipment are:

• the peaks of traffic; and

• the frequency of the breakdown.

1-274 The main factors influencing the ratio with regard to labour force are:

• the peaks of traffic;

• the trade unions policy;

• the type of equipment;

• the type of cargo; and

• the type of ships.

6.9 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR STORAGE OPERATIONS

1-275 Most ports in the world have to provide:

• covered transit sheds for the break bulk cargo;

• the CFS for the LCL containers;

• yards for open storage, mainly containers;

• space and storehouses for long term storage;

• open storage or silos for bulk cargo;

• tanks for liquid bulk; and

• space for dangerous goods.

1-276 However, such facilities have a cost for building, maintaining and operating them.



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1-277 To determine the needs in square meters of sheds or open storage facilities is difficultbecause the surface depends not only on the type and volume of cargo but also on thetime that the cargo stays in the port.

1-278 The commercial policy of the port depends also on the availability of space and possibleextension. If the port area and storage facilities are large, the commercial policy mightconsist of attracting cargo by a low tariff. On the other hand, if the port is surrounded bya city and cannot enlarge the space available, the port authority policy will be to acceleratethe delivery time and reduce the transit time in the sheds by increasing dues on storage.

1-279 Therefore, the ratios mainly concern the utilisation factors of the storage facilities. Theyare the key of the policy.

6.10 DEFINITION OF THE RATIOS

1-280 The average dwell time in storage facilities is calculated by the formula:

Average DT = ∑ (TEU x dwell time)

∑ TEU stored

The unit is the day.

1-281 It is obvious that any reduction of the time spent in the yard will result in the reduction ofspace requirements.

1-282 Later we will show the calculation of the capacity of the port facilities by using thesedifferent ratios.

6.11 SOURCE OF INFORMATION AND RELIABILITY

1-283 In the transit slots, the information comes from the register book where all the cargoes areconsigned. The date, hour of the in and out movements are also registered.

1-284 This information is transferred to the financial department or the operation departmentfor the billing of the storage, the financial department is the source of the information inthis case.

1-285 However, the problem is more complicated by the fact that, in most ports, there is a graceperiod during which the storage is free. The financial department consequently knowsonly the cargo staying more than the grace delay in the shed or on the yard. The graceperiod may be 10 days and it would be difficult to investigate the cargo staying less than10 days. Two solutions for solving the problem are to:



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• investigate by enquiry in the register book; this method is boring and not veryreliable because of the peek phenomenon; or

• investigate at the freight forwarders who have very good knowledge of the portand are able to roughly estimate the average dwell time according to the type ofcargo.

1-286 If the administrative operations are monitored, then it is very simple to calculate thedwelling time ratio of any kind of cargo.

1-287 In most of the big ports, the monitoring systems exist and it is easy to get the information.In other ports, only the “handicraft” system of collection of information is possible.

1-288 We can see how the monitoring is compulsory when we want to get a good informationabout the port operations and the ways to improve the performances.

6.12 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULTS

1-289 The level of the ratios often depends on the following elements:

• the custom clearance delay;

• the shippers’ abilities and capacities of storage; and

• the tariff policy.

6.13 CONCLUSION

1-290 Storage is often a problem in ports because of changes in the lay out design as aconsequence of technological development in ships and handling methods.

1-291 The dwell time determines the space required. Performance indicators are consequentlyrequired to improve the efficiency of the port. Monitoring is progressively introduced intoterminal management and is the only way to calculate these indicators.

6.14 INDICATORS FOR QUALITY OF SERVICE

1-292 The quality of service is nowadays the first requirement from the shipper’s logistician.

1-293 Many factors determine the quality of the services in ports: some are quantifiable whileothers are not. In the framework of our course about the performance indicators we dealonly with the quantifiable ones but we cannot ignore the others.

1-294 Some of the previously shown indicators can be considered as quality indicators:

• waiting time;

• turn-round time in port;



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• handling productivity;

• storage grace delay; and

• working hours in the port.

1-295 But other non-physical indicators show the other aspects of the terminal because, as youknow, a port is not only an infrastructure but also the combination of many servicesgathered for serving the ships and the goods.

1-296 Experience shows that shippers and shipowners are very concerned by the social climate,reliability, the welcome in the port and many other services provided to the crews or tothe shippers. The ISO 9000 process for gaining quality assurance accreditation is spreadingin the port field. More and more ports are engaged in this process. But there is not yet awell-defined list of indicators and objective way to measure the quality.

6.15 FLEXIBILITY INDICATORS

1-297 Flexibility measures the ability of the port services to adapt to the requirements of theshippers and shipowners.

6.15.1 Working Hours

1-298 The co-ordination of the administrative and physical operations is one of the key aspectsof efficiency. The target is the simultaneous opening hours for all the services.

1-299 The measurement ratio is: number of non-co-ordinated hours/24 hours.

Example

Opening Number ofService Hours Co-ordinated Hours

Tugging/pilotage 6 – 22 8 hours

Handling 0 – 24 0

Custom clearance 8 – 18 14 hours

Delivery/receipt 6 – 20 10 hours

Port office 7 – 17 14 hours

Total Average/24 hours 11.5 hours



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1-300 This shows that the port is opened 24 hours a day only for the handling and the otherservices do not organise 24 hours services.

6.15.2 Punctuality

1-301 Shipowners and shippers are very concerned by the capacity of the port to respect theforecasted time schedule (particularly for ferries, or containerships).

1-302 The measurement ratio is the percentage of respected arrival and departure times:

Punctuality ratio = ∑ delayed time (arrivals or departures)

number of calls

1-303 According to the purpose of the analysis and the type of sailing schedule, we may takeinto account only the delays above a certain time (for example one hour or more).

6.16 RELIABILITY INDICATORS

6.16.1 Security

1-304 The security for ships and cargoes is essential for shipowners and shippers.

1-305 A port is never 100% safe and secure and there are sometimes pilferage or accidents.Some ports have developed a marketing policy by promising to the shippers “a zeromistake target” in the port.

1-306 It is, therefore, relevant to determine indicators for measuring the grade of success ofsuch a policy.

Indicator of security = ∑ Number of pilferage (or robbery or other) cases

∑ number of BL (or manifests)

1-307 The time unit of registration can be the month or the year.

1-308 In addition, the indicator must show the importance of the problem in value or in volume.



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Indicator of loss in value = total amount of the loss (in dollars)

Indicator of loss in volume = total of loss in tonnes

total tonnage operated

Indicator of casualties = total number of casualties

number of ships (or tonnes)

6.16.2 Commercial Climate

1-309 There are always arguments in all the port in the world in case of pilferage, robberies orloss and casualties or late delivery of the cargo etc. Any activity leads to mistakes oraccidents.

1-310 Many other affairs are dealt with on a mutual agreement after an expertise performed byspecialists. The problem is often raised not on the estimate of the value of the loss but onthe responsibilities of the different actors involved. Measurement of this climate is complexand varied.

6.16.3 Work Reliability

1-311 Shippers and shipowners are very sensitive to the “just in time operations”.

1-312 All the logistic chains are nowadays organised for reducing the delays, reducing the transittime and limiting the stock levels thanks to a good transportation policy.

1-313 The port is an element of this chain and any stoppage of its activity results in troubles allalong the logistic chain and ultimately on the cost and reputation of the products.

1-314 The reliability of the port is, therefore, an important topic.

1-315 A universally used indicator of reliability is the absence of strikes or social events in theport.

Reliability indicator = number of effective worked days

number of scheduled working days

6.16.4 Conclusion

1-316 There are plenty of different situations and plenty of different types of economic, sociologicand political environments. The indicators for quality are, therefore, only partial and mustbe adapted to different situations.



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1-317 The indicators shown above are probably applicable in most terminals because they concernmost of the troubles met in most of the world’s ports.

1-318 It is up to each terminal to select other indicators according to their targets.

6.17 ESTIMATE OF PORT CAPACITY AND PORT PLANNING

1-319 One of the targets of the port performance indicators is to diagnose the present situationand permanently survey the port activities.

1-320 The second target is to enable the planners to estimate the limits of the capacity of theport and the time when new facilities will be required according to the traffic forecasts.

1-321 Thirdly, the information about the port performances gives the manager a good base forsetting improvement objectives as far as the performances are concerned.

1-322 Based on the performance indicators of the productivity of the operations, the terminalmanagement analyse whether they can handle a higher or lower volume of cargo and/ornumber of ships.

1-323 The physical limiting factors of the performances are the number of berths, the containeryard, the handling equipment and the gate.

1-324 It is clear that each facility influences the performance of the others:

• The handling productivity determines the berthing time of the ships andconsequently the berth occupancy ratio and the waiting time.

• The capacity of the yard and the design of the lay out influence the handlingproductivity.

• The customs clearance delay determines the dwell time of the cargo in the terminaland, therefore, the area of the yard needed for storing the cargo.

1-325 It is clear that each element impacts upon the other elements of the chain in the terminalarea. Nevertheless, we should analyse the capacity of each of the elements, independentlyone from another. We will successively analyse:

• the berth capacity; and

• the storage capacity.

1-326 Once this analysis is completed, it is then possible to diagnose the situation in the port.

1-327 Finally, the planners will be able to propose solutions for coping with the traffic forecastedfor the 15 next years.



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6.18 BERTH CAPACITIES

1-328 The above performance indicators in the handling operations are the way to estimate theport capacities

6.18.1 Methodology

1-329 We will firstly consider the ratios at their current level.

1-330 Secondly, we divide the port facilities in homogeneous entities.

1-331 Thirdly, we calculate the maximum output by using the following steps:

TEU/gang/hour xaverage number of gang/ship = TEU/ship/worked hour

TEU/ship/worked hour xworked hour/service time = TEU/service hour

Annual maximum capacity = TEU/service hour x 24 hours x 365days x maximum occupancy

ratio x number of berths

1-332 The maximum occupancy ratio depends on the number of berths available and the arrivalpattern of the ships.

1-333 As far as liner services are concerned, we can simplify this by using the following table:

Number of Berths Maximum Occupancy Ratio

1 30%2 50%3 60%4 66%5 70%6 74%7 77%8 78%

Source: UNCTAD



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1-334 We have considered as a maximum occupancy ratio the rate resulting in a 10% waitingtime/service time.

Example

1-335 Let us consider a terminal with four berths. What is the maximum capacity of theterminal?

Tonnes/gang/worked hour = 25 TEUNumber of gang per ship = 2.5

Tonnes/ship/worked hour = 62.5 tonnes (25 x 2.5)Worked time/service time = 45%

TEU/service hour = 28.13 TEU (62.5 x 0.45)

Annual maximum capacity = 28.13 x 24 x 365 x 0.66 x 4= 650,000 tonnes for the four berth terminal

1-336 By changing the ratio worked time/service time, you can increase the capacity. You cansimulate other organisations of works by using EXCEL and see the results.

1-337 In practice, it is a little more complicated because we must evaluate first the gang outputaccording to the type of cargo and packing handled and then elaborate the mix gangoutput before calculating the total capacity.

6.19 STORAGE CAPACITY

1-338 Storage capacity is very often limited by the cities surrounded the ports or by the topographicelements (hills, mountains, rivers etc). Anyway, the land area is expensive and it iseconomically justified to limit the area dedicated to the storage and using the land foroperations. As you know, the handling and quay transfer operations need more and lorespace to be efficient.

1-339 Nevertheless, the planners must know the capacity of the storage facilities (covered andopen) for estimating the capacity of the port to cope with the traffic in the next 10 years.

1-340 The capacity depends on the dwell time of the cargo:

• Dwell Time

The time of occupancy of the yard determines the times that we can fill in thegroundslots.



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1-341 Therefore, the number of square meters occupied by one tonne of cargo depends on thetype of cargo. This characteristic is named the stowage factor. The stowage factor is thesurface occupied by one tonne of goods.

1-342 Also, the area taken up by containers is dependant on the handling equipment used. Forexample, a chassis operation requires one slot per container, whereas some RMG operationscan stack containers eight or nine high. For containers, the stowage factor is effectivelythe “slot” that the area occupied by one 20 ft container (20 ft x 6 ft).

1-343 The mathematical formula for calculating the surface needed for storage is as followingfor containers:

S = Slot x dwelling time x separation factor x operating factor

365 x stacking high

1-344 Separation factor depends on the layout and the quality of services provided (dedicatedyards or not) and on the type of equipment used leading to different circulation system onthe yard. Operation factor depends on the stacking high and the density of the storage.

1-345 Consequently, the capacity in TEU is:

Yearly capacity in TEU = S x 365 x stacking high

dwelling time x separation factor xoperating factor

1-346 The formula shows that the higher the dwelling time is the lower the storage capacity is.

6.20 PORT PLANNING

1-347 Project planning consists of performing scenarios of development according to the trafficforecast.

1-348 The evaluation of the capacities of the different facilities gives the port planner the timewhen the port will be congested. It is good information, but it does not show how to solvethe problem of the congestion.

1-349 The performance indicators are the tools for helping to solve the problems.



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6.20.1 Estimate of Time of the Congestion

1-350 The comparison of the traffic forecast and the maximum capacity of the facilities willshow the year when the congestion will happen either for berth or for the storage.

6.20.2 Use of Indicators for Limiting or Delaying the Congestion

1-351 The port planners have to take decisions after analysing all the aspects of the decisions –the consequences of the decision from the social, economic, financial, operational andtechnical points of view. The performance indicators are the tools of quantification of theconsequences.

1-352 The congestion can be postponed by different actions:

• building new berths (but this is expensive and it might be financially difficult); and

• to improve the output by:

- extending the open hours,

- buying new equipment,

- changing the methods of working,

- taking incentive measures for workers,

- accelerating the customs clearance, and

- limiting the dwelling time of the cargo in port etc.

This is probably cheaper than building new quays.

1-353 By performing a simulation on a spreadsheet, we can easily evaluate the consequences ofany solution on the port capacity.

6.20.3 Conclusion

1-354 Terminal performance indicators have been created for improving the ways of analysingthe diagnosis and to help the decision-makers.

1-355 Most of the indicators are related to the operations (berth, handling, storage) because theyare the main fields where the improvement is possible.

1-356 As far as the quality of the service is concerned, the indicators are to be found anduniversally adopted. The actions to be decided are not simple because they deal with theworkers and human behaviour. Only a subtle mix of indicators put together can give theplanners a good estimate of the actions to be decided.

1-357 Terminal performance indicators are the tools but the interpretation and the research ofthe right decisions to be taken is probably a subtle art.



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ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENTQUESTIONS

• CHAPTER 1 – PORTS AND THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN

1. “Containerisation” is the movement of cargo in standardised re-usable containers.In the modern era, this has come to mean door-to-door service offered to shippersby intermodal operators.

2. A supply chain is an integrated transportation network that transports goods frompoint of origin to final destination. It is the seamless movement of goods usingvarious modes of transport:

• highway;

• rail;

• air; and

• water.

It involves the use of a single bill of lading from point of origin to destination.

3. “Just-in-time” service allows the manufacturer’s production line to continueoperating without the need for an inventory of parts in storage. For many importersit is more important to know when their goods will arrive rather than how fast itcan be delivered.

• CHAPTER 2 – MARINE TERMINAL OPERATIONS

1. A “terminal” is defined as the “end” or “end part”. In the case of transportation, aterminal exists at either end of a railway line, an airline route or any shipping routewhere sheds, hangars, garages, offices and stations to handle freight and passengersare located.

2. Transfer cargo. Store cargo. Consolidate cargo. Package cargo. Process cargo.

3. Because of the risk of collision between ship and gantry crane.

4. Information is exchanged between the terminal operator and the highway driver.It is at this point where the condition of the container is inspected and recorded. Ifthe container chassis is to be left at the terminal, it also will be inspected.

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• CHAPTER 3 – CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

1. The machine can be taken from one lane to another by stopping it at a specificspot at the end of the lane. There, the wheels are turned through 90 degrees,allowing the machine to move to the similar location at the chosen lane where thewheels are returned to the original alignment.

2. It cannot change lanes.

3. The wheels place heavy stresses upon the surface of the CY, more space betweenthe container blocks is needed than with an RTG to allow the machine to manoeuvre,containers are not so easily selected by number because of the size of the storageblocks.

4. Availability (what is the delivery time?), specifications (to be determined by thepurchaser so that the manufacturers’ bids can be assessed against a commoncriteria), cost, performance, ease and cost of maintenance, financing/leasingarrangements and warranties.

• CHAPTER 4 – CARGO PLANNING

1. This is the date, and the time of day, by which cargoes must have been deliveredto the terminal if they are to be loaded to the nominated ship. The terminaloperator will not really want to be receiving cargo while the ship, particularly acontainership, is alongside.

2. The ship’s master is ultimately the person responsible for the safety of his or hervessel and for the cargo.

• CHAPTER 5 – INTERMODAL LINKS

1. Inherent flexibility and the fact that final delivery of most goods is made by truckgives road transport a significant advantage over rail. In North America, rail israrely competitive with road for distances under 500 miles.



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APPENDIX 1

ISO CONTAINER TYPES

Over the years standard container types and sizes have emerged. The ISO devised a standardcoding system in the early days of containerisation and extended it as new types of containers weredeveloped. A new system was created for implementation in 1996. The table on this page lists theoriginal ISO container types and their corresponding number. The identifying number is stamped onthe outside of the container.

ISO Container Types (Original)

ISO No Size / Type Height Description

2010 20’ DF 8’ 0” 8’ Dry Container2040 20’ Ins 8’ 0” 8’ Insulated2060 20’ RF 8’ 0” 8’ Reefer2160 20’ FR 8’ 6” Flatrack2170 20’ Tank 8’ 6” Tank2200 20’ DF 8’ 6” 8’ 6” Dry Container2210 20’ DF 8’ 6” 8’ 6” Dry Container2232 20’ RF 8’ 6” 8’ 6” Reefer2251 20’ OT 8’ 6” High Side Open Top2263 20’ FR 8’ 6” Flatrack/Collapsible Ends2330 20’ RF 8’ 6” 20’ Reefer2380 20’ BK 8’ 6” 20’ Bulk2760 20’ FR 4’ 0” Half Height Flatrack4263 40’ FR 8’ 6” Collapsible Flatrack4300 40’ DF 8’ 6” 40’ Dry Container4310 40’ DF 8’ 6” 40’ Dry Container4330 40’ RF 8’ 6” 40’ Reefer4332 40’ RF 8’ 6” 40’ Reefer4350 40’ OT 8’ 6” 40’ Open Top4351 40’ OT 8’ 6” High Side Open Top4360 40’ FR 8’ 6” Flat Rack4364 40’ FR 8’ 6” Collapsible Flatrack4500 40’ DF 9’ 6” High Cube Dry Container4510 40’ DF 9’ 6” High Cube Dry Container4530 40’ RF 9’ 6” High Cube Reefer4532 40’ RF 9’ 6” High Cube Reefer4760 40’ FR 4’ 0” Half Height Flatrack4960 40’ PL 1’ 0” Platform5500 45’ DF 9’ 6” High Cube Container9500 45’ DF 9’ 6” High Cube Container9510 45’ DF 9’ 6” High Cube Container

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ISO CONTAINER CODES (EFFECTIVE JANUARY 1996)

The new codes are very different from the old codes. There is an “Official Register” of theseInternationally Protected ISO Alpha Codes. Its title is Containers BIC-Code.

It is available from Bureau International des Containers, 167 Rue de Courcelles, F-75017 Paris,France.

The coding consists of four characters, each one representing a different aspect of the container.The first indicates length, the second indicates the width and height, while the third and fourthdescribe the type.

Size Code

FIRST CHARACTER

Code Length

2 20’4 40’B 24’L 45’M 48’

Note: There are other codes for some unusual lengths.

SECOND CHARACTER

Code Height

0 8’2 8’ 6”4 9’5 9’ 6”6 >9’ 6”9 <=4’

Note: There are additional height codes for containers that are wider than 8'. Such containers aregenerally found in domestic use.



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TYPE CODES

The third and fourth characters identify the container type and other related characteristics. Thiscode does not as yet list all of the possibilities, as further detailed study is necessary before asatisfactory structure can be agreed upon.

THIRD CHARACTER

Code Description

G General purpose container without ventilation

V General purpose container with ventilation

B Dry bulk container

S Named cargo containers (e.g. livestock carrier, automobile carrier,live fish carrier)

R Thermal container, refrigerated, self-powered

H Thermal container, insulated or refrigerated with removable equipment

U Open top container

P Platform container (flatrack)

T Tank container

FOURTH CHARACTER

This is a numeral that can have a different meaning depending on the type of container.

COMPLETED CODE

In general, there are a limited number of types of containers in use. A reasonable sampling of thenew codes could be as listed on the following page.



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Length/ISO Code Type Height Description

22P1 20’ FR 8’ 6” Flatrack with fixed ends22G1 20’ DF 8’ 6” Dry container22R0 20‘ RF 8’ 6” Reefer22H5 20’ Ins 8’ 6” Insulated22U0 20’ OT 8’ 6” Open top42P3 40’ FR 8’ 6” Collapsible flatrack42G0 40’ DF 8’ 6” Dry container42R0 40’ RF 8’ 6” Reefer42U0 40’ OT 8’ 6” High side open top42P1 40’ FR 8’ 6” Flatrack with fixed ends45G0 40’ DF 9’ 6” Dry container, high cube45R0 40’ RF 9’ 6” Reefer high cubeL5G0 45’ DF 9’ 6” Dry container

20’ Dry Container(New ISO Container Code)

(22G1)



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20’ Insulated Container(Old ISO Container Code)

(2040)



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RESOURCES

• “Logistics of Cargo Movement”, Philip Durell, Lecturer at Pacific Marine Training Campusof British Columbia Institute of Technology

• “The Role of Ports in the Supply Chain of a Globalised World”, Gordon Payne, Director,Seaport Consultants Canada Inc – www.seaport.com

• “What makes for a Successful Transshipment Hub?” Jeff Drake, Contship Italia, Genoa,Italy – www.porttechnology.org/journals/ed9

• “Increasing Productivity and Service Quality of the Straddle Carrier Operations at aContainer Port Terminal”, Journal of Advanced Transportation, October 1999. Lazar NSpasovic, Alexios Sideris, Sanchoy Das & Xiuli Chao, New Jersey Institute of Technology

• “Transportation, Industrial Location and the New Economy”, J Cortright, Impresa Inc,March 2001

• Handbook of Port and Harbour Engineering, Gregory P Tsinker, Chapman & Hall

• Report of the Committee on Port and Ship Safety, Environment and Construction to the18th Biennial Conference of the IAPH, Sydney Australia. April 1993, IAPH

• Grains and Oilseeds, Handling, Marketing, Processing, Canadian International of GrainsInstitute

• Terminal Security – Manual issued by the TT Club ”Through Transport Mutual Services”

• “Fraser Surrey Docks Ltd”, Fraser Port, Canada – Emergency Response Manual –www.fsd.bc.ca

• “Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses” – Development ofModern Marine Terminals.

• “Pacific Marine Training Campus” of British Columbia Institute of Technology – TerminalLogistics – www.bcit.ca

• “Frog Navigation Systems” – www.frog.nl/eng/cargo

• Sea-Trading, Volume 2, Cargoes. A Fairplay Publication

• “Pacific Marine Training Campus” of British Columbia Institute of Technology – OceanFreight Cargoes – www.bcit.ca

• Canadian Transportation and Logistics – www.ctl.ca/research/rail_intermodal

• “Gateway to the Orient”, The Vancouver Sun, 6 July 2001

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UNCTAD DOCUMENTS

• Manual on a uniform system of port statistics and performance indicators, 1983

• Port Performance Indicators, 1976

• Monograph on Port Management – Measuring and evaluating port performance andproductivity, 1987

OTHER DOCUMENTS

• Port Management Textbook – Institute of Shipping, Economics and Logistics, ISLBremen, 1990

• Elements of Port Operations and Management – Alan Branch, 1986

• Basic Elements of Ports Operation System – Professor B Francou, World MaritimeUniversity, 2001

• Speaking in Tongues, article in Port Development International – February 1999, pages16-17.



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