Chapter

The Heritage of World CivilizationsBrief Fifth Edition

The Heritage of World Civilizations, Brief Fifth EditionAlbert Craig • William Graham • Donald Kagan • Steven Ozment • Frank Turner

The Age of European Enlightenment

21

The Age of European Enlightenment

• The Scientific Revolution• The Enlightenment• The Enlightenment and Religion• The Enlightenment and Society• Enlightened Absolutism

Enlightenment Salon

Introduction

• Scientific Revolution Transformed every part of the world Impact of science on every area of life

remains a dominant theme

• Eagerness to embrace scientific change is one of the primary intellectual inheritances from that age

Introduction (cont’d)

• Movement fostered by the Enlightenment Confidence in reason, over tradition and

religion Innovation and improvement

Global Perspective:The European Enlightenment

• How did Enlightenment values as well as Enlightenment admiration of science become one of the chief defining qualities of societies regarded as advanced, progressive, and modern?

• How has the political thought of the Enlightenment influenced the development of modern political philosophies and modern governments?

Global Perspective:The European Enlightenment (cont'd)

• How could modes of thought developed to criticize various aspects of eighteenth-century European society be transferred to other traditions of world civilizations?

The Scientific Revolution

Scientific Revolution

• A new view of the universe in 1500s, 1600s Not everything actually new Reexamined and rethought older knowledge

and made new discoveries

• Slow-moving, complex movement Brilliant people suggested erroneous as well

as useful ideas

Scientific Revolution (cont’d)

• Limited to a few hundred people

• Authority and application of scientific knowledge Comes to define modern Western civilization Achievements in many areas Astronomy most captures attention

Ptolemaic system

• Standard explanation of the place of the Earth in the heavens

• Combination of mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy (Almagest, 150 C.E.) with the physical cosmology of Aristotle

Ptolemaic System (cont’d)

• Geocentricism Earth as center of universe System of concentric spheres Outer region was realm of God and angels

• Numerous problems Planets appeared to move backward Ptolemy presented epicycles as the solution

The Ptolemaic System

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Polish astronomer

• On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

• Challenged Ptolemaic universe Ptolemaic ideas (i.e., epicycles) applied to

heliocentric universe Earth moved about sun in a circle

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) (cont’d)

• System no more accurate

• A way of confronting some difficulties in Ptolemaic astronomy Allowed people to think in new directions

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• Danish astronomer Spent most of life opposing Copernicus Suggested that moon and sun revolved

around the Earth

• Other planets revolved around sun

• Astronomical observations with the naked eye Constructed most accurate tables of

observations

Tycho Brahe

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• German astronomer Influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonists

• Kepler believed that to keep sun at center the concept of circular orbits had to be abandoned Proposed that orbits had to be elliptical Used Copernicus’s sun-centered universe

and Brahe’s empirical data

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (cont’d)

• On the Motion of Mars (1609)

• New problem: Why were planetary orbits elliptical?

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Turned a telescope to the sky Mountains on the moon Spots moving across the sun Moons orbiting Jupiter Heavens far more complex than anyone knew

• Concept of a universe totally subject to mathematical laws

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) (cont’d)

• Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World Supported the Copernican system Condemned by Catholic church

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

• “Father of empiricism and experimentation”

• Novum Organum (1620), New Atlantis (1627) Attacked scholastic belief that knowledge was

already discovered and only required explanation

Urged contemporaries to strike out on their own in search of new understandings of science

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) (cont’d)

• Desirability of innovation and change

• Human knowledge should produce useful results Science had a practical purpose and the goal

was human improvement

• No major scientific contributions, simply directed people to new method and new purpose

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

• Addressed question of planetary motion Basis for physics for 200 years

• The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia Mathematica) Gravity: physical objects moved through

mutual attraction Explained how planets moved in an orderly

manner Proved relationship mathematically

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) (cont’d)

• Upheld importance of empirical data, observation Observe before attempting to explain Mathematic application to scientific

investigation

Newton’s Telescope

Women and the Scientific Revolution

• General absence of women Universities and monasteries – institutions of

celibate male clerical culture

• Women got few opportunities Generally through marriage or social standing Noblewomen and women from artisan class

Women and the Scientific Revolution (cont’d)

• Margaret Cavendish (1632-1673) Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy

(1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)

Only woman to attend Royal Society meeting

• Criticized the Society for focusing on novel scientific instruments rather than solving practical problems

Women and Learning

Women of the Artisan Milieu

• Artisan women had greater freedom Astronomy was often studied under the

tutelage of husbands or fathers in the workshop

Maria Cunitz – book on astronomy

• Two husband and wife astronomy teams Elisabetha and Johannes Hevelius Maria Winkelmann and Gottfried Kirch

Women of the Artisan Milieu (cont’d)

• Women did acquire knowledge of science Margaret Cavendish, A Description of a New

World, Called the Blazing World (1666)

• Designed to introduce women to science

• The pursuit of natural knowledge was still considered a male vocation

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Hoped to achieve for philosophy a lawful picture of the human mind similar to that which Newton had presented of nature Most profound impact on European and

American thought during eighteenth century

John Locke (1632-1704) (cont’d)

• Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Rejected idea of original sin Knowledge derived from sense experience Humans can take charge of own destiny

• Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) Each person responsible for salvation Governments should not legislate on religion

Locke (cont’d)

• Two Treatises of Government (1689)

• Law is the voice of reason Humans are equal and independent People shouldn’t harm one another because

all people are images and property of God

Locke (cont’d)

• Rulers are not absolute in their power People enter political contracts with rulers Rulers are empowered to judge disputes and

preserve natural rights Monarchs who broke trust could be

overthrown

• Argument used in Declaration of Independence

Overview

The Enlightenment

Enlightenment

• Movement of the eighteenth century stating that change and reform were desirable through the application of reason and science

Enlightenment (cont’d)

• Led by philosophes Popularized seventeenth-century rationalism

and scientific ideas Exposed contemporary social abuses Argued that reform was necessary, possible Problems that they confronted included

• Vested interests

Enlightenment (cont’d)

• Political oppression

• Religious condemnation By mid-century they had brought enlightened

ideas to the European public in a variety of ways

Voltaire (1694-1778)

• François Marie Arouet (Voltaire) Most influential of the philosophes Believed that human society should be

improved

• Letters on the English (1733) Praised English virtues & criticized French

society

Voltaire (1694-1778) (cont’d)

• Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738) Popularized the thought of Newton

• Candide (1759) Attacked war, religious persecution, and

unwarranted optimism about the human condition

Reform, if achieved, might not be permanent- Hopeful but not certain - Pessimistic undercurrent

The Encyclopedia (1751-1772)

• One of great monuments of Enlightenment Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Collective effort of more than 100 authors Articles from all major French philosophes

• Collective plea for freedom of expression

• The most advanced critical ideas in religion, government, and philosophy Looked to antiquity for intellectual models

Denis Diderot

The Encyclopedia (1751-1772) (cont’d)

• Rather than to Christian centuries Designed to secularize learning

• Good life – application of reason to relationships

The Encyclopedia Praises Mechanical Arts and Artisans

The Encyclopedia Praises Mechanical Arts and Artisans

Illustration from the Encyclopedia

Map 21–1. Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedia throughout Europe

The Enlightenment and Religion

Deism

• Philosophes Religion should be reasonable Should lead to moral behavior

• Nature was rational

• John Toland, Christianity Not Mysterious (1696) Religion a rational, natural phenomenon

• God as a divine watchmaker

Deism (cont’d)

• Two major points Belief in a rational God Belief in life after death

• Deism – empirical, tolerant, reasonable

Toleration

• Primary social condition was the establishment of religious toleration

• Voltaire, Treatise on Toleration (1763)

• Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781) Nathan the Wise (1779) Plea for toleration

Toleration (cont’d)

• Belief that human life should not be subordinated to religion Secular values, consideration more important

Chronology: Major Publication Dates of the Enlightenment

Islam and the Enlightenment

• Islam seen as rival to Christianity False religion and a divine Muhammad Islam sometimes criticized on cultural and

political grounds

• Voltaire Islam was simply another example of

religious fanaticism

• Deist John Toland Islam as a form of Christianity

Islam and the Enlightenment (cont’d)

• Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762) Lived in Constantinople with her husband Book published posthumously praised

Ottoman society Rare voice in support of Muslim life and

values

• Muslims felt little could be learned from Europe

Map of Turkey and View of Constantinople (Istanbul)

The Enlightenment and Society

Printing Shops

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

• No single set of laws could apply to all people at all times and in all places Good political life – many variables

• Monarchy limited by intermediary institutions Including the aristocracy, towns

Montesquieu (1689-1755) (cont’d)

• Division of power Executive, legislative, judicial Influence on later liberal democracies

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

• Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

• Economic liberty – foundation of natural economy Mercantile system should be abolished Best way to encourage economic growth

• Allow people to pursue their own selfish economic interests Resources of nature are limitless

Adam Smith (1723-1790) (cont’d)

• Nations did not have to be poor Founder of laissez-faire economic thought

• However the state should provide schools, armies, roads, etc.

• Four-stage theory justified economic and imperial domination

Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Transcended thought and values of age

• Antipathy toward world and society

• Men could not achieve moral, virtuous, or sincere lives living according to commercial values

• Civilization had contaminated human nature

Rousseau (1712-1778) (cont’d)

• Questioned concepts of material and intellectual progress and morality

• Said real purpose of society should be to nurture better people

Rousseau

Writings of Rousseau

• Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755) Evils blamed on uneven distribution of

property

Writings of Rousseau (cont’d)

• The Social Contract (1762) “All men are born free, but everywhere they

are in chains.”- Rousseau defended these chains, suggesting that

society is more important than its individual members

- Independent human beings can achieve little

Writings of Rousseau (cont’d)

• The Social Contract (1762) Law to be obeyed is that created by general

will of majority who acted with adequate information and under virtuous customs and morals

People should be good even if it means being poor

Enlightened Critics of European Empires

• Critics of imperialism were a minority Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and Johann

Herder

• Most frequent topics were the treatment of Native Americans and the enslavement of Africans

Enlightened Critics of European Empires (cont’d)

• Arguments: No single definition of human nature should

be made the standard throughout the world Cultures should be respected and understood Humans developed distinct cultures

possessing values that cannot and should not be compared

• Inner social and linguistic complexities make any comparison impossible

Women and the Enlightenment

• Salons

• Role of marquise de Pompadour important in opposing censorship of the Encyclopedia

• However, philosophes not strong feminists Montesquieu - traditional view of marriage Diderot - few articles by women Rousseau - women subordinate to men

- “separate spheres”

Women and the Enlightenment (cont’d)

• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)

Enlightened Absolutism

Enlightened Absolutism

• Many eighteenth-century rulers embraced reforms set forth by philosophes Monarchical government dedicated to rational

strengthening of central absolutism

• Relationship between rulers and philosophes Some of it purely public relations

Enlightened Absolutism (cont’d)

• Still, these rulers wanted for their subjects Better health More accessible education Economic prosperity More rational government

Austria:Maria Theresa (1740-1780)

• Habsburg ruler Maintained control during War of Austrian

Succession

• More efficient tax system Funds even from clergy and nobles

• Central councils to deal with problems

• Concerned with welfare of peasants Extended authority of royal bureaucracy over

that of nobilities to help the peasants

Austria: Joseph II (1780-1790)

• Habsburg “Revolutionary Emperor” Increased power of central government

• Freedom to Lutherans, Calvinists, Greek Orthodox Jews gain rights of private worship Josephinism – Catholic church under control

Austria: Joseph II (1780-1790) (cont’d)

• Abolished legal status of serfdom More freedom for peasants

• Taxes across social lines

• Too far and too fast

Russia: Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

• German princess married to Peter III Peter III murdered with Catherine’s approval

• Catherine familiar with Enlightenment Russia must reform to be a great power

Catherine the Great

Charter of Nobility

Russia: Catherine the Great (1762-1796) (cont’d)

• Legislative Commission called in 1767 Catherine wrote series of Instructions More than 500 delegates selected to advise

on revising the law and government of Russia Gathered information but dismissed before

they made any revisions

• Still firmly tied to absolutism

• Continued expansion Drive for warm water ports

Map 21–2. Expansion of Russia

Partition of Poland

• Prussia, Russia, and Austria carve up Poland First Partition, 1772 Second Partition, 1793 Third Partition, 1795

• Poland disappears until after World War I

Partition of Poland (cont’d)

• Representative of the power of the evolving states of Prussia, Russia, and Austria in Eastern Europe Weakness of the antiquated Poland

Review Questions

1. What was the Scientific Revolution? What were the major contributions of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Bacon, and Newton? Do you think they regarded themselves as revolutionaries?

Review Questions

2. How and to what extent did women participate in the Scientific Revolution?

Review Questions

3. Define the Enlightenment. Is it best seen as a single movement or as a series of related movements? What was the relationship of the Enlightenment to the New Science? How did the Enlightenment further the idea of progress and the superiority of European civilization?

Review Questions

4. Why did the philosophes believe they must comment so extensively on religion? Why did they criticize Christianity? Why did some of them champion deism?

Review Questions

5. What were the differing views of the philosophes toward Islam?

Review Questions

6. Was there a single Enlightenment view of politics? Why could writers so dedicated to reform have so many different political paths to achieve reform?

Review Questions

7. How has the political thought of the Enlightenment influenced the development of modern political philosophies and modern governments?

Review Questions

8. Summarize the Enlightenment critique of European empires. Do you see any flaws in this line of reasoning? Why do you think it was not more influential?

Review Questions

9. What were the prevailing attitudes of thephilosophes toward women and women’s

roles? Do these attitudes present any contradiction to other Enlightenment positions? Explain.

Review Questions

10.Define enlightened absolutism. What were the similarities in the policies of Frederick the Great, Joseph II, and Catherine the Great? To what extent do their policies actually seem to stem from the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophes?