1. Angiography or angioramX-ray imaging of blood vessels. A contrast substance is injected into a blood vessel (vein or artery), and x-ray images are taken of the vessel. In cerebral angiography, x-ray images show blood vessels in the brain. In coronary angiography, x-ray detect abnormalities in vessels that bring blood to the heart. Angiograms can detect blockage by clots, cholesterol plaques, or tumors or aneurysms (balloning or dilating of the vessel wall). Angiography is performed most frequently to view arteries and is often used interchangeably with arteriography.

Picture : Angiography or angiogram

2. Arteriography or arteriogramX-ray recording of an artery and its branches after injection of a contrast substance into an artery. Coronary arteriography is the visualization of arteries that travel across the outer surface of the heart and bring blood to the heart muscle.

Picture : The record of Arteriography or arteriogram methode

3. ArthrographyX-ray examination of the inside of a joint with a contrast medium.

4. Barium testX-ray examinations with a liquid barium mixture that is swallowed or given by enema to outline yhe surface of the gastrointestinal tract. It may locate disorders in the esophagus (esophagogram), duodenum, small intestine (small bowel follow-through), or collon (barrium enema). Taken before or during the examination, barium causes the intestinal tract to stand out in silhoutte barrium swallow is used to examine the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the barium enema is for examination of the lower gastrointestinal tract. These test have largerly been replaced by endoscopy.

Picture : Barium Test

5. Bone density scanLow-energy x-rays are used for this study, which measures bone thickness and reveals areas of bone deficiency (osteopnia) and osteoporosis (bones become thinner, more fragile, and likely to break). This study is most often performed on the lower spine or hips. Also called bone densitometry or DEXA (dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry).

Picture : Bone Densitometry Scan

6. Cardiac catherizationProcedure in which a catheter (tube) is passed via vein or artery into the chambers of the heart to measure the blood flow out of the heart and the pressures and oxygen

content in the heart chambers. Contrast material is also introduced into heart chambers, and x-ray pictures are taken to show heart and heart valve structure.

Picture : Cardiac Chaterization

7. Chest x-rayAn x-ray image of the chest wall, lungs, and heart. It may show infection (an in pneumonia or tuberculosis), emphysema, damage due to occupational exposure (asbestosis), lung tumors, fluid accumulation (pleural effusion), or heart enlargement. Also called chest film (or chest x-ray film) and chest radiograph.

Picture : Chest X-ray

8. Cholangiography or cholangiogramX-ray recording or record of bile ducts. Contrast material is given by intravenous injection (IV cholangiogram) and collect in the gallbladder and bile ducts. Also, inserted into an intrahepatic duct (percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography). X-ray images of bile ducts are obtained to identify obstructions caused by tumors or stones. This procedure has largerly been replaced by computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, and by ultrasonography for stones.

a. Cholangiography—Percutaneous Method

Percutaneous cholangiography is performed with a 14 gauge IV needle/catheter that is inserted through the abdominal wall approximately 3 cm medial to the mid-

clavicular port. It is directed toward the Triangle of Calot. The needle is removed and the catheter is used as a sleeve for introduction of the actual cholangiogram catheter. This sleeve also acts as a “mini-port” which may be used for introduction of balloons and baskets during common bile duct exploration. The catheter is guided into the cystic duct with forceps introduced through the medial epigastric port.  It is fixed into position with a clip applied transversely across the axis of the catheter at its insertion point into the cystic duct.

The author prefers this technique because it does not require removal of forceps controlling the gallbladder from another port (as is needed in the portal technique). 

b. Cholangiography—Portal Method

With this method the catheter is introduced through the mid-clavicular port freely or with an instrument that directs it into the cystic duct. Some models also fix the catheter into the cystic duct. The major disadvantage of this technique is that it uses an existing port that would otherwise be occupied by an instrument providing exposure of the porta hepatis.

9. Computed tomography or CT and CT scanX-ray images that show the body in cross-section. Contrast material may be used (injected into the bloodstream) to highlight sturctures such as the liver, brain, or blood vessels, and barium can be swallowed to outline gastrointestinal organs. X-ray images, obtained as the x-ray tube rotates (helical CT) around the body, are processed by a computer to show “slices”of body tissues, most often within the head, chest, and abdomen.

Picture : The equipment for CT Scan

10. Cystography or cystogramX-ray recording of the urinary bladder with a contrast medium so that the outline of the urinary bladder can be seen clearly. A contrast substance is injected via catheter into the urethra and urinary bladder, and x-ray images are made. A voiding

cystourethrogram is an x-ray image of the urinary tract made while the patient is urinating.

Picture : Cystography Procedure

11. Digital subtraction angiographyA unique x-ray technique for viewing blood vessels by taking two images and subtracting one from the other. Images are first obtained without contrasr material and then again after contrast is injected into blood vessels. The first image is then subtracted from the second do that the final image (sharp and precise) shows only contrast-filled blood vessels and not the surrounding tissue.

Picture : Digital Subtraction Angiography Machine

12. Doppler ultra soundTechnique that focuses sound waves on blood vessels and measures blood flow as echoes bounce off red blood cells. Arteries or veins in the arms, neck, legs, or abdomen are examined to detect vessels that are occluded (blocked) by clots or atherosclerosis.

Picture : Doppler Ultra Sound Tool

13. Echocardiography or echocardiogramImaging of the heart by introducong high-frequency sound waves through the chest into the heart. The sound waves are reflected back from the heart, and echoes showing heart structure are displayed on recording machine. It is highly useful diagnostic tool in the evaluation of disease of the valves that separate the heart chambers and disease of the heart muscle.

Picture : Electrocardiographhy

14. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography or ERCPX-ray recording of the bile ducts, pancreas, and pancreatic duct using radiopaque contrast injected through an endoscope, passed through the mouth, esophagus, and duodenum into the bile and pancreatic ducts, and x-ray images are then obtained.

Picture : The ERCP Machine

15. Endoscopic ultrasonography or E-USSound waves are generated from a tube inserted through the mouth and into the esophagus. The sound waves bounce off internal structures and are detected by surface coils. This study can detect enlarged cancerous lymph nodes and tumors in the chest and upper abdomen. This procedure is used for staging (evaluation of size and spread) of gastric and esophageal tumors.

Picture : E-US Methode

16. Esophagography or esopharogramX-ray recording or record of the esophagus performed after barium sulfate is swallowed. This test is part of barium swallow and upper gastrointestinal examination.

17. FluoroscopyAn x-ray examination that uses a fluorescent screen rather than a photographic plate to show images of the body in motion. X-ray that have passed through the body strike a screen covered with a fluoroscent substance that emits yellow-green light. Internal organs are seen directly (still images are stored either on film or on a conputers as digital images) and in motion. Fluoroscopy is used to guide the insertion of catheters and to direct organ biopsy and may be enhanced with barium ingestion. CT-guided biopsy is used most often now.

Picture : The Fluoroscopy Machine

18. Gallbladder ultrasoundSound wave s are used to visualize gallstones. This procedure has replaced the x-ray test as cholecystography.

Picture : Gallbladder Ultrasound Methode

19. Hysterosalpingography or hysterosalpingogramX-ray recording or record of the uterus and fallopian tubes. Contrast material is inserted through the vagina into the uterus and fallopian tubes, and x-ray images are obtained to detect blockage or tumor.

Picture : HSG Procedure

20. Magnetic resonance imaging or MRI

A powerful magnetic field is created surrounding the whole patient, or only the head, and water molecules are aligned and then relaxed, generating electromahnetic currents that provide a detailed picture of organs and blood vessels. A computer produces images of body stuctures at successive depth (as with CT slices). This procedure is particulary useful for imaging tumors of the brain and spinal cord and abnormalities of the lungs and abdominal and pelvic organs. No x-ray are used, and the study may be performed with intravenous contrast material (gadolinium), depending on the purpose of the evaluation.in magnetic resonance angiography (MRA or MR angiography), blood vessels are examined in key areas of the body such as the brain. Kidneys, pelvis, legs, lungs, and heart.

The patient is placed on a moveable bed that is inserted into magnet.The magnet creates a strong magnetic field tha aligns the protons of hydrogen atoms, which are then exposed to a beam of radio waves.This spins thevarious protons of the body and they produce a faint signal that is detected by the reciver portion of the MRI scanner.The receiver information is processed by a computer, and an image is produced.The image and resolution produced by MRI is quite detailed and can detect riny changes of structures within the body.For some procedures, contrast agents, such as gadolinium are used to increase the accuracy of the images.

Picture : MRI Procedure

21. Mammography or mammographX-ray recording or record of the breast. X-rays of low of voltage are beamed at the breast, and images are produced. Mammography detects abnormalities in breast tissue, such as breast cancer. In stereotactic breast biopsy, a hollow needle is passed through the skin into a suspicious lesion with the help of mammographic imaging. A specialized mammography machine uses intersecting coordinates to pinpoint an area of tissue (lesion) to be biopsied.A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram. A small x-ray marker may be taped on the breast overlying the palpable lump. This will help in determining whether any other special mammogram views need to be done

beyond the standard views. All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram. The patient's breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels. This compression causes a degree of discomfort that lasts only for a few seconds. The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution. If compression is not used, the mammograms may be blurry, breast tissue may not be well delineated, and small lesions can be overlooked.Antiperspirants, deodorants, and powders should not be worn during mammography and should be removed prior to the procedure, as these substances may make interpretation of the results more difficult. Antiperspirants can cause the images to appear foggy, and powders can sometimes simulate the appearance of microcalcifications (an abnormal finding that is sometimes associated with breast cancer). Generally, two x-rays are obtained of each breast. More views may be obtained if the breasts are large, the woman has had a breast augmentation, or there is an area on the initial mammography views that needs to be further examined. Special magnified or localized mammograms of a specific area of the breast can then be done.A radiology technologist is responsible for performing mammography. Once the x-ray pictures are taken, they are developed and examined by a radiologist (a doctor who specializes in the interpretation of x-rays and other imaging studies). In most mammography centers, these radiologists have also had extra training dedicated to interpreting mammograms.

Picture : Mammogram Methode

22. Myelography or myelogramX-ray recording of the spinal cord. This procedure has been largerly replaced by MRI for detecting tumors or ruptured “slipped”disks between vertebrae (backbones).

Picture : Myelography Procedure

23. Tomography or tomogramX-ray recording or record that shows an organ in depth. Several pictures (“slices”) are taken of an organ by moving the x-ray tube and film in sequence to blur out certain regions and bring others into sharper focus. Tomograms of kidney and lung are examples.

24. Ultrasonography or ultrasound imagingImages are produced by beaming high-frequency sound waves (not x-ray) into the body and capturing the echoes that bounce off organs. These echoes are then processed to produce an image showing the difference between fluid and solid masses and the general position of organs. Because ultrasound images are captured in real time, they can show structure and movement of internal organs, as well as blood flowing through blood vessels. Ultrasonography is particularry useful for detecting gallstones, fibroid tumors of the uterus and ovarian tumors and cysts (pelvic ultrasonography), enlargement of the heart or defects in heart valves (echocardiography), blood flow through major arteries and veins (doppler ultrasound), and enlargement of lymph nodes in the abdomen and chest. Also calles sonography.

The physics of sound can place limits on the test.The quality of the picture depends on may factors;a. Sound waves cannot penetrate deeply and an obese patient may be imaged

poorly.b. Ultrasound does poorly when gas is present between the probe and the target

organ.c. Ultrasound doesn’t penetrate bone easily.d. The accuracy of the test is very much operator dependent, this means that the key

to a good test is the ultrasound technician.

The ultrasound can be enchanced by using doppler technology which can measure whether an object is moving towards or away from the probe.This can allow the technician to measure blood flow in organs such as the heart or liver, within specific blood vessels.Preparation for ultrasound is minimal.Generally, if internal organs such as the galbladder are to be examined, patients are requested to avoid eating and drinking with exception of water for six to eight hours prior to the examination.This is because food cause gallblader contraction, minimizing the size, which would be visible during the ultrasound.

25. Urography or urogramX-ray recording of the kidney and urinary tract. If x-ray pictures are taken after contrast material is injected intravenously, the procedure is called entravenous urography (descending or excreation urography) or intravenous pyelography (IVP). If x-ray pictures are taken after introduction of contrast directly into the bladder through the urethra, the study is calles a cystogram. If contrast flows up the ureters into the kidneys, the procedure is called retrograde urography or retrograde pyelography.

Picture : Urography Procedure

26. BiopsyRemoval a piece of tissue from the body for subsequent examination under a microscope. The prosedure is performed with a surgical knife or by needle aspiration, or core biopsy, or via an endoscopic approach (using a special forceps-like instrument inserted through a hollow flexible tube). An excisional biopsy means that the entire tissue to be examined is removed. An incisional biopsy is the removal of only a small

amount of tissue, and a neddle or core biopsy indicates that tissue is pierced with a hollow neddle and fluid and/or cells are withdrawn by aspiration for microscopic examination.

A breast biopsy is a procedure in which part or all of a suspicious area in the breast is removed and examined, usually for the presence of cancer. The growth sample is suctioned out through a needle or cut out using a surgical procedure. A pathologist then examines and evaluates it under a microscope to identify non-cancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant) tissue. Words used to refer to the abnormal area or growth before and after diagnosis may include lump, mass, lesion, calcification, and tumor. The breast biopsy is used to determine whether or not a worrisome abnormality or area of calcification is cancer and, if it is cancer, what type it is and how to develop a treatment plan. When no cancer is detected, the diagnosis of a benign or harmless lump is reassuring.

Many physicians and health-care professionals can be involved in evaluating a woman for a breast biopsy.a. For example, breast abnormalities during a physical examination might be

noticed by a family physician, internist, gyenocolist, or nurse practitioner. Women themselves are frequently the first to detect abnormalities in their breasts.

b. Radiologists are specialists in interpreting x-rays such as mammograms, as well as other imaging studies. Radiologists or surgeons often perform the procedure to obtain these breast tissue samples.

c. Anesthesiologists (specialists in administering anesthesia and monitoring a patient's vital signs) are sometimes necessary during some surgical procedures.

d. Pathologists are physician specialists who examine and identify under a microscope the type of cells in the samples and determine whether or not cancer is present.

Picture : The Biopsy’s Instrument

27. BronchoscopyVisual examination of the bronchial passages through a flexible tube (endoscope) inserted into the airway. The lining of the bronchial tubes can be seen, and tissue may be removed for biopsy. The tube is usually inserted through the mouth but can also be

directly inserted into the airway during mediastinoscopy. Sedation is required for this procedure.

Picture : Broncoscopy Procedure