Textural Characteristics of World Foods

Textural Characteristics of World Foods

Edited by

Katsuyoshi NishinariProfessor, Hubei University of Technology Wuchang, WuhanChina, 430068

Emeritus Professor at Osaka City UniversityJapan

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Nishinari, Katsuyoshi, editor.Title: Textural characteristics of world foods / [edited by] Prof. Katsuyoshi Nishinari,

Wuchang, Wuhan, CH.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2019. |

Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2019009266 (print) | LCCN 2019013982 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119430933

(Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119430797 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119430698 (hardback)Subjects: LCSH: Food texture.Classification: LCC TX546 (ebook) | LCC TX546.T49 2019 (print) | DDC 641.3–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019009266

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List of Contributors xixPreface xxiiiForeword xxvIntroductionI.1 Why/How/What Do we Eat? xxviiI.2 Terms for Texture/Taste/Aroma Related to Diverse Foods/Recipes xxviiiI.3 Universality and Diversity xxixI.4 Wonderful Diversity of World Foods xxxI.5 Some Pitfalls in Texture Studies xxxiiI.6 About This Book xxxiii References xxxiv

1 Food Texture – Sensory Evaluation and Instrumental Measurement 1Kaoru Kohyama

1.1 Introduction: History of Food Texture Studies 11.2 Three Methods of Texture Evaluation 31.3 Methodologies in Sensory Evaluation of Texture 41.4 Instrumental Measurements of Food Texture 61.5 Sound Effects 81.6 Visual Cues and Flavor Release 91.7 Concluding Remarks 9 References 10

Part I North America 15

2 Food Textures in the United States of America 17Alina Surmacka Szczesniak

2.1 Introduction 172.2 Texture and the American Consumer 172.3 Role of Texture in Food Quality and Acceptance 182.4 Factors Shaping Attitudes to and Acceptance of Texture 182.5 Liked and Disliked Textural Characteristics 20

Contents

Contentsviii

2.6 Textural Contrast 232.7 Contemporary Trends 23 References 25

3 Texture Characteristics of US Foods: Pioneers, Protocols, and Attributes ‐ Tribute to Alina 27Gail Vance Civille, Amy Trail, Annlyse Retiveau Krogmann, and Ellen Thomas

3.1 The Protocols for Developing a Texture Lexicon 273.2 Texture Profiles and Evaluation Protocols for Selected US Foods 303.3 Potato Chip Texture Example 313.3.1 Serving Protocol 313.3.2 Tasting Protocol 313.3.3 Potato Chip Texture Summary 313.4 Bacon Texture Example 323.4.1 Serving Protocol 323.4.2 Tasting Protocol 323.4.3 Bacon Texture Summary 333.5 Peanut Butter Texture Example 343.5.1 Serving Protocol 343.5.2 Tasting Protocol 343.5.3 Peanut Butter Texture Summary 34 References 35

4 Textural Characteristics of Canadian Foods: Influences and Properties of Poutine Cheese and Maple Products 37Laurie‐Eve Rioux, Véronique Perreault, and Sylvie L. Turgeon

4.1 Introduction 374.2 Some Historical Perspectives 374.3 Canadian Eating Habits 384.4 Poutine 394.4.1 History of Canadian Cheese Making 404.4.2 Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese 414.4.3 Cheddar Cheese Composition and Textural Properties 424.5 Maple Products 434.5.1 History of Making Canadian Maple Products 434.5.2 Manufacture of Maple Products 444.5.2.1 Transforming Sap into Syrup 444.5.2.2 Transforming Syrup into Delights of Various Textures 454.5.3 Maple Products Composition and Textural Properties 474.5.3.1 Maple Syrup 474.5.3.2 Maple Taffy 474.5.3.3 Maple Butter 474.5.3.4 Maple Sugar Products 484.5.3.5 Other Maple Products 494.6 Conclusion 49 References 49

Contents ix

Part II Middle and South America 53

5 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Mexican Foods 55Alberto Tecante

5.1 Introduction 555.2 Tortillas 555.2.1 Corn Tortillas 565.2.2 Wheat Tortillas 565.2.3 Mechanical Tests 575.2.3.1 Rollability 575.2.3.2 Bending 595.2.3.3 Stress Relaxation in Uniaxial Tension 605.2.3.4 Tensile Strength 605.2.3.5 Penetration or Puncture 615.2.3.6 Kramer Cell 615.3 Alegría (Amaranth Seed Sweet) 625.4 Ate (Fruit Paste) 625.5 Pan de Muerto (Bread of the Dead) 645.6 Queso Cotija (Cotija Cheese) 645.7 Conclusions 66 References 66

6 Textural Characteristics of Brazilian Foods 69Angelita da Silveira Moreira and Patrícia Diaz de Oliveira

6.1 Formation of Food Habits in Brazil 696.1.1 Indigenous Influence 706.1.2 Portuguese Influence 706.1.3 African Influence 706.2 Main Raw Materials and Derived Foods 716.2.1 Cassava 716.2.1.1 Cassava Flours, Puba Mass, Manipueira, and Tucupi (ABIAP 2018) 726.2.2 Amylaceous Derivatives – Sweet Cassava Starch, Tapioca,

Tapioca Flour, and Artificial Sago 756.2.3 Rice 766.2.4 Beans 786.3 Trends in Dietary Restrictions 82 References 83

7 Textural Characteristics and Viscoelastic Behavior of Traditional Argentinian Foods 89Gabriel Lorenzo, Natalia Ranalli, Silvina Andrés, Noemí Zaritzky, and Alicia Califano

7.1 Introduction 897.2 Empanadas 907.2.1 Viscoelastic Behavior of Commercial Wheat Dough for Empanadas 917.2.2 Gluten Replacement in Empanadas: A Complex

Task to Cover a Larger Population 93

Contentsx

7.2.3 Final Remarks on Empanadas Dough 977.3 Dulce de Leche 987.3.1 Commercial Varieties of Dulce de Leche 997.3.2 Dulce de Leche Texture 997.3.3 Dulce de Leche‐like Product Enriched with Emulsified Pecan Oil 101 References 103

Part III Asia 107

8 Textural Characteristics of Japanese Foods 109Katsuyoshi Nishinari and Tooru Ooizumi

8.1 Rice 1118.2 Tofu 1138.3 Gomatofu (Sesame Tofu) 1148.4 Some Foods with Mucilaginous Texture 1158.5 Food for Persons with Mastication Difficulty 1158.6 Seafood in Japan 1158.6.1 Sashimi and Marinated Products 1178.6.2 Surimi Seafood Products 1188.6.3 Dried Products 121 References 121

9 Textural Characteristics of Chinese Foods 125Long Huang

9.1 Regional Cuisine/Foods in China 1259.1.1 Shandong Cuisine (Lu Cuisine) 1259.1.2 Canton/Guangdong Cuisine (Yue Cuisine) 1259.1.3 Szechwan/Sichuan Cuisine (Chuan Cuisine) 1269.1.4 Hunan Cuisine (Xiang Cuisine) 1269.1.5 Jiangsu Cuisine (Su Cuisine) 1279.1.6 Zhejiang Cuisine (Zhe Cuisine) 1279.1.7 Fujian Cuisine (Min Cuisine) 1279.1.8 Anhui Cuisine (Hui Cuisine) 1279.1.9 Cuisines in Autonomous Regions of Tibet and Xinjiang‐Uyghur 1279.2 Texture Descriptive Terms in Chinese 1289.3 Textural Characteristics of Typical Chinese Foods 1289.3.1 Crust of Mooncake (Yue Bing, Geppei) 1289.3.2 Chinese Dumpling (Jiaozi, Gyoza, Shao‐Mai, Shumai) 1309.3.3 Texture Modification to Flour‐Based Chinese Foods, Especially

Noodle and Glutinous Dumpling 133 References 136

10 Textural Characteristics of Indonesian Foods 137Oni Yuliarti

10.1 Geographical 137

Contents xi

10.2 Characteristic of Indonesian Diets 13810.3 Textural Properties of Indonesian Foods 13910.3.1 Gel‐Like Foods – Green Jelly Leaves 13910.3.1.1 Botanical 13910.3.1.2 Rheological Properties of the Gel 14010.3.1.3 The Production of the Gel 14310.3.2 Gel‐Like Foods – Seaweeds 14310.3.2.1 Botanical 14310.3.2.2 Gelation and Rheology of Pudding Rumput Laut 14410.3.2.3 Production of Pudding Rumput Laut 14610.3.3 Soy‐Based Foods – Tempeh (Fermented Soybeans) 14610.3.3.1 Texture Properties of Tempeh 148 References 149

11 Textural Characteristics of Thai Foods 151Rungnaphar Pongsawatmanit

11.1 Introduction 15111.2 Historical and Geographical Background of Thai Food 15211.3 Selected Food Samples with Sensory Evaluation and Instrumental

Measurement 15611.4 Health Benefit of Thai Food 160 References 163

12 Textural Characteristics of Malaysian Foods: Quality and Stability of Malaysian Laksa Noodles 167Lai Hoong Cheng, Yan Kitt Low, A’firah Mohd Sakri, Jia Shin Tai, and Abd Karim Alias

12.1 Introduction 16712.2 Chemical Composition 16812.3 Organoleptic Quality 16812.4 Textural Quality 16912.5 Factors Affecting Textural Quality of Laksa Noodles 17012.5.1 Rice Grain 17512.5.2 Aged Rice 17512.5.3 Milling Method 17512.5.4 Particle Size of Rice Flour 17512.5.5 Steaming Process 17612.5.6 Blending of Other Starch/Starches 17612.5.7 Extrusion and Boiling 17612.5.8 Washing 17612.6 Storage Stability 17612.7 Nutritional Quality 17812.7.1 Gluten Free 17812.7.2 Low‐Fat Carbohydrate Choice 17812.8 Conclusion 178 Acknowledgments 178 References 179

Contentsxii

Part IV Oceania 181

13 Textural Characteristics of Australian Foods 183Andrew Halmos, Lita Katopo, and Stefan Kasapis

13.1 Introduction 18313.2 Importance of Mouthfeel and Its Recognition 18413.3 Developments in Mouthfeel and Texture Terms 18413.4 Typical Meals with Descriptors for the Australian Palate 18513.5 Breakfast 18613.5.1 Toasted Bread 18613.5.2 Cereals with Milk 18613.5.3 Coffee 18713.5.4 Fried Tomatoes 18813.5.5 Steak, Sausages, or Chops 18813.5.6 Eggs 18813.5.7 Bacon 18813.5.8 Spreads 18813.6 Lunch or Mid‐Day Meal 18913.6.1 Sandwiches with Fillings 18913.6.2 Pie, Sausage Roll, or Pastry 18913.6.3 Potato Products 18913.6.4 Boiled or Steamed Vegetables 18913.6.5 Vegetables with Roux 18913.6.6 Salads and Dressings 19013.6.7 Meat 19013.7 Dinner 19013.7.1 Soup 19013.7.2 Meat in the Form of Chops or Steak 19013.7.3 Seafood 19013.7.4 Fish 19113.7.5 Rice 19113.7.6 Vegetables 19113.7.7 Chinese‐Style Food 19113.7.8 Cheeses 19213.7.9 Sweets 19213.7.10 Ice Cream 19313.7.11 Snacks 19313.8 Conclusions 193 References 193

Part V Central Asia Middle East 197

14 Textural Characteristics of Indian Foods: A Comparative Analysis 199Amardeep Singh Virdi and Narpinder Singh

14.1 Introduction 19914.2 Chapati 201

Contents xiii

14.3 Gluten‐Free Chapatis 20514.4 Biscuits and Cookies 20514.5 Gluten‐Free Cookies and Biscuits 20714.6 Noodles 20814.7 Gluten‐Free Noodles 21014.8 Bread 21114.9 Gluten‐Free Bread 21214.10 Muffins and Cakes 21314.11 Gluten‐Free Muffins and Cakes 21414.12 Conclusion 215 Acknowledgments 216 References 216

15 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Foods 223Mahmut Doğan, Duygu Aslan, and Fatima Tahseen Miano

15.1 Introduction 22315.2 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish

Meat‐Based Food Products 22415.2.1 Sucuk (Turkish‐Type Fermented Sausage) 22415.2.2 Pastırma (A Traditional Dry‐Cured Meat Product) 22515.3 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Cheeses 22715.4 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Desserts 23115.4.1 Turkish Delight (Lokum) 23115.4.2 Helva 232 References 234

16 Textural Characteristics of Iranian Foods: Cuisine Signifies Old Historical Identities 237Bahareh Emadzadeh and Behrouz Ghorani

16.1 Iran Geography at a Glance 23716.2 The Impact of Geography and History 23716.3 Distinctive Features of Persian Cuisine 23916.4 Bread 23916.4.1 Sangak 24016.4.2 Barbari 24016.4.3 Taftoon 24116.4.4 Lavash 24116.5 Rice 24216.5.1 Rice‐Based Foods 24216.5.2 Rice Cooking 24216.5.2.1 Stewing of Rice by Steam 24316.5.3 Rice‐Based Sweets and Desserts 24316.6 Kebabs 24316.7 Lighvan Cheese 24416.8 Gaz: A Well‐Known Confectionary 24516.9 Doogh: A Fermented Dairy‐Based Drink 24616.10 Conclusion 246 References 247

Contentsxiv

Part VI Russia 251

17 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Russian Foods 253 Nataliia Ptichkina and Nataliia Nepovinnykh17.1 Introduction 25317.2 Formation History of Russian Cuisine 25317.3 Textural Characteristics of Some Traditional Products 25517.4 Bread from Rye Flour 25517.5 Jellies from Meat and from Fish (Kholodets) 25717.6 Soup‐Purée Based on Pumpkin Powder 25817.7 Sauces 25917.8 Curd Cheese Dishes 26117.9 Kissels and Jellied Desserts 26217.10 Aerated Desserts 263 Acknowledgments 265 References 265

Part VII Europe 269

18 Textural Characteristics of Italian Foods 271Rossella Di Monaco, Nicoletta Antonella Miele, Sharon Puleo, Paolo Masi, and Silvana Cavella

18.1 Introduction 27118.2 Cheese 27118.2.1 Pasta Filata Cheese 27418.2.2 Cooked Curd Cheeses 27518.2.3 Other Italian Cheeses 27718.3 Salumi 27718.3.1 Italian Dry‐Cured Ham 27818.3.2 Salami 28118.3.3 Mortadella 28218.4 Bread 28218.5 Conclusions 285 References 286

19 Textural Characteristics of Greek Foods 293Stefan Kasapis

19.1 Background 29319.1.1 Olive Oil 29319.2 Traditional Greek Cheeses 29619.2.1 Feta 29719.3 Health Conscious Feta Manufacturing 29819.3.1 Texture Profile Analysis of Feta 29819.3.2 Full and Low Fat Greek Yogurts 29919.4 Popular Emulsion‐Type Meat Products 300

Contents xv

19.5 Conclusions 301 References 301

20 Textural Characteristics of British Foods 305Andrew J. Rosenthal and Tim J. Foster

20.1 Introduction – What Are British Foods? 30520.2 Roast Beef and Yorkshire Pudding 30620.2.1 Culinary Background to the Dish 30620.2.2 Nature of the Raw Materials 30620.2.3 Textural Considerations 30720.3 Fish and Chips 30720.3.1 Culinary Background to the Dish 30720.3.2 Nature of the Raw Materials 30820.3.3 Textural Considerations 30920.4 Conclusions 310 References 311

21 Textural Characteristics of Traditional French Foods 313Bernard Launay

21.1 Introduction 31321.2 Change in Texture Awareness: What and Why? 31421.2.1 The “New Cuisine” Style 31421.2.2 Restaurants of Foreign Cuisine 31421.2.3 Fast‐Food Restaurants 31421.2.4 Changes Attributable to the Development

of Industrial Food Products 31521.2.5 Texture Measurement in Industry and Research Labs 315 Acknowledgment 318 References 318

22 Textural Characteristics of Spanish Foods: Dry‐Cured Ham 319Susana Fiszman and Amparo Tarrega

22.1 Introduction 31922.2 Production of Dry‐Cured Ham 32022.2.1 Salting/Post‐Salting 32022.2.2 Ripening 32122.3 Sensory Quality of Dry‐Cured Ham 32122.4 Sensory Assessment of Dry‐Cured Ham 32222.4.1 Texture Attributes 32322.4.2 Appearance Attributes 32422.4.2.1 Color 32422.4.2.2 Odor and Flavor Attributes 32522.4.3 Other Sensory Techniques 32522.4.4 Factors Affecting the Sensory Features of Dry‐Cured Ham 32522.5 Instrumental Texture Techniques for Dry‐Cured Ham 32622.5.1 Instrumental TPA 326

Contentsxvi

22.5.2 Warner‐Bratzler Test 32722.5.3 Other Instrumental Methods for Measuring Texture Features 32722.6 Instrumental Methods for Determining Sensory Features

Other than Texture 32822.7 Health‐Related Aspects of Dry‐Cured Ham 32822.8 Final Remarks 330 Acknowledgments 330 References 330

23 Textural Characteristics of German Foods: The German Würstchen 335Norbert Raak, Klaus Dürrschmid, and Harald Rohm

23.1 Introduction 33523.2 Basic Technologies of Sausage Manufacture 33623.2.1 Rohwurst 33623.2.2 Brühwurst 33723.2.3 Kochwurst 33723.3 Sausage‐Related Culture, Stories, and Recent Trends 33723.4 Evaluation of Texture and Rheological Properties of Sausages 34223.5 Typical Sausage Side Dishes and Condiments 346 References 348

24 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Finnish Foods 353Liisa Lähteenmäki and Karin Autio

24.1 Introduction 35324.2 Rye Bread 35424.2.1 Sensory Attributes 35424.2.2 Textural Measurements 35424.2.3 The Effect of Ingredients and Processing Conditions

on Structural Properties 35624.3 Oat β‐Glucan 35624.3.1 Sensory Attributes 35624.3.2 Rheological Properties 357 References 358

Part VIII Africa 361

25 Textural Characteristics of Nigerian Foods 363Matthew Olusola Oluwamukomi and Olaide Samuel Lawal

25.1 Introduction 36325.2 Classification of Foods Based on Their Rheological/Textural

Characteristics 36425.3 Foods That Flow and Do Not Require Any Chewing During

Oral Processing (Newtonian and Non‐Newtonian Fluids) 36425.3.1 Newtonian Fluids 36425.3.1.1 Palm Wine 36525.3.1.2 Pito 365

Contents xvii

25.3.1.3 Kunun from Cereal 36525.3.1.4 Nunu from Milk 36525.3.1.5 Otika 36625.3.1.6 Burukutu 36625.3.2 Non‐Newtonian Fluids 36625.3.2.1 Ketchup 36625.3.2.2 Draw Soups: (Ogbono, okra, ewedu) 36625.4 Semisolid Foods That Are Processed in the Mouth by Squeezing

the Tongue and Palate 36725.4.1 Pasting Properties of Starch Pastes (Ogi, Tuwo,

Amala, Lafun, or Pupuru) 36725.4.1.1 Ogi/Akamu Porridge/Agidi from Maize 36925.4.1.2 Tuwo from Maize 37025.4.1.3 Gari / Eba from Cassava 37025.4.1.4 Pounded Yam (iyan) or Yam Fufu from Yam 37225.4.1.5 Amala (Amala isu) from Yam 37225.5 Soft‐Solid Foods That Require Chewing but Do Not Have “Crispy”

Attributes 37325.5.1 Akara from Cowpeas 37325.5.2 Warankasi from Milk 37525.6 Hard‐Solid Foods Are Crispy and Associated with a Crunchiness 37525.6.1 Ipekere Agbado (Maize Fritters) 37625.6.2 Maize Kokoro 37625.7 Conclusion 377 References 377

Index 385

xix

Abd Karim AliasFood Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Silvina AndrésCenter for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina

Duygu AslanEngineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

Karin AutioVTT Technical Research Center, Otaniemi, Espoo, Finland

Alicia CalifanoCenter for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina

Silvana CavellaCenter of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Lai Hoong ChengFood Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Gail Vance CivilleSensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA

Rossella Di MonacoCenter of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Patrícia Diaz de OliveiraFederal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Mahmut DoğanEngineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, TurkeyTAGEM Food Analysis Center Co., Erciyes University Technopark, Kayseri, Turkey

Klaus DürrschmidInstitute of Food Science, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Vienna, Austria

Bahareh EmadzadehResearch Institute of Food Science and Technology, Mashhad, Iran

List of Contributors

List of Contributorsxx

Susana FiszmanSpanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain

Tim J. FosterSchool of Biosciences, Nottingham University, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Behrouz GhoraniResearch Institute of Food Science and Technology, Mashhad, Iran

Andrew HalmosSchool of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Long HuangGuangxi Neober Food Sci-Tech Co Ltd, Hezhou, Guangxi, ChinaChangzhou Neober Biotech Co Ltd, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China

Stefan KasapisSchool of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Lita KatopoSchool of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Kaoru KohyamaFood Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Annlyse Retiveau KrogmannSensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA

Liisa LähteenmäkiDepartment of Management, MAPP, Research on Value Creation in the Food Sector, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Bernard LaunayDepartment of Science and Engineering for Food and Bioproducts, AgroParisTech, Centre de Massy, France

Olaide Samuel LawalDepartment of Chemistry, The Federal University Oye Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria

Peter LillfordUniversity of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Gabriel LorenzoCenter for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina

Yan Kitt LowFood Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Paolo MasiCenter of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Fatima Tahseen MianoEngineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, TurkeyInstitute of Food Science and Technology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tando Jam, Sindh, Pakistan

Nicoletta Antonella MieleCenter of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

List of Contributors xxi

Nataliia NepovinnykhSaratov State Agrarian University, Saratov, Russia

Katsuyoshi NishinariHubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China

Matthew Olusola OluwamukomiDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

Tooru OoizumiDepartment of Marine Science and Technology, Fukui Prefectural University, Obama, Fukui, Japan

Véronique PerreaultQuebec Institute of Tourism and Hotel Management (ITHQ), Montreal, Quebec, CanadaGastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ

Rungnaphar PongsawatmanitKasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Nataliia PtichkinaSaratov State Agrarian University, Saratov, Russia

Sharon PuleoCenter of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Norbert RaakChair of Food Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Natalia RanalliCenter for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty

of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina

Laurie‐Eve RiouxInstitute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, CanadaGastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ

Harald RohmChair of Food Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Andrew J. RosenthalSchool of Biosciences, Nottingham University, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, United Kingdom

A’firah Mohd SakriFood Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Angelita da Silveira MoreiraFederal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Narpinder SinghDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India

Alina Surmacka SzczesniakMount Vernon, New York, USA

Jia Shin TaiFood Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Amparo TarregaSpanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain

List of Contributorsxxii

Alberto TecanteFacultad de Química, Departamento de Alimentos y Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, Mexico

Ellen ThomasSensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA

Amy TrailSensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA

Sylvie L. TurgeonInstitute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, CanadaGastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ

Amardeep Singh VirdiDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India

Oni YuliartiSchool of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore

Noemí ZaritzkyCenter for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina

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We all know that the food texture is one of the dominating factors that influence consumers’ preference of a food product and willingness of next purchase. The texture of a food is closely associated with its structure at both the macro‐ and micro‐level, and it therefore has very important implications to other sensory properties, in particular the taste and aroma, because the release of small molecules depends on the pattern of food structure breakdown. I understand why consumers often prefer to say a food “tastes good,” but I believe that understanding a food to be “mouth‐feels good” could be fundamentally more important in relation to consumers’ acceptance and preference of a food product.

Even though food texture has been commonly used as a single term and in some cases used as an alternative to mouth‐feel, it is as a matter of fact a collective term consisting of a wide range of textural properties. The physical stimulus (or stimuli) to each textural feature could originate from the structural and geometrical contributions (and some other contributions, e.g. moisture or oil content), or their combination. No complete list of textural properties is yet available, but in the Japanese language, more than 400 textural terms/properties have been identified, covering features perceived by touching, seeing, and even hearing. Therefore, the description, definition, and — more impor-tantly — the instrumental characterization of textural properties are not easy tasks and remain as a major challenge to food texture research.

Human beings are very fortunate that a great variety of food is available at different seasons and in different regions. While such a diversity of food sources is welcomed by consumers, a big complexity arises due to the diverse texture terms being used by con-sumers across the globe because of different culture and different languages. Research has already shown evidence of various texture preferences by consumers of different cultural backgrounds. Research also shows that the same texture term could have delicate differences between consumers speaking different languages.

While texture diversity should be celebrated for making our lives much more inter-esting and pleasurable, it brings a big challenge to the food industry now that its markets reach across the globe. This book is the first of such kind to give detailed insights into the texture diversity of foods across at all major regions of the world. Cultural, linguistic, as well as technical explanations of food texture are brilliantly integrated in this book.

Preface

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I thank Professor Nishinari for his great effort in getting this book organized and published. His expert knowledge of food texture demonstrated in this book is hugely valuable to texture researchers in both industry and research institutes throughout the world.

Jianshe ChenZhejiang Gongshang University

Hangzhou, China

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We know that eating is one of the great unifying pleasures of life. Everywhere and in every culture, we celebrate by eating, and despite the warnings of an emerging obesity crisis, nutritionists find it very difficult to persuade people that too much of it can be bad for them. Furthermore, we are warned that our obvious pleasure in eating good food, when coupled with the growing population and its affluence, is leading to a global crisis as demand outstrips supply. This can only be managed if we understand much more about what we eat and why we like it.

We know that essential nutrients can be provided via liquid diets, and flavor and aroma can be managed much more easily in liquid systems, but there is something about chewing and breaking down food to swallow it that we enjoy  –  perhaps just because it prolongs or provides complexity to our senses?

So, texture is one of foods’ most important qualities and is a sensation perceived by us all. But how do we perceive it, and what do we prefer? Why is there such diversity in the food products eaten around the world? This book will not answer all these questions, but it provides a wonderful insight into the range of textures we eat and some sugges-tions as to why.

For the scientist and industrial technologist, the complexity of the questions are fas-cinating research topics requiring continuous investigation. This book begins with tributes to the founders of this inquiry, its current state of development, and the oppor-tunities that modern techniques of mechanics and human physiology can bring to the table.

Others readers may regard texture as “gestalt,” implying that no amount of reduction-ist measurement science will (or should) codify the design rules for texture creation and its pleasurable impact. Whatever philosophy the reader prefers, this book provides a fascinating survey of what has been created by thousands of skilled empirical develop-ments, converting agricultural produce to an almost limitless array of eating pleasures.

Peter LillfordUniversity of Birmingham,

Birmingham, UK

Foreword

IntroductionKatsuyoshi Nishinari

I.1 Why/How/What Do We Eat?

What do we expect from food? Food supplies energy and nutrition. We eat food when we feel hungry. This has been known to be controlled by the feeding center and satiety center in the hypothalamus in the brain. Since the discovery of leptin, a hormone regulating food intake, the understanding of the mechanism of food intake has greatly advanced. Now, the mechanism of food intake is being studied further, and it is thought that the central nerv-ous system in addition to hypothalamus is governing the food intake.

Food has such a physiological function, but also has psychological or cultural aspects that have not been understood completely by physiology. The mechanism that explains why people lose their appetite in dejection caused by events such as the death of beloved persons, a broken heart, or being scolded has not been identified.

Food has a special function to unite people by conviviality. This function plays impor-tant roles to strengthen family ties in daily life, but was also used by feudal kings and aristocrats to tame or govern subordinates. People like to eat special foods on the occa-sion or the turning point in their lives such as birthday, marriage, and funeral. Selection of foods depend on the preference, which is influenced by culture and economic status.

Food processing/cookery has assured the safety by sterilization and removal of harm-ful ingredients, storage, and transportation, as well as improving the palatability. Texture has been known to be the most important attribute determining the palatability, and has recently attracted more and more attention in relation to the safe delivery of food into digestive organs without causing choking or aspiration (i.e. the wrong transport of masticated foods or liquids bolus into the airway instead of to the esophagus then stom-ach). In addition to these urgent problems, the interaction between the food and oral organs governed by brain function has attracted much attention, although these are not yet well understood. Thin liquids are known to be swallowed faster than thick liquids. Firm foods are masticated more strongly and the number of chews is greater than for soft foods. Are firmer foods chewed slower or faster than soft foods? Or is the chewing speed independent of firmness? It may depend not only on the firmness but also on aroma and taste (Nishinari and Fang 2018).

Society for Mastication Science and Health Promotion was founded by Kinziro Kubota in Japan in 1990. The collaboration among dentists, food scientists, and related disciplines is thought to be important. People tend to prefer softer processed foods that do not need

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mastication. As a result, the jaw is degenerated and the space for teeth to grow is becom-ing insufficient, and thus the problem of snaggleteeth/irregular teeth can become serious.

The growth of the dental industry in developed countries indicates that people do not want to be deprived of the gratifying sensations that arise from eating their food. From the nutritional standpoint, it is possible to have a completely adequate diet in the form of fluid foods that require no mastication. However, few people are content to live on such a diet. It clearly shows that people want to continue to enjoy the textural sensations that arise from masticating their food (Bourne 2002). Bourne raises the following rea-sons for masticating food: gratification, comminution, mix with saliva, temperature adjustment, released flavor, and increased surface area. The link between reduced mas-tication ability and hippocampal neuron loss has been suggested, which might indicate that chewing plays a role in fending off dementia.

Saito examined the number of chewing using restored menus in each era in Japanese history. According to his examination, the restored menu for Himiko, queen of Yamatai in the third century, was found to need 3990 chews taking 51 minutes, 1366 chews and 31 minutes for Murasaki Shikibu (the author of Tale of Genji in the tenth to eleventh century), 2654 chews and 29 minutes for Minamoto Yoritomo (the first warrior Shogunate) in the end of twelfth century, 1465 chews and 22 minutes for Tokugawa Ieyasu (who established Edo Bakufu Shogunate in 1603) while only 620 chews and 11 minutes for a common menu in the present.

The decreasing tendency of the number of chews is a reflection of the decrease in the intake of tough/firm/hard foods. Many reports have been published that eating slowly with much mastication reduces the likelihood of obesity. Will this gradual change of food texture from firm to soft continue? Although the invention of softening of firm foods by enzymatic action that retains food appearance is good news for persons with difficulty in mastication, the decrease in chewing cycles sometimes results in fast eat-ing, overeating, and obesity for normal persons. Bolhuis et al. (2014) and Forde et al. (2016) reported that smaller bite (amount of food ingested in the mouth) sizes and more chewing increased oro‐sensory exposure time and slowed the eating rate, thus provid-ing a stronger satiety response per energy consumed.

While many studies have reported that the expected satiation increased with increas-ing thickness/hardness for liquid/solid foods, and texture is more important determi-nant for expected satiation and thus for the selected portion size of food, other factors such as the means of consumption (e.g. using straw or spoon), affecting the eating rate, could not be neglected. It is also expected that a creamy flavor will cause a higher satia-tion than fruity flavor, but this remains inconclusive (Hogenkamp et al. 2011). Texture and flavor are the two most important determinants of food consumption in addition to the cost, and their respective roles and interaction should be studied further.

I.2 Terms for Texture/Taste/Aroma Related to Diverse Foods/Recipes

Is there a relationship between the two representing systems of written language, alpha-bets (phonetics) and ideograms, and the universality/diversity problem?

Ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphics representing shapes of all the things around them, and ancient Chinese used also hieroglyphic characters engraved on bones and