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Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The Terracotta Temples of Maluti: A Conservation Report 3

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Jeff Morgan and the Board of Trustees of the Global Heritage Fund for initiating this project and for their support for the heritage of this remote village community in Jharkhand. A special thanks to Ms. Jasmine Arneja for her active involvement and support. We are grateful to Mr. Adam Dunbar, Mr. Daniel Thompson, Mr. Jeff Adams and the entire staff at GHF for their support on this project. A special thanks to Mr. John Hurd and Mr. John Sanday for their support of this endevour.

Our sincere gratitude to Mr. Sourav De and Mr. Krishnendu Bandopadhyay for their deep personal commitment towards the preservation of the temples at Maluti.

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Gopaldas Banerjee, a long time resident and an elder of Maluti for his perseverance and commitment towards saving the rich temple heritage of Maluti. His lifelong research on the history of Maluti and its legends has been an invaluable source of information to the project team.

We acknowledge with gratitude, Dr. Subrata Chakravorty for his guidance and valuable historical inputs.

Project Team

Abha Narain Lambah Associates

Project Leader & Conservation Architect Abha Narain Lambah

Project Archaeologist Shraddha Bhatawadekar

Associate Conservation Architect Kruti Garg

Project Architects Jiten Desai

Akshay Kulkarni

Architectural Interns – Documentation Durgesh Sarmalkar

Priyanka Lele

Vidhya Gopal

Structural Conservation Advisor Dr. Michael O’Connor



Contents

1. Introduction1.1.Location & Setting 1.2.History 1.3.The Village Setting

2. Architecture & Iconography 2.1.Evolution of Temple Architecture in Bengal 2.2.Terracotta Temples at Maluti: Location & Clusters

2.2.1. Cluster 1: Sikir Taraf2.2.2. Cluster 2: Rajar Bari2.2.3. Cluster 3: Madhyam Bari 2.2.4. Cluster 4: Chhai Taraf 2.2.5. Cluster 5: Mauliksha Temple Complex

2.3.Sculpture & Iconography in Maluti

3. Significance & Values

4. Conservation of the Temple Fabric 4.1.Conservation of the Temple Fabric: Issues & Recommendations 4.2.Condition Inventory & Fabric Assessment

5. Approach to Site Management 5.1.Archaeology & Research 5.2.Sustainable Rural Development 5.3.Policy & Protection

6. Balancing Preservation & Change 6.1.Future Management Issues 6.2.Ensuring Sustainable Change

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1.1.Location & Setting

Location

The village of Maluti is located in Dumka District (Santhal Pargana) in the state of Jharkhand in India. The village is on the border of West Bengal and Jharkhand, near the North-Eastern border of Jharkhand. The village lies about 55 kilometre East of District headquarter of Dumka.

Maluti is 16 km from Rampurhat (District Birbhum, West Bengal), which is to the East of the village, and 15 km from Mallarpur (District Birbhum, West Bengal), which is to the South-East of the village, which are the two nearest railway stations. The village lies near Surichua on the Rampurhat-Dumka Bus route.

Geographical co-ordinates

North- N 24�09’40.5”

South- N 24�09’21.60”

East- E 87�40’32.57”

West- E 87�40’14.88”

Area of the Village

400 m X 700 m

Left: The village of Maluti; Image Source: Google EarthRight Top: Context of the site in Jharkhand State on a geographical map of India Right Bottom: Context of the site in Dumka District on a geographical map of Jharkhand State

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Topography & Setting

Maluti is situated at the eastern end of the undulated Chhota Nagpur plateau, rich in mineral resources.

The rivulet of Chila, also called Chandan Ghat Nala, is to the South of the village. The river also marks the natural boundary between West Bengal and Jharkhand.

The village is surrounded by many water bodies. It is believed that the village once had more than 60 tanks built by the Rajas who ruled Maluti.

The area was once covered with dense forest. The agricultural lands around the village Maluti are identified by names like Bon-kata, Bagh-bia, Harin-dhanda, Hasti-kanda, Shial-mara, etc, referring in the local language to areas once covered with trees.

Left Top: Topography and setting of Maluti; Image Source: Google Earth Left Bottom: Water tank at Maluti

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Protection & Legal Status

Maluti lies in Shikaripara Block of Dumka District of Jharkhand. The village has a Gram Panchayat, the local village body, which looks after the administration in the village.

The village of Maluti came under Santhal Pargana in 1855 from District Birbhum in Bengal. In the post independence period, the Santhal Pargana formed part of the State of Bihar. The village finally came under the newly formed State of Jharkhand in 2001.

Left: The village of Maluti; Image Source: Google EarthRight: The village of Maluti with its traditional household

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54 temples in the village were gazetted by the Bihar Government in 1983 under Bihar Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites’ Remains and Art Treasures Act, 1976. At present, the temples are under the Jharkhand Government.

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Pre-historic Layer

Maluti reveals a distinct settlement layer from the pre-historic period. Pre-historic tools belonging to Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic period have been found in the river bed of rivulet Chila also known as Chandan Ghat Nala. The tool bearing area extends from a point called ‘Sadarghat’ to an upstream point called ‘Shirali’, with a distance of one kilometre between the two points.

The tools include handaxes, scrapers, blades, etc. The working edge is serrated and is still sharp.

Prof. Dr. Subrata Chakravorty of Visva Bharati has confirmed that these tools belong to the Palaeolithic period.

He has divided the tools collected from Maluti into two classes:

� Acheulian � Middle Palaeolithic

Dr. Chakravorty has also described in detail the Acheulian finds discovered from Chila, classification of such tools collected from the site and the raw materials used to make those tools.

“Acheulian appeared at Maluti Sadarghat on Chila, the rivulet that flows in Birbhum- Jharkhand border land. Acheulian finds discovered from three localities, one of them fossiliferous include handaxes, cleavers, choppers, scrapers, and unqualified waste, flakes, cores and chips made of raw materials – traps, basalts, quartzite, chert, jasper, etc. The assemblage of Maluti Sadarghat shows preponderance of various other tools such as retouched flakes, side scrapers, end scrapers, point borers, sundry light duty tools.”

Neolithic or Chalcolithic specimens are not found in the village or its vicinity as yet, but some Mesolithic artefacts are found.

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After this incident, Ramchandra and Mahadevachandra, the two brothers of the deceased king Rajchandra along with two nephews Rakharchandra and Prithvichandra left Damra and established the capital at Maluti, which was revival of Hindu culture in Maluti.

After clearing the forest, they established their settlement at Maluti around 1680 A.D. They divided themselves in four houses (Chow-taraf).

Rakharchandra, the eldest son of late Rajchandra had 1/4th share of the total property. His house was called ‘Rajar Bari’, i.e. house of king. Likewise with the same share the house of his brother Prithvichandra was called ‘Madhyam Bari’, i.e. house of second. Ramchandra, second brother of Rajchandra took another 1/4th

share and it was called ‘Sikir Taraf’, i.e. house of 1/4th share. The fourth share was occupied by Mahadevchandra, the third and the youngest brother of Rajachandra. He had six sons, so the subjects used to call that house by the name of ‘Chhai Taraf’, i.e. house of six. Rajar Bari, Madhyam Bari and Sikir Taraf settled in a line from west to east and Chhai Taraf in the south of the village.

Brahmins by caste, the royal family was very religious. Dandi Sanyasi of Sumeru Math, Kashi (Varanasi) is believed to have helped Baj Basanta gain the kingdom and became the Rajguru of the family.

Goddess Mauliksha became the patron deity of the royal family. They worshipped her as Simhavahini. Instead of constructing palaces, the Rajas built temples. The activity continued simultaneously in all the tarafs,with each taraf competing with the other. This turned Maluti into a ‘Temple village’.

Around 1857, Swami Bamdev (or Bamakhepa), one of Bengal’s greatest spiritual leaders, came here to be a priest but failed because he couldn’t memorise Sanskrit mantras. He was made to cook food for the puja. During his 18-month stay in Maluti, Bamakhepa used to spend most of his time at Maulisksha temple. Here he was first blessed. Then, he moved to Tarapith. His trident is still preserved at Maluti.

The descendants of Baj Basanta used the title Raja till 1900 A.D. At the beginning of 20th century they left the Raja title and then onward they are called ‘Babus of Maluti’.

Right Top: The temple of Bamdev Right Bottom: The trishul and shankha of Bamdev has been preserved in a temple at Maluti dedicated to Bamdev, the ascetic who is said to have attained ‘siddhi’ from Goddess Mauliksha



Maluti in Legends

Myths and legends add to the significance of the place and provide glimpses into a period. Numerous interesting legends and stories are associated with Baj Basanta, Rakharchandra, the descendant of Baj Basanta and the village deity Mauliksha.

There is an interesting legend which gives an account of the acquisition of Nankarkingdom by Baj Basanta. The story relates that Basanta took birth in a poor Brahmin family. His father died in his childhood. Due to poverty, he had to tend cattle of others. A few days before becoming king, he was sleeping in the shade of a tree. As the sun was setting, the shade moved away and sun rays fell directly on his face. That time a snake, expanding its hood, protected Basanta’s face from the sun. Dandi Sanyasi, the monk belonging to the Sumeru Math, Kashi who was passing through that road was surprised at this sight and came near the boy.

Dandi Swami looked at the boy closely and observed that the boy had enough signs on his body to become a king in the near future. He awoke Basanta and went along with him to his house in the nearby village. Reaching there, Swamiji came to know that Basanta had already received diksha from his family preceptor, but the mantra was not suitable for him to become a king. Therefore Swamiji wrote that mantra on a Bel leaf and asked Basanta to immerse the leaf in a pond. Then he gave him diksha afresh in the Sinmhavahini mantra.

Immediately after the incident, as Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Sultan of Gaura encamped his troops near the village of Basanta, while returning to his capital. It is here that the pet bird baj of the begumflew away.

The bird was caught by Basanta. Swamiji, on learning that the bird was with Basanta took him to the king and requested the king to give some land to poor Basanta as a prize for returning the bird. The Sultan promised to give as much land to Basanta as he could cover by riding a trained horse from dawn to dusk. Acquired, such land was made tax-free (Nankar) and the prestigious title ‘Raja’ was also conferred on him. Thus Basanta became a king overnight.

There is a legend that Sultan Hussain Shah who gave Basanta the Nankar kingdom as a gift himself was a shepherd in his childhood. A snake also protected his face from the sun when he was asleep on the field. Therefore it seems that these two ingredients of the legend are interpolated.

The story of Baj Basanta’s childhood as a shepherd and snake covering his face from sun appeared first in a book published by Dandi Swami Brahmananda Tirtha from Sumeru Math, Kashi between 1908 A.D. and 1912 A.D. The same story after minor modification appeared in local history in 1921 A.D. Thereafter most of the contemporary writers referred this story as the background for formation of the Nankarstate.

However, the part of the story that Basanta became a king in lieu of a bird (baj) with the help of a Dandi Sanyasi of Sumeru Math, Kashi may be true to a great extent because the word ‘baj’ has been prefixed with the name of Basanta to commemorate the event. The name ‘Baj Basanta’ is comparatively prominent because it can be found both in local history and government records.



There are many interesting stories regarding Raja Rakharchandra Roy. Among them, a story in relation to goddess Tara of Tarapith is very popular.

It was the beginning of the 18th century that Tarapith was a forested area and the act of worshipping goddess Tara was controlled by Kaula and Aghori Sanyasis.Rakharchandra used to go to Tarapith regularly in those days to worship goddess Tara.

Once he went to Tarapith for a puja on a chaturdashi tithi immediately after DurgaPuja. It was a regular practice at Tarapith to perform puja of the image of the Goddess outside the temple with the image facing East. While Raja was performing puja, some priests objected saying that the Raja could perform puja only after the chief priest had performed puja. The agitated Raja chose his own place across the river Dwarka in order to complete his puja. He filled earthen pot with water and chanted ‘mantras’ with great devotion. At that time, a miracle took place when the face of the image in Tarapith which was facing East turned to West to the side of Rakharchandra. The thrilled Raja brought the earthen pot and placed that on the altar of his patron deity Mauliksha.

The image of goddess Tara is taken out of the main temple every year on Chaturdashitithi after Durga Puja and is placed in ‘ViramKhana’ facing Maluti. Puja and sacrifice are offered to goddess Tara from the other side of river Dwarka on behalf of Maluti first. Only then does the formal Puja start. This practice is still prevalent.

Goddess Mauliksha is said to be the elder sister of Goddess Tara of Tarapith. This is because the renowned yogi Bamakhepa attained his siddhi from Mauliksha first and then from Tara. A number of miraculous stories are heard about Maulikshatala.Many people claim to have seen at night the flame springing out from Hom-kunda.Kamala Kanta, a great ascetic was thrown out in the midnight while he was in deep

meditation before the deity. Another story relates that sometimes at night, the sound of sweeping with broom-stick at different places at a time is heard from inside the boundary of this lonely temple. Yet another legend is there, that a large jackal appears suddenly and disappears also likewise inside the temple complex, though all the four outside gates remain closed.

The idol of Mauliksha is no less miraculous. A group of three people demand to have seen a pale bluish ray come out of the idol after aarti in the evening.

Goddess Mauliksha is said to be the combination of three mahashakti. She is believed to be ‘Pandara’ the shakti of Amitabha established by tantric Buddhists in bygone days. She is now worshipped asSinmhavahini, the patron deity of the royal family and lastly, Raja Rakharchandra and ascetic Bamakhepa have brought Tara and Mauliksha closer by their flawless devotion.

Devotes from all sects of Hinduism have continued worship of goddess Maulikshaaccording to their religious doctrine through centuries. As a result, goddess Mauliksha of Maluti is now a living deity to devotees irrespective of caste and creed.

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Even the house of the erstwhile Raja family is a modest bungalow with a front garden and smaller huts for storing grain and agricultural produce.The traditional tulsi plant grows in the garden in a white traditional planter that is watered ritually each day.



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The village produces biomass energy through the use of cowdung cakes that are used for fuel.

There is no proper system of solid waste management and sewerage management in the village. As part of the Nirmal Gram (Clean Village) Scheme, the Government had provided some public toilets in the village. However, this scheme failed within a year and the toilets are dysfunctional.

While some houses of the more prosperous do have attached toilets, these are with individual septic tanks and are not connected to any sewage system. Most villagers living on the fringe of the village still go out to the fields to defecate in the open. There are open drains at the periphery of the village along the road near Mauliksha temple but not within the village streets.

Left: Large quantity of biomass is produced in the village through cow dung cakes used for fuel. Below: The walls of houses provide the surface for drying cow dung cakes



There is no piped water supply in the village and the principal source of water are the rain water ponds in the village, which are used for washing and irrigation. Handpumps are provided by the government for drinking water. There are more than 25 deep tube wells. No system of water purification is available in the village. There are bore wells in the village at regular intervals.

Apart from a health centre with a lone paramedic, no other health facility is available in the village.

People have to travel 16 km to Rampurhat in West Bengal to get basic treatment.

Images showing the sources of drinking water from handpumps and bore wells to fresh water wells. People travel a distance to carry water back to their homes. Clothes are often washed from the water in the water ponds dotting the village.

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Rituals, Customs & Practices

The large number of temples for different gods and goddesses at Maluti are a testimony to the significance of the village in the past. Today the religious fervour has diminished comparatively but the tradition has not been lost. It can be seen through puja and seva of numerous deities both male and female.

Gods such as Vedic Gods like Narayana in the form of ‘Shaligram Shila’, Shiva in the form of shiva-linga and goddesses like Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and Saraswati are worshipped with great enthusiasm. At the same time, people worship Manasa and Dharmaraj, the two local gods. The co-existence between Vedic and local gods is unique. Above all goddess Mauliksha, the patron deity of the royal dynasty receives highest adoration. She is considered to be the elder sister of Tara of Tarapith and draws a great number of pilgrims throughout the year.

Image showing different ways of religious practices in Maluti



The word Mauliksha derives its origin to a union of two words mauli and iksha. Mauli means head and iksha denotes darshan i.e. to see. The goddess has a well-carved stone face, while the rest of the body is absent. She has been placed on a platform inside the ‘garbhagriha’ of Ek Bangla temple. Goddess Mauliksha is worshipped as ‘Sinmhavahini Durga’.

The area of Bengal, Bihar came under the influence of Vajrayani Buddhists probably sometime around the 7th-8th centuries. In this respect Dr. Binoytosh Bhattacharya states “the influence of Vajrayani was much more in the whole of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The idols of Buddhist gods and goddesses are available in maximum quality at these places.”

Looking from this angle, the icon of Mauliksha has some similarity with Pandara,the Shakti of Amitabha. Vajrayani Buddhists regard Amitabha as Dhyani Buddha, who are believed to have come from Adi Buddha or Vajradhar. Incidentally the icon of Mauliksha is facing westward. Her colour is red. A lotus-designed halo is present behind the icon. So taking all these factors into account, there is a probability that the icon had been established earlier by the Buddhist monks inside the forest before the village became the capital of Nankar Raj.

Being so close to Bengal, the language, art, culture and numerous customs and festivals of West Bengal have greatly influenced the lives of the villagers residing at Maluti.

Goddess Durga is generally worshipped throughout Bengal. Durga Puja is the prime festival of the people of the state. Like any other village of Bengal, this village also celebrates Durga Puja with great enthusiasm. In place of an image, a paper picture is placed. Other performances carried out include sacrifice of goats, sheep and buffalo-calves. One image of Durgacan be seen in this village established about a century back by a monk named Sukhadananda Brahmachari for the common people of the locality.

Right: Goddess Mauliksha is the most popular deity in Maluti and also the surroundings



Kali Puja is the main festival of Maluti. People from different villages around Maluti gather here during the Kali Puja. All the villagers settled elsewhere and those who migrate to the city in search of jobs, return to the village during the festival to be part of the festivities.

This puja is performed on the Deepavalinight. Goddess Kali is worshipped at eight places. The image of the Goddess is installed on the platforms which are permanently installed in the temples. Before installing the idols of Kali on platforms, it is the custom of the village that the women worship goddess Mauliksha first in the evening. The idol of Kali is worshipped from midnight followed by animal sacrifice in front of the temples.

The next day, in the afternoon, idols are taken out in procession for immersion. A few idols of Kali from Adivasi villages are also brought to Maluti and they join the immersion procession. A fair remains here for about a week, which is attended by the villagers, their relatives, visitors, and Santhals from surrounding villages turning the whole environment into a festive mood.

Other than goddesses Durga and Kali and local gods Dharmaraj and Manasa, there is a temple of Yogi Bamakhepa inside the village. It is believed that this ascetic attained siddhi from goddess Mauliksha. His trishul and shankha are preserved in this temple.

The chief priest of Sumeru Math, Kashi visits Maluti every year and is revered by the villagers.

Apart from the Durga Puja and Kali Puja,Sankranti is celebrated in the village wherein people of the village come together and have a feast in the Mauliksha temple.

Right Top: Worship is offered daily in the Kali temples Right Bottom: The head priest of Sumeru Math in Maluti

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2. Architecture & Iconography



2.1. The Evolution of

Temple Architecture in

Bengal

“Evolving in intimate association with the changing phases of the life and faith of the people, temple architecture of Bengal with its varied styles, decorative designs and graceful terracotta works of floral, animal and human forms is a great legacy.”1

The temple architecture of Bengal has a special place in the history of Indian art and architecture. Though certain established forms were adopted in Bengal, what was unique about the temple architecture here was the development of an indigenous style, unique to Bengal. The style spread outside Bengal and also influenced late architecture of Burma, Siam, Java, Cambodia and Nepal.

Maluti, being on the border of Jharkhand and West Bengal shares its cultural ties with West Bengal rather than identifying itself with the culture of Jharkhand. The temple architecture which developed in Maluti is also the product of the temple building activity which started and developed in Bengal.

The geography, topography and climatic conditions of Bengal were instrumental in determining the architectural style of the region. Rivers such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra contributed to the fertile alluvial plain in most parts of Bengal. Only some parts of Bengal such as the western part of Midnapur, Bankura, Burdwan, Birbhum and also Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Maldah, Bogra districts have laterite tracts. Due to non-availability of stone, brick and terracotta became important materials for temple construction in Bengal and thus contributed to the unique character of the temples.

1 Bimal Kumar Datta. Bengal Temples. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1975.

Development of Temple Architecture in Bengal The history of religious architecture in Bengal can be divided into as described by David McCutchion2 :

1) Early Hindu (until the end of the 12th

century, later in the western areas)

2) Sultanate (14th to early 16th century)

3) Hindu Revival (16th to 19th centuries)

During the early phase, which can be attributed to the Gupta period, several literary references of the existence of temples are found in the accounts of the reputed Chinese travelers Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang in the illustrations of early Buddhist manuscripts and in later inscriptions. There is however, no surviving evidence except the remains of Paharpur. Further remains have been unearthed at places like Bangarh and Dinajpur. which have been mentioned as temple cities. Mention may also be made of the ruins of a big temple of Gupta times at Chandraketugarh. Temples constructed during this period were made of stone and brick.

Between the 13th and 15th centuries, with the Turkish conquest and establishment of the Islamic Sultanate, the Indo-Islamic architectural style and craftsmanship influenced the development of Bengal’s indigenous architectural tradition.

A regeneration of Hindu culture took place in Bengal in the 16th century through the efforts of Shri Chaitanya (1486-1533 A.D.) who popularized the Vaishnava cult. It elevated the status of common man and at the same time, provided impetus to the

2 David McCutchion. Late Medieval Temples of Bengal: Origins and Classification. Calcutta: Asiatic Society. 1972.



growth of literature, art and architecture.

Temple building activity received royal as well as local patronage and temples were built by men from mostly the higher classes; Zamindars, Brahmins, Kayasthas, landlords or by wealthy traders, and merchants. The temples were built to attain religious merit and fame, to commemorate an important landmark or event and also on burial grounds of saints and nobles. Most terracotta temples of Bengal were built during the period from late 16th through 19th

century. Hundreds of temples were built at places like Vishnupur, Bankura, Bardhaman, Birbhum and Nadia.

Types of Temples

Varied architectural styles were adopted in Bengal.

The temples of Bengal can be classified under the following heads3:

1. Rekha (Traditional)

2. Pirha (Traditional)

3. Bangla (Hut style)

4. Chala (Hut style)

5. Ratna (Indo-Islamic)

6. Domed (Indo-Islamic)

7. Spired (European-influenced)

8. Octagonal

9. Flat-roofed temples

10. Porches

11. Dolmancha, Tulsimancha, Rasamanch

12. Temples outside regular classification

� Rekha (Traditional)

Predominant in the Western districts bordering on Orissa and Bihar, also extending east into Hoogly and north-east into Burdwan district. The characteristic is its Shukanasa Shikhara and its finial of

3 Ibid.

Amalaka-Shila which caps the tower and carries the kalasha.

� Bangla (Hut style)

There are two types in this style: Ek-Bangla or do-chala and Jor-Bangla. Both are more common in East Bengal. The fully developed Ek-Bangla may have either a single entrance or triple entrance on typical twin columns, with or without extensive terracotta decoration. It has a do-chalaroof, i.e. roof sloping from two sides and is surmounted by three finials. Jor-Banglatemples have two chambers with usually a common roof on them.

� Chala (Hut style)

…there was an indigenous style of building, approaching a kind of folk architecture, which was widely prevalent in southern Bengal. Characterized by a freshness and spontaneity, this type of structure was clearly derived from the thatched bamboo hut so common in most parts of Bengal. The curved cornice and eave, which are a special feature of these temples, are directly descended from the bamboo framework of the huts of these people, originally bent into this shape in order to throw off the frequent heavy rain.

Most commonly found in Birbhum and Murshidabad districts and in isolated examples further East, the chala style was mainly based on imitation of the common village house in Bengal. The number of roofs were varied from two, four and eight layers of slanting roofs, thus described as do-chala,char-chala and at-chala temples. The sloping roof was adopted as being best fitted to resist excessive rainfall and damage caused by vegetation growth. These temples were built on a raised platform. The body of the temple consisted of a sanctum which is oblong or sometimes cubical.



The tradition of this type goes back to 2nd

and 1st centuries B.C. and still survives in today. It also inspired certain important features of the Mughals and through the media of Mughal architecture it passed on to Rajputana and Punjab.

The multiplication of temples of the same size and on the same platform was also very common. The number increased from two to twelve and from twelve to one-hundred and eight.

� Ratna (Indo-Islamic)

The pinnacle or ratna type has the same lower structure as the chala series- a rectangular box with curved cornice, but the roof is more or less flat (following the curvature of the cornice) and is surmounted by one or more towers or pinnacles called ratna. The simplest form has a single central tower (eka-ratna), to which may be added more towers by increasing the number of stories and corner turrets. The number can be increased through nine, thirteen, seventeen and even twenty-one upto a maximum of twenty-five.

� Flat-roofed temples

Another category is constituted by the flat-roofed temples. They emerged from a long tradition Indo-Islamic palace and temple architecture, but in the 19th century, came strongly under European influences and lent themselves easily to modern building techniques. These too may be domed internally, more usually spanned by a shallow vault, and later with a flat-ceiling. Almost invariably, they have a porch on two or more pillars, initially of the traditional faceted kind, but in the 19th century, they were gradually replaced by the clustered pilaster type. The arches are cusped and the facades patterned like those of the chala and ratha designs, initially with terracotta decoration, subsequently plasterwork. Gradually, the type lost its

traditional characteristics, becoming a mere Pakka Ghar, indistinguishable from modern domestic architecture. Innumerable such temples have been built in the late 19th and 20th century.

Another common type of flat-roofed temple is the Durga or Kali Dalan built for the annual pujas, which were established in the 16th century. For the annual pujas, such large halls may also house permanent deities. The temple architecture soon in this case ceased to be distinguishable from domestic architecture.

� Dolmancha, Tulsimancha, Rasamancha

Tulsimancha, Dolmancha and Rasamanchaare the three types of mancha or platform.Rasamancha is larger than the other two. The prime purpose of this type of temple is to enable the deity to be seen from all sides. Generally, it is octagonal in shape and stands on a high plinth with archway openings on all eight sides. It is generally used for installing images of Radha-Krishna.

Inscriptions

B.K.Datta described the peculiar style of giving dates of construction to temples of Bengal. The dates are given in words representing symbolically the respective numerical figures on a slab of brick or stone placed on the front door jamb. These plates either written in Sanskrit or both in Sanskrit or Bengali or in Bengali scripts record the name of the donor, name of the deity to whom it is dedicated and rarely the name of the architect.



Temple Building Activity

Mukul Dey who made an extensive study of temples in Birbhum talks of the existence of guilds in Bengal. 30-40 men trained in a particular craft lived and worked under a master artist or craftsman. The master known as Sthapati took the responsibility for the erection of temple and for terracotta decorations. The Sutradhara had the broad knowledge and was an expert in measuring accurately. The Vardhaki specialized in painting and Takshaka in carpentry. Gradually, they achieved mastery in stone, metal, wood, terracotta and ivory. The temple builders worked as a group consisting of several families and formed a travelling group of artisans, who spread art and culture from village to village.

B.K. Datta notes “The heads of these groups had readymade master plans of temples of varied sizes and shapes and they used to carry these plans with them. Planning according to the donor’s choice, and even details regarding arrangement of terracotta bricks according to the theme and pattern used to be completed and necessary instructions were issued by the leader before the commencement of the construction work. This statement is further confirmed by the discovery of bricks written or marked with a thick needle.”4

4 Bimal Kumar Datta. Bengal Temples. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1975.

Top Right: A vegetal motif seen in terracotta at Maluti shows a strong influence of the Islamic art of the medieval Sultanate

Left: The arched motif seen at the entrance doorway to the temple is an arcuate form, alien to the Hindu construction vocabulary until the advent of Islam. The floret designs along the arch are evocative of the Khalji arch at Alai Darwaza. Guilds of craftsmen often travelled from place to place, carrying influences across different patronage.



Building Materials

Stone temples are very rare in Bengal. Stone is found employed mainly in door jambs, lintels and pillars, and also sometimes in carving. Besides black basalt, sandstone and granite, laterite stone known as phul-pathar in some cases black marble was used.

Since the land of Bengal is mainly a deltaic land, large deposits of clay are available, which are used for manufacture of bricks. Bricks were thus extensively used in construction of temples. Glazed tiles as discovered from the ruins of Gaur were also used from medieval times.

Wood and bamboo were also used as building materials, since good timber was procurable in many parts as also bamboo. Wood carving was also practiced widely in Bengal. Seasoned Sal, Seguna, Neem, Sandal wood were generally used. But there are very few surviving examples due to the perishable nature of wood.

Lime was used in the beginning for concreting the floor, but later it was used as a mortar. Mud mortar was also used in places like Paharpur. With the introduction of domes, and lintels in the Muslim period, mortar played an important part and the size of the bricks became smaller. Lime was also used as a plaster.



Terracotta Art

“Being deeply involved with the art of clay the artists and craftsmen of Bengal worked again with zeal in medieval and post-medieval times when brick temples embellished with terracotta plaques and mouldings evoked memory of myths and post epochs and vied with monuments of stone as gems of architecture.”5

Clay as a medium of expression has been employed from ancient times. The plasticity and large availability of clay has made it a universal vernacular medium. The terracotta art can be traced from Indus Valley Civilization. There was a gradual spread of this art eastwards and it flourished in Bengal.

Terracotta plaques were used on temples from early times. Many such plaques have been discovered at places like Paharpur, Rajshahi, Mahasthangarh, Mainmati and Bangarh.

5 S.S. Biswas, Terracotta Art of Bengal. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. 1981.

Top Right: A terracotta detail interspersed with lime plaster Above: A terracotta panel on a temple in Maluti depicting the war between Lord Rama holding a bow and arrow and the ten headed demon Ravana.



The second activity in terracotta art started especially around the 16th-17th century and terracotta art expressed itself in full vigour during this period. The art was patronised by the ruling class as temples were built with profuse terracotta work on the façade. The height of excellence was reached in or about the middle of the 18th century when temple building activity spread all over Bengal, particularly in the districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Nadia, Hooghly, Murshidabad, and Jessore and it became the fashion of the day among the landlords and petty chiefs.

The terracotta of the period was characterized by simplicity, unsophisticated virgin beauty, and a dynamic vitality. The plaques were larger in size compared to the earlier period, of deeper reliefs and crafted in the modeling method.

B.K. Datta describes how terracotta plaques were made.

“The artists used to prepare clay models first and from these modellings moulds were prepared. These moulds were then burnt in fire and used for turning out casts which were then carefully dried and burnt in special kilns. The other process was to cut out plaques on soft clay with sharp instrument and such plaques can be found in Charbangla temple of Murshidabad. Special kilns were used for the purpose.”

In the opinion of Mr. Mukul Dey “Evenseventy years ago there were regular guilds of artists and artisans conversant with this art. They all worked jointly. About a dozen men were trained in the art of temple building and lived and worked together under one master artist.”

The terracotta art represents the art of people and thus life of people forms the main subject matter of this art. The themes and subjects introduced in terracotta art in Bengal are remarkable for their variety. They include divinities, semi-divine figures, toys, animal figures, floral, geometrical patterns, narrative scenes from mythology, Jatakas and scenes from contemporary social life. They reflect social practices, religious practices, cultural tradition and give a glimpse into the customs, manners, jewellery, dress and a lifestyle of the period.

In the words of S.S.Biswas, “…The art of terracotta in Bengal defines or narrates as it appears the ballads of civilisation and the faith of the masses. The motifs and the style involved often convey the taste of an urban milieu and the traits of the genre with their own distinctive aspects. Such expressions at times evince a combination of ideals and techniques…”6

6 Ibid,

Left: Terracotta panels depict a range of scenes from battle, epics and every day life



2.2. Terracotta Temples at

Maluti: Location &

Clusters

The activity of building temples at Maluti started when the Rajas of Nankar kingdom shifted their capital to Maluti. The oldest date available is 1719 A.D. It is believed that more than 108 temples were built in two centuries between 18th and 19th century.

Many temples have collapsed over the years and according to local belief, only 72 temples remain today. However, out of these 72, Archaeological Survey of India has identified 62 structures which are of historical importance. Therefore, for further reference, the number 62 has been considered.

The temples at Maluti can be divided in five separate clusters.

1. Sikir Taraf 2. Rajar Bari 3. Madhyam Bari 4. Chhai Taraf 5. Mauliksha Temple Complex

Sikir Taraf, Rajar Bari and Madhyam Bari are located close to each other while Chhai Taraf is to the south of the three complexes. Mauliksha Temple Complex is on the southern end of the village on the way to rivulet Chila. Rajar Bari, Madhyam Bari and Sikir Taraf are situated in a line from West to East.

The Rajas were Brahmins by caste. They were of religious nature and were great philanthropist who supported scholarly activities. They led a simple life-style and lived in ordinary mud-built houses. They spent their vast revenue in public works, like excavating ponds to develop irrigation and constructing temples to promote religion.

It is quite likely that different guilds were assigned work of building temples. The activity started in all the clusters simultaneously and this healthy competition created a cluster of temples, which defined the public squares in the village and gave it a special character.

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44



There are some chala temples which stand as a couple, i.e. they stand on one platform and they share a common wall. There is one triplet with three temples on a same plinth with common walls.

Another category seen at Maluti is the Jora-Shiva temples as described by McCutchian. These two temples stand on one platform and are similar on plan, but they do not share a common wall as seen in earlier cases.

An interesting characteristic of the temples is the use of varied designs of amalaka and kalasha, i.e. the apex portion of the shikhara.Above the kalasha, trishul, a symbol of Shiva,is placed on Shaivite shrines. It is broken in many cases and only the metal rod remains.

The temples are not oriented in any particular direction and are seen opening on all cardinal directions. The usual tendency visible in the complex is to build temples around a central open space which serves as a common open courtyard for all the temples as seen in Sikir Taraf and Chhai Taraf.

The chala temples are mostly meant for the worship of Shiva. The reason for this abundance of Shiva temples is perhaps the association of the Rajas with Dandi Sanyasi of Kashi, who was the preceptor of the family.

Jora-Shiva temple in sikir Taraf cluster

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46

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The solitaMaulikshaproduct chala roThere is awhich hcharacteThe garbtwo windgoddesssquare a

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emples, bothe South. Tporch in f

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47

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48

The Ter

Inscriptio

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Temple nMaluti. Th

‘Raja Ra1641 GamanettavasojSamapta

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ngali. The dra, while in sn used.

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as well.

number 61 he inscriptio

akhar VittaKirtihaimab

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a Mithun rash

ription cleahandra waHis father’s

ndra, the dand the na

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ed was Mi, Shukla p(1719 A.D.).ainder of ins

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e inscriptionhe history oportant sou

ory of the arly Bengal

mixture of Sadates are msome cases

sent on somhe cornice pan importatemple ande donor’s dynasty. It iscriptions shicated in t

is the earlien in this tem

Sahodakabarto VaRajchand

akya. h Sourash p

arly mentioas the pas name wefeated Naame of his

particular tmonth of Mich the ithun rasha

paksha on The last briccription is m

Abha Na

of Maluti

ns which heof temples urces for th

village. Thli script, whanskrit, Prakmentioneds, Bengali e

me templesportion of th

ant source d often, the

name animportant

ow that ththe name

est templemple reads:

a Sashaddhaishnabodo

****rathaMargashirse

paksha****’

ns that Raatron of th

was Rajchanankar king mother wtemple wMargashirshtemple wa (month

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691 Shaka S

here is no dypes of writire not men

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Shri Shri DChandra par

te pakshe thabadhautradhyang

Vishyeshwaraadakina. Sa

his inscriptioirectly. It hahe date ca

well as in reates confe assignedther date, i.

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Kali Sahamatu ShrimShiva Sth

691 B, 401 *

the last bstates

ra’s mothenstructed t

Samvat (176

difficulty in ngs but in ftioned direhe inscripti

group registe

Durga, Sharimane chatrayodashyatran het

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Chhai Tar

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rick is misthat

er Shrimati Gthe Shiva te69 A.D.).

understandfew places ctly. They aion of a ters-

ake Khastaa abda Pauang Shanaitwarthang

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Swashida

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Ghritavati emple on

ding these the dates

are written temple in

au dadhi ushe masi ischarang

etanghavayabe ti yatnai

the year et writing. to left as n, which

wever can lly, as the likely.

eaning of wari Devi month of ashi tithi,

are found in tt below t

49

thethe

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ples and 3

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50



Temple 1

This temple is located in isolation from other temples in Sikir Taraf and is oriented to the East. It is a hut-type (standard chala) temple with a char-chala roof. It has few terracotta plaques preserved on the façade. Terracotta work is not elaborate as compared to other temples since some niches are kept plain.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva and has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha. The entrance doorway has a multi-cusped arch, a motif that emerged from the Indo-Islamic Sultanate archtype.

The step-rails of the temple have an elephant tusk motif.

This temple has been restored by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

The Ter

Temple 2

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The pecuit is the otemple straight temples cornice.

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2

ple is also m the ma

in Sikir TaraWest and Thi

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ple too is

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52

The Ter

Temple 3

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rracotta

3 & 4

ra-Shiva temcluster in Sik

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3 has a rou4 has a str

no terracotade. The tem

onservation SI.

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53

The Ter

Temple 5There arecluster.

This tempTaraf antemple entranceentrance

The tempthe roof h

A strongthe arcflanked b

rracotta

5e two Durg

ple is in thend is orienhas a por

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ple is in dilahaving colla

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by lions and

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ga temples

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apidated coapsed.

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a straight ln top with faer side alsofluence. Thge of a deity

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ine in the airies and are clear e temple y.

54

The Ter

Temple 6

The tempof Sikir Taa templecornice. and ratdedicate

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rracotta

6

ple is locatearaf and is oe of the cIt has a chatha projeced to Shiva.

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w terracoonographyhes in a friAn inscriptio

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55



Temple 7

This temple is in the eastern cluster and is oriented to the East. The temple is of chalastyle and has curved cornice and a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

The doorway is surmounted by a multifoil arched from, reminiscent of those developed in the Sultanate and seen in Imperial Delhi structures such as Alai Darwaza. The terracotta work is seen on the façade above the doorway, which depicts the war between Rama and Ravana.

The Ter

Temple 8

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win templesf Sikir Taraf and on the saon wall. They have aof with ridge

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57



Temple 10

This temple is located in the western cluster and oriented to the West. It is a chalatemple with curved cornice and chala roof and ridges and ratha projection.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

It has been recently conserved by the ASI.



Temple 11

This temple is located in the western cluster in the Sikir Taraf next to temple 13 and is oriented to the West.

The temple is a chala temple with curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

It preserves terracotta panels above the door opening, which depicts the fight between Rama and Ravana.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva. It has been conserved by ASI.



Temple 12

This Durga temple in the western cluster is an exposed brick structure oriented to the South. The temple is in dilapidated condition and has no image in the garbhagriha.

The profile of arches, columns and receeding door jambs demonstrate a colonial influence on architecture. It has a verandah with a four arched entrances. The garbhagriha has two entrances and windows on the front side.

The roof of the temple has fallen. There is no image of deity in the temple.



Temple 13

This temple, located in the western cluster faces West. The temple has a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection and thus belongs to chala style of architecture.

It is an important temple as it preserves a large number of terracotta panels on the façade. The panel above the door opening depicts the war between Rama and Ravana. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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62

The Ter

Temple

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63

The Ter

Temple

This tempof Sikir Taimportanis evidentemple adecoratioFortunatebeen pre

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ple in the waraf seems tnt temple innt from theand elaboraon on tely, the eserved to a

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64

The Ter

Temple

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The temp

rracotta

18

ple in the riented to th

a structure.hala roof wit

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65



Temple 19 & 20

These twin temples are located in front of temple 14. The temples are oriented to the North. They stand on the same platform and share a common wall.

The temples belong to the chala type of architecture with curved cornice and have char-chala roof with ridges and rathaprojection.

Both the temples are dedicated to Shiva.

Other characteristics of the temples include engaged columns and arched doorway. Temple 20 has an original wooden door, with hinges and a lock. Many wooden doors are seen in other temples as well.

Both the temples are dedicated to Shiva.



Temples 21 & 22

These temples are located towards the southern end of Sikir Taraf. The temples are located next to a shrine dedicated to Goddess Kali which is a modern structure. These twin temples are oriented to the East. The temples stand on the same platform and share a common wall.

They are of standard chala type with char-chala roof and curved cornice.

The temples are dedicated to Shiva and have a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

Temple 22 has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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68

The Ter

Temple 3

These tattachedshare a are orien

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e peculiar plan and hara, not rs.

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69

The Ter

Temple 3

These twruins.

The tempWest.

The comtemple gmust be a

rracotta

33 & 34

in structures

ples are or

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70

The Ter

Temple 3

This tempplinth anNorth. Thstyle of curved cchar-chaand ratha

The façaterracottand somon the fa

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ple stands nd is orienthe temple

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Temple 3

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next to temast. It is a h tri-ratha pr

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The Ter

Temple 3

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The intesurvived.

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ple is in al distress. Th. The temcurved cowith ridges

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The Ter

Temple 3

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Temple 3

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Temple 40

This chala temple stands on a low platform. It is oriented to the East. It has curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.


The Ter

Temple 4

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The Ter

Temple 4

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The Ter

Temple 4

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Cluster 3: Madhyam BariThis cluster is located next to Rajar Bari, little to the south of Rajar Bari. Only three temples remain in this cluster out of which 1 is in ruins. The other two are chala temples with char-chala superstructure and ridges and ratha projections. There are 7 other temples situated in different locations, which have been added to Madhyam Bari for the purpose of description though their exact association with Madhyam Bari remains unknown. There is a couplet, a triplet and one chala structure with char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projections. The only Kali temple which has been numbered by ASI is in the same cluster.

The Ter

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Temple 48

This temple stands on a plinth and is oriented to the West. This temple is standard chala type with char-chala roof and curved cornice. The roof has ridges and ratha projections and a trishul on the finial.

Few Terracotta panels are visible on the façade. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.There is an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Temple 23

This is a flat-roofed temple dedicated to Goddess Kali. The segmental arch, pediment flanked by two lions are indicative of British colonial influence. The shrine has no image of the goddess, but has a platform and a wooden plank, which is used to install the image of the goddess during Kali Puja.

Worship is also offered daily in the temple.

The temple is an important place for social gathering.

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The Ter

Temple 2

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The Ter

Temple 2

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The Ter

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The Ter

Temple 5

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The Ter

Temple 5

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The Ter

Temple 5

Temple 552 and 53

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The Ter

Temple 5

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Temple 56

This temple shares its plinth with temple 55. It is oriented to the North West. Like temple 55, this temple is a of chala type with curved cornice, char-chala shikhara with ridges and ratha projections.

This temple has preserved terracotta panels on the façade to a great extent. The central panel depicts the battle between Rama and Ravana. Social scenes such as nauka-vilas, chaturanga sena, moving in a palanquin are depicted at the base of the temple. Floral and geometric motifs are also used for ornamentation.

The temple has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.




Temple 57

The temple is oriented to the North West.

This temple is a chala structure with standard char-chala roof. The side walls of the temple have collapsed but the front façade and terracotta work on the façade remains fairly intact.


The temple has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.



Temple 58

This temple is oriented to the North West. The peculiarity of the temple is that it is octagonal in plan.

This temple is partly collapsed. It is a chala structure and has a char-chalaroof with ridges and ratha projections as is evident from what remains of the shikhara.

The temple has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha, which shows that it is dedicated to Shiva.

The Ter

Temple 5

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The Ter

Temple 6

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mple standson a plinth st.

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Cluster 5: Mauliksha Temple Complex This cluster is located to the extreme South in the village. It has two listed temples. Temple 61 is the oldest temple of Maluti dating back to 1719 A.D. Temple 62 is the main temple in the complex dedicated to goddess Mauliksha.

The Ter

Temple 6

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The Ter

Temple 6

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Temple Complex

A wall is built around the temple of Mauliksha, which incorporates other two temples, which seem to be modern structures and a space around them.

In the complex, some images and other antiquities have been placed on the platform under a tree. It is likely that these remains belong to Pala period.

Since it is a pilgrimage place, Maulikshatemple is visited by many people. There are a few shops outside the temple wall to cater to the visitors.

A play area has also been developed outside the temples for the visitors who wish to spend some time in the area.



2.3. Sculpture &

Iconography in Maluti

The iconography visible in Maluti is to be seen at two levels. First is the deities which are worshipped in Maluti, the other is the art and iconography visible in the terracotta panels which adorn the temples of Maluti. Some of the temples at Maluti are plain but some temples represent a very high quality of brick carving with profuse ornamental decoration upon the front facade.

The largest number of temples in Maluti are dedicated to Shiva. Shiva is worshipped in the form of a linga. The base of the linga is made of earth on the temple floor and the stone linga is inserted into it.

Goddess Kali is worshipped through image, which is installed on a platform only during Kali Puja.

In other place, a beautiful plaque of goddess Durga killing the demon Mahishasura is depicted. Figurines of Lakshmi and Saraswati also appear in the same plaque.

Right Top: Shiva-lingas in the chala temle Right Middle: A platform in the Kali temple on which the image is installed during Kali Puja.Right Bottom: A frieze showing scenes of village life and war



A wide range of themes are depicted in the terracotta panels. The most popular theme which becomes the focal point is the depiction of war between Rama and Ravana shown above the door opening. Rama is shown sitting on the arm of flying Hanuman or a chariot and shooting arrows. Lakshmana is shown behind him. His army is also engaged in this war. Ravana is depicted with 10 heads and 20 hands holding various types of weapons. He is on a chariot and he is also shooting arrows towards Rama. The scene comes alive as it is skilfully depicted by the craftsman

Right Top: Gopal Babu explaining the iconography Right Bottom: A frieze from the Ramayana with Rama shooting an arrow at the ten headed Ravana

The Ter

Temple 4

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Other scenes depicted in the niches are scenes from Ramayana and also from Krishnalila, etc.

Among the themes are scenes of Ramayana, Rama and Lakshmana with Hanuman, the meeting of Rama with Bibhishan, Sugriva saluting Rama, Ravanakilling Jatayu and Sita sitting on a chariot, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita proceeding to the forest, the killing of Rakshasa Maricha,the abduction of Sita, are significant whereas among the scenes of Krishnalila,the scenes of Krishna raising Govardhana,Krishna with a calf, Krishna playing the flute, Radha-Krishna, Krishna killing the demon Bakasura, Krishna with Balarama, stealing of clothes of bathing gopikas by Krishna,churning of curd to procure butter by Yashoda are depicted in the tiny plaques.

There is a typical terracotta plaque in which Krishna is shown with six hands, with two hands holding a bow and arrow, with other two a flute and in the fifth hand he has a bugle and in sixth hand he is holding a sword.

The theme is taken from a ballad, where the devotee is saying to his tutelary goddess that you hold bow and arrow as Rama, flute as Krishna, bugle as Shiva and sword as Kali.

Scenes from mythology, Puranas, epics influenced the artists. The walls of the temples provided them with a wide scope to display their mastery and skills and their inspirations, observations got reflected on this canvas in the most beautiful way.



The other Hindu deities like Durga, Lakshmi,Ganesha, Kartikeya, Brahma and even incarnations of Vishnu, Dasha Mahavidyaare depicted mainly in the niches above the scene of battle between Rama and Ravana.

Some mythological composite figures are also used for decorating the temples.

Different terracotta panels on the façade of the temples



What is also interesting is the depiction of social life at the base of the temple on the façade.

Scenes like Nuaka-vilas, Setu-bandha,Chaturanga sena moving for hunting are depicted at the bottom of the temples. The scene of a palanquin carried by bearers is also very interesting. A person, in all probability Raja, is sitting inside with a hookka. A dog is following the palanquin closely. Moving with dogs was traditional practice among the tribal people. Maluti is encircled from all sides by Santhals, hence this particular terracotta art of Maluti.

Dancing, worshipping, milking of cows and ploughing of field are common scenes depicting daily life. Even soldiers are shown with guns. This not only gives insight into local life, but also shows different influences on the local life.

Social life was depicted at the base of the temple



Terracotta plaques which are purely decorative and used for ornamentation are also impressive. Different forms of flora and fauna are used. Floral and geometric devices like vertical creepers, petalled rosettes, an arched recess enclosing floral devices, scroll work with tendrils and leaves, full and half-blown lotuses and lotus buds, crenellations resembling arrowheads, triangular devices containing an inset of multipetaled rosette hanging, swirling drapery have been used. Ornamented and curved pilasters are also attractive.

Various animals are depicted in the scenes which shows their close association with human life.

The flat surface is divided into horizontal and vertical divisions. The divisions are found to be filled with terracotta plaques and panels of which the themes are mythology, animals and human activity. There is repetition of decorative border.

The scenes were influenced by the episodes of Indian epics, mythological scenes, and provide testimony to artistic excellence. Human activities, life of aristocrats, their sports and pastimes, their amusements, ornaments, jewellery, arms and weapons, their tastes, customs, costumes, their sentiment and culture, their affluence and poverty, their joy and sorrow, relationship of different sections of society, is also immortalised in terracotta art.

The temples provided artists with canvas for expression of their ideas. They drew inspiration from society around them. Thus these panels provide a panorama of society and constitute valuable materials for reconstructing the social and cultural heritage.

Floral, geometric forms adorn the spaces of the façade.

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110



3.2 Values

“Values can be defined as the relative social attribution of qualities to things; values thus depend on society and can change over time. The aim of conservation is to safeguard the quality and values of the resource, protect its material substance and ensure its integrity for future generations.”1

1 Bernard Feilden & Jukka Jokilehto, Management Guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites, ICCROM, Rome, 1998

A heritage site preserves a number of values. The presence or absence of values will lead to the safeguarding and preservation of cultural heritage resources or in other instances, could lead to their neglect and destruction.2 At the same time, these values determine the policies for conservation at any particular heritage site.

2 Ibid.

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115

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