The 8th Egerton University International Conference Paper Ndukhu

8/10/2019 The 8th Egerton University International Conference Paper Ndukhu

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Climate change and variability: Experiences, coping and adaptation strategies among the smallholder

organic vegetable farmers in Central Kenya

1 Ndukhu, H 1!n"onga, # 1$enga, % 1&ahome, $ 'Henning, (1)niversity of Nairobi, Kenya'*echnical )niversity of +enmark

ail: hndukhu-gmailcom

obile: .'/0'02/3/'

4ub5theme: 6griculture, Climate Change and 7ood 4ecurity

Abstract

1



6 survey "as carried out to determine the causes of lo" vegetable production by looking at the

challenges faced by organic based smallholder farmers and the potential coping strategies employed

and their experiences, coping and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability 8CC9 *he

study;s ob<ective "as to determine the ma<or vegetables gro"n, marketable =uality attributes,

challenges faced and coping strategies to enhance vegetable production and understanding of CC9

ore than >3 organic based farmers from Ka<iado, Kiambu and urang;a counties of Kenya "ere

selected for the survey through =uestionnaires *he data collected "as analy?ed using 4@44 *he

challenges faced in production of the key vegetables includedA unpredictable rains 2/B, lack of

irrigation e=uipment 0B, crop pests and diseases '2B, among others Causes of CC9 cited "ereA

emission of green house gases 83B, deforestation and poor agricultural practices 8>3B Effects of

climate change "ere 823B reduced crop yields D3B of farmers; responded to the effects of CC9

throughA good agricultural practices such asA agro5forestry, mulching, organic inputs, drought tolerant

crops and rain "ater harvesting *he farmers contended that through trainings and exposure, they

"ould be empo"ered to cope "ith and reverse the negative impacts of CC9 and conse=uently

guarantee food and nutritional security n addition, research efforts ought to be directed to"ards soil

analysis, irrigation and greenhouse production and recommendations on site specific input rate

application made available to the farmers

Key words: 9egetables, arketable =uality attributes, Climate change and variability

Introduction

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7ormal organic agriculture in Kenya dates back to the early 1D23s "hen the first pioneer organic

training institutions "ere established 8Fett G 7reyer, '33 Certified organic farming in Kenya is

mostly geared to products destined for export "ith the large ma<ority being exported to the Europe,

"hich is 6frica;s largest market for agricultural produce 8Helga G ussefi, '33> *he produce "ith

the greatest demand are horticultural crops and most specifically vegetables Consumer demand for

organic vegetables has increased tremendously due to a number of reasons such as safety, effect to

environment, flavor, freshness, health benefits and nutritional value 8Fourn G @rescott, '33' any

6frican farmers mix long5tested traditional practices "ith adaptations of conventional technologies

that suit their farming systems and these types of systems blend themselves "ell to conversion to

organic agriculture 8&alaga and Hauser, '33/ Ho"ever, ne" processes and production guidelines are

re=uired in many cases 8&ood"ard and 9ogtmann '330, KIpke '33/ to keep up to the standards of

the =uantity and =uality of produce reaching the markets through better understanding of impacts of

climate change

*he issue of climate change and variability 8CC9 is a challenge to agricultural production in Kenya

as the country;s gross domestic product 8$+@ normally mirrors rainfall pattern Climate change is

therefore a ma<or impediment to agricultural production particularly and thus a threat to achieving

millennium development goal number one 8+$ 1 of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger

8)N+@, '33 *he anticipated impacts of climate change "ill manifest in the form ofA floods,

storms, prolonged droughts and increased atmospheric temperature 8@CC '33 *he

conse=uences "ill have far reaching adverse impacts on human health, food security, economic

activities, physical infrastructure, natural resources, and the environment 8)N+@ '33*he

advancement of research on CC9 and its impacts on agriculture has played a key role in

development of both tactical and strategic means to buffering the impacts associated to it

Ho"ever less emphasis has been laid on farmer;s perception, experience and adaptation strategies as

a basis for informing development of sustainable approaches to minimi?e the risks imposed by

climate change and variability 84uri '33D, especially so on organic farming

*he organic agriculture sector in Kenya has therefore mainly developed "ithout any formal

government policy support *he sector has conse=uently encountered a "ide range of challenges

during the last t"o decades t is for this purpose that a survey "as carried out to determine the

specific =uality attributes, challenges and coping strategies that the farmers face and find possible

solutions "hich "ill create an influx in production and hence create food security to the organic

consumer n addition, this study intended to assess farmers; perceptions, experiences, and

adaptation strategies "ith a vie" of enhancing and prioriti?ing the farmers; preparedness to

minimi?e the effects of climate change and variabilityMaterials and Methods

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Site description

*he study "as carried out in Ka<iado, Kiambu and urang;a counties of central Kenya, bet"een 1 st

and 0th of 7ebruary '31' *hese are areas "here organic cultivation of vegetables is prevalent due to

a"areness created there by Kenya !rganic 6griculture Net"ork 8K!6N *hese areas are located

around Nairobi Ka<iado is categori?ed under agro5ecological ?one 9 84ombreak et al , 1D2' *he

climate is typically semi5arid "ith mean annual temperature varying from '3J C and '2JC "ith a mean

of '/JC and a total annual rainfall ranging bet"een 0/3 and 1'33mm 8Fraunn G &eg, 1D #ainfall

is bimodal in distribution "ith the long rains starting from 6pril to (une and short rains from !ctober

to November Ka<iado soils are red dystic andosols 8Kenya soil survey, '330 Kiambu and urang;a

counties are categori?ed under agro5ecological ?one 84ombreak et al , 1D2' *he climate is

typically sub humid "ith mean annual temperature varying from 'oC 51'oC and a total annual rainfall

ranging bet"een 1'33 and 1233mm 8Fraunn G &eg, 1D #ainfall is bimodal in distribution "ith

the long rains starting from arch to (une and short rains from !ctober to +ecember *he soils are

deep red eutric nitosols 8Kenya 4oil 4urvey, '330 *he main economic activities in Ka<iado County

areA pastoralist livestock herding, tourism, agricultural crops5vegetables, cereals and pulses and urban5

life activities like cattle trading, "hereas in Kiambu and uranga, dairy cattle, coffee and tea farming

are predominant 876!, '33 *he food crop patterns are dominated by production ofA vegetables,

mai?e, beans, potatoes in a mixed intensive cultivation

Study approach

6 sample of > farmers "as used in the study 6 stratified random sampling procedure "as applied to

select respondents "ith locations forming the stratum 6 computer random number generator "as

employed to select the number of households in each stratum *he =uestionnaire "as designed to

gather information on challenges and coping strategies of vegetable production, the market product

=ualities that are most desired, their farming practices and general livelihoods and farmers;

experiences, coping and adaptation strategies to climate change and the main organic crops gro"n

*hese farmers "ere then contacted through contact data provided for by Kenya !rganic 6griculture

Net"ork and meetings set up for intervie"s and farm visits

Questionnaire administration

*o ensure the =uestionnaire;s ability to accurately measure and capture the intended ob<ectives, it "as

sub<ected to revie" by experts, supervisors and peers *he =uestionnaires "ere pre5tested to check on

content and clarity of =uestions

Data analysis

4



*he collected data "as entered into a spreadsheet and analy?ed using 4@44 for &indo"s version

103' 84@44 nc, 1D2D5'33/ +escriptive statistics and proportions "ere calculated for key

categories

Results and Discussion

Crops grown by farmers

Figure 1 Ma!or high "alue crops grown by smallholder farmers#

ost 8>B of the farmers produced kales because of its demand in the local markets 87ig 1 4pinach

"as the second most gro"n crop by 'B of the farmers surveyed 6nother '1B of the total farmers

produced tomatoes, making these three the ma<or crops gro"n by farmers *his study sho"s that kale

"as the most popular vegetable produced "hich corroborates "ith a study in Kiambu count by

4alasya, 8'33/ "hich also termed kale as a popular green vegetable consumed by almost every

household in Kenya *his "as attributed to it being a ma<or source of cash and having highest returns

to variable inputs among other crops ai?e, a predominant food crop in the country is produced by

less than '3B of the intervie"ed farmers *his could be could be attributed to the fact that most the

respondents "ere small holder farmers o"ning less half an acre of land to economically produce the

crop 8+uflo et al., '332

Mar$etable %uality attributes sought by "egetable consumers

6bout >B of the farmers reported that the consumers mostly looked at presence of signs and

symptoms of pests and diseases in the produce before buying 87ig ' Consumers consider absence of

pest and disease attacks and physical damage as the best sign that the produce is of high =uality !ver

/3B of the farmers mentioned si?e as a ma<or consideration in production of the kale leaves for market

consumption ore than /B of the surveyed farmers report that consumers consider colour as a

marketable =uality attribute @oor soil fertility and adverse environmental conditions can reduce si?e

of produce *hus farmers pay keen attention on the above factors so as to meet market re=uirements

compared to about 1'B "ho mentioned texture

5



Figure & 'ale %uality attributes that farmers produce for the mar$et

*he demand for bigger cleaner kale could be because consumers regard them as a direct reflection on

the farming practices and thus health and safety of the produce *hough si?e is mostly a characteristic

of the specific kale variety, soil and environmental factors may contribute to si?e of kale leaves n

their production therefore, the farmers paid keen attention to produce disease and pest free produce

*his "as achieved by practicing organic based techni=ues such as planting certified seeds, early

planting, use of bio5pesticides and also incorporation of pest repellent crops in the cropping systems

Challenges and constraints of "egetable production

Figure ( Challenges and constraints of "egetable production by smallholder farmers

*he challenges faced in production of kale and other key vegetables includedA unpredictable rains

2/B, lack of irrigation e=uipment 80B and 8'2B crop pest and diseases 87ig 6dditionally, lack

of access to proper soil testing and analysis facilities 8B and inade=uate kno"ledge on input

application rates 8>>B "ere some of the factors cited *hese results are similar to those of a study

conducted by 7oeken and !"uor, '33' "hich sho"ed that farmers faced various constraints such as

6



irregular rainfall, drought, flooding, "ater logging, poor soils, pests and disease, and the destruction of

crops by animals Ho"ever, a strengths, "eaknesses, opportunities and threats 84&!* analysis on the

smallholder farming sector "as recently undertaken by Fett G 7reyer 8'33 and summari?ed the

main challenges and opportunities in the sector as policy based *his is because the government

though has put in place policies and legislation that protects farmers in general, no extension of such

policies existed for organic based farmers *his group of farmers is covered in the broad grouping of

the agricultural sector and thus the specific challenges they face "hich do not relate to other farming

practices cannot be ably addressed t is observed that small scale organic based farmers in Kenya are

faced by difficulties in gaining access to formal credit, since they do not have the re=uisite collateral to

obtain credit and also due to the fact that the financial institutions do not recogni?e the differences

bet"een organic based and conventional agriculture *he ma<or challenge of unreliable rainfall could

be associated "ith climate change "hich has affected the rainfall patterns #ainfall delays and

sometimes unexpected floods cause damage to crops and this is reflected in losses to the farmers and

food insecurity in the country at large as reported in this study

Coping strategies adopted by farmers in response to the challenges of "egetable production

)able I Coping strategies adopted by farmers in response to the challenges faced#

Challenges Coping strategies B

)nreliable rainy season rrigation >0Late planting '

Kno"ledge on soil input application ass application //

ndigenous techni=ues 0/

6ccess to soil fertility G nutrient analysis Flanket recommendations 0

!utdated information '2

@est and disease management Fiopesticides 11

ndigenous techni=ues >

No management 1

rrigation and late planting, mass application of inputs and use of indigenous techni=ues 8*able 1 "eresome of the coping strategies employed by farmers *o cope "ith the unreliable rainfall, only >0B

could afford to set up irrigation facilities on their farms "hile 'B practiced late planting 8*able 1

)se of mass application 8//B and indigenous techni=ues 80/B "ere the coping strategies for

inade=uate information on application rates and blanket recommendations of organic inputs 80B and

outdated information 8'2B for inaccessibility to soil nutrient and fertility analysis !nly 11B could

afford bio5pesticides due to cost and limited information made available to them 6bout >B of the

farmers made use of traditional kno"ledge passed on to them for generations "hile 1B did not make

any efforts to manage pests and disease 7armers assumed that more is better than less in providing

7



nutrients to the plants and soil thus they resorted to mass application of farm inputs based on blanket

recommendations

Farmers* e+periences of climate change and "ariability and perception of their impacts

6bout DB of the intervie"ed farmers had heard of and experienced the impacts of climate change,

the common aspects being erratic and often inade=uate rainfall and raising air temperatures by 2B

and /2B respectively 87ig 0 Like"ise, over /3B of them experienced climate change and variability

through droughts ore than 3B of the farmers "ere familiar "ith the scientific techni=ues of

"eather forecasting "hich they use to inform their farm management decisions "hereas only 'B of

them report use of traditional methods of "eather forecasting 87ig / *he application of traditional

means of "eather forecasting is reported to be on the decline *he decline in use of these techni=ues

may be attributed to the fact that it has become increasingly difficult for people to anticipate "eather

patterns, a situation some linked to CC9 Conse=uently credibility of these methods is suspect as they

are sub<ect to seasonal andMor yearly variation *he reason for more and more reliance on modern

"eather forecasting techni=ues could be due to environmental degradation induced by the current

CC9 "hich has made non5routine and complex, the specific behavioural aspects of the plants and

animals that "ere relied upon for "eather forecasting ost of these farmers recall the variations in the

amounts and distributions of rains and daily temperature ranges of yesteryears in comparison to the

current period ost of them felt that this change started to be evident more than "as t"o decades ago

6s a result of climate change, fre=uent droughts and increase in temperatures have been cited *hese

findings are in agreement "ith those of Kaloki 8'313 "ho reported that >>B of respondents

experienced droughts after every 15 years, D>B pointed out that air temperatures had increased and

the start of rains had become unpredictable leaving >22B of the farmers guessing on the right time to

plant in beere, ount Kenya region *his fact is also reinforced by $ardner and 4tern 81DD>

assertion that people;s perceptions of environmental risks suggest that people perceive little personal

control over global and regional environmental problems 6ccording to @CC 8'33, Ho"ever, unlike

the confirmation provided by trend analyses of historical "eather data for temperature increases,

corresponding analyses for changes in rainfall totals and distribution patterns do not currently confirm

a "etting trend in East 6frica and complimentary evidence from recent publications on the impact of

climate change on food security is often conflicting *hornton et al., 8'33> concluded that Eastern

6frica is to face the impacts of climate change "ith temperatures only rising by 1C by '33 and in

general, rainfall increasing by to DB "ith a corresponding increase in the length of the gro"ing

season in many parts &illiams and 7unk 8'313, in an analysis of East 6frican rainfall data, suggest a

decline in the long rains "hich they attribute to increases in the ndian !cean sea surface temperature,

thus threatening future food security

8



.3.39%

37.29%

40.68.r tr tr

7igure 0: 6spects of climate change

23.73%

74.58%

. r

7igure /: #ating of "eather forecasting methods

9



Farmers* perceptions of climate change and "ariability

#educed crop yields andMor crop failure "ere reported by 23B of the intervie"ed farmers as the most

profound impacts of climate change and variability on agricultural productivity 87ig > 6dditionally,

about 2B indicated change in planting time and >B mentioned increased crop pest and disease attack

*hese impacts lead to a decline in farm production affecting incomes and food security *his

exacerbates hunger and poverty, contrary to the aspirations of the +$s of halving extreme hunger

and poverty by '31/ 8)N+@ '33A $oK, '33 *hese observations imply that the more dependent a

person is on agriculture as a source of income the greater the sensitivity to climate related changes

*his observation is also in agreement "ith $rothmann and @att 8'33/ "ho noted that the more

one is likely to be affected by a given factor, the higher the attention given to it *he high rating

of climate change by farmers "ho depended on farming solely as their source of income is

therefore attributable to the fact that any factor, in this case climate change, that lo"s crop

production poses a threat to their livelihood hence considered a serious risk

.33.9%45.76%

5.08. rpst'iin# tti r

10



Figure , Impacts of climate change

Farmers* adaptation and coping strategies to climate change and "ariability

$ood agricultural practices comprisingA agro5forestry, mulching, organic inputs, drought tolerant

crops and rain "ater harvesting as reported by about D3B of the farmers "ere the principal adaptation

strategies "ith over 1/B reporting afforestation 87ig 6bout >3B of the farmers adduced that

through farm planning and '3B training on climate change and variability they "ill effectively cope

"ith the effects of climate change and variability 87ig 2 Coping 4trategies are those that have

evolved over time through farmers; long experience in dealing "ith the current kno"n and understood

natural variation in "eather that they expect both "ithin and bet"een seasons, "hereas adaptation

4trategies are longer5term 8beyond a single rainfall season strategies that "ill be needed for farmers to

respond to a ne" set of evolving climatic conditions that they have not previously experienced n

undertaking research to elucidate farmers; possible adaptation strategies, such strategies are oftenconfused "ith farmers; traditional coping strategies n the context of addressing climate5induced risk

more generally, research on both is useful, but the confusion bet"een coping and adaptation inevitably

devalues the research and could "ell lead to erroneous recommendations *hese findings are in line

"ith Kaloki; 8'313 "ho deduced that almost all farmers intervie"ed 8D2/B had adopted a ne"

technology in the last 13 years *his "as important because ne" interventions in the area meant

adoption rates "ere high so long as the technologies are appropriate *he most important adaptation

techni=ue "as early planting follo"ed by planting drought tolerant crops and monocropping Fy

planting a sole crop, inter5specific competition for "ater is limited hence crops could perform better

)se of manure to provide high plant vigour in the initial stages of gro"th "as also identified as an

important practice alongside planting early maturing crops

a<ority of these farmers are small scale and food insecure t thus looks normal for farmers to seek

for technologies to improve their productivity ensuring food security before thinking of commercial

aspects of farming 84uri '33D *he aftermath of this process is that "ith time it is expected that even

those "ho employed strategies that are aimed at boosting incomes may not be favoured by the

changing climatic conditions *he situation may lead to a sustained condition of poverty and thus an

increasing farmers; vulnerability !ver generations, and especially in the more arid environments

"here rainfall variability impacts most strongly on livelihoods, farmers have developed coping

strategies to buffer against the uncertainties induced by year to year variation in "ater supply coupled

"ith the socioeconomic drivers "hich impact on their lives Ho"ever, such coping strategies are Orisk

spreading; in nature and are designed to mitigate the negative impacts of poor seasons and usually fail

to exploit the positive opportunities of average and better than average seasons n addition, farmers

often over5estimate the fre=uency of negative impacts of climate variability and under5estimate the

11



positive opportunities. 6s a result most farmers remain poor and vulnerable to future climate shocks

&hilst these farmer strategies have been of greatest importance and have evolved over many

generations in the drier and more risk prone environments, they have perhaps only recently become of

importance in many of the "etter and more assured environments as a range of factors 8population

pressure, declining soil fertility, "eed invasion, decreasing farm si?e, disease, lack of markets or

access to markets for high value produce, lack of off5farm employment, etc are resulting in

agriculture becoming a less viable foundation for rural livelihoods 8(ayne et al , '33

&n#or atiit+,-sDon t /no* ,##orestation

.

.40.0%20.0%0.0%

Figure - Adaptation methods to CC.

12



r iin#or mation*ithhedaresting(armpanningDont no*

.40.0%20.0%

0.0% Figure / Copping strategies to effects of CC.

Conclusion

7armers stated that some of the current techni=ues they use to cope "ith different challenges are not asefficient as they "ould have "anted *hey thus appealed for assistance from agricultural organic based

stakeholders, researchers and extension officers !rganic agricultural institutes in the given areas

should focus their attention on soil analysis, irrigation, green house production and recommendations

on site specific input application rates #esearch need to be conducted to avail information on pest and

disease management strategies affordable to smallholder farmers

@riority should be given in capacity development, vi?A developing conceptual frame"orks for the

impact path"ays of climate change, risk and trend analyses of historical "eather data and analyses of

impacts of climate variability and pro<ected climate changes on agricultural production *o ensure that

researches are e=uipped "ith the best tools and develop strong research capabilities, there is an urgent

need to invest in: "ays to improve access to information, "ays to enhance the research capacity, and

"ays to enhance the impact of the research undertaken

Ac$nowledgement

&e "ish to sincerely thank *he +6N+6 funded @roductivity and $ro"th in !rganic 9alue Chains

8@ro$r!9 pro<ect

13



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