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CH 14The Age of Nation States
Revolutions of 1848
Collapsed in defeat for both liberalism and nationalism
25 years later-liberal and nationalist goals reached
Germany and Italy United Austria-Hungary becomes a constitutional
monarch Russia-serfs emancipated France had become a republic Franchise extended Political rights extended
Crimean War (1853-1856)
Russia desired to extend influence over Ottoman Empire
Russia protective big brother of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire
France protector of Roman Catholics Ottoman empire had yielded to French
pressure and assigned care of holy places to French
Russians occupied Ottoman provinces of Moldavia and Walachia
Ottoman empire
“sick man” of Europe Russia saw breakup of Ottoman empire France, Britain, and Austria opposed Russian
expansion in eastern med March 1854-France and Britain declared war
on Russia in alliance with ottomans Austria mobilizes troops, but does not declare
war in support of Russia Inept conduct of the War March 1855-Nicholas I died-Alex II takes throne Russian fortress of Sevastopol falls
Peace Settlement
Treaty of Paris Russia surrenders territory near mouth of
Danube Renounces claims to protect Orthodox
Christians Shatters view of invincible Russians Alexander II reforms Russia after weakness Period of instability in European affairs Austria weakened after lack of support for
Russia
Italian unification
Mid 19th century-dozen independent states Hapsburg dynasty with power How to achieve unification? 1. Romantic Republicanism Leader was Giuseppe Mazzini-most
important nationalist leader aided by Giuseppe Garibaldi
1831-Young Italy Society Led insurrections and Guerrilla war Italy still a “geographic expression”
Mazzini and Garibaldi
unification
Count Camillo Cavour
Prime Minister of kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont)
King was Victor Emmanuel I Strong monarchist who rejected
Republicanism Favored a unified state on Italian peninsula Pr0moted economic expansion and
material bonds between Italians Conducted diplomacy to get French
support against Austria-War!
Romantic republicanism
May 1860-Garibaldi lands in Sicily with 1000 troops
Captures Palermo and Kingdom of Naples Threat of Civil War as Cavour sends
troops south Garibaldi accepts unification under
Piedmont’s control Monarchial rather than republican Italy March 1861-Victor Emmanuel II
proclaimed King of Italy
Italy
Conservative constitutional monarchy
2 house legislature Ministers responsible to King not
parliament Corrupt politics Papacy still controlled Vatican until
1929 Urban working class in north South rural, poor, and backward
German Unification-most impt political development between 1848-1914
German unification
German confederation was in place 39 states of differing size and strength 2 most important were Austria and Prussia Major states traded through Zollvereign
(tariff union) and railroads Prussian king Fredrick William IV opposed
unification efforts 1858-FW IV judged insane, Rise of William
I Deadlock between William and Parliament
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Otto von Bismarck
Junker noble who was appointed to be Prime Minister under William I
Moved against the liberal parliament to raise taxes to support army
Embraced the cause of nationalism to strengthen the monarchy and the army
Called a “white” revolutionary-Constitutional reform that supported core institutions-monarchy, army, junkers
Bismarck
“The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions-but by iron and blood”
Iron and Blood
The Danish War of 1864-Prussia allies with Austria to defeat Denmark and incorporate Schleswig-Holstein –Galstein convention gives Schleswig to Prussia and Holstein to Austria
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866-Prussia easily defeats Austria in 7 weeks war-excludes Austrian Hapsburgs from German affairs
North German confederation 1867-Prussia annexes all German
states north of Main river Military forces under Prussian control President of the confederation was
the king of Prussia- Bicameral legislature-conservative in
nature Federal council-Bundesrat -chosen by
states Lower House-Reichstag-chosen by
universal male suffrage-peasants would vote for conservatives
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 Bismarck desired to bring Southern
German states into unified Germany Dispute with French over the Spanish
monarchy William I sent telegram to OVB about
peaceful resolution of crisis OVB edited telegram-William had
insulted French! French declared war on Prussia
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 Southern German states fought with
Prussia Paris captured in 1871
Jan 1871-Hall of Mirrors in Versailles Proclamation of German Empire Germany annexed Alsace and
Lorraine Forced France to pay indemnity
Germany
Powerful new state in central Europe Talented and productive citizens Rich in natural resources Advanced education system Conservative creation and politics Strongest economic and military
state on continent Revealed French and Austrian
weakness
France: from Liberal Empire to the Third Republic 1860-dividing line between authoritarian
empire to liberal policies Napoleon III-more liberal policies to shore
up domestic support after fopo failures1. Mexico-French intervened in Mexico to
support Archduke Maximilian of Austria-led to the execution of Maximilian
2. Franco-Prussian War-France humiliated by Prussia-Emperor captured and sent to England after Battle of Sedan
Paris Commune
1871-Paris captured by Prussians after seige Treat of Frankfurt ratified by NA
Paris Commune established by radicals and Socialists
National Assembly surrounds Paris with army
20,000 killed Desire to establish independent radical
democratic enclave-failed
The Third Republic
Monarchists divided and frustrated 1875-National government formed Republic Bicameral legislature
Upper House-Senate-chosen indirectly Lower House-Chamber of Deputies-
universal male suffrage
President-Chosen by 2 legislative houses
The Habsburg Empire
Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) Response to revolts was to reassert
absolutism and tradition No strong advisor like Cavour or Bismarck Failure in foreign policy-Crimean War,
France Peidmont, Prussia
Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867-Habsburg empire transformed into a dual monarchy between Austria and Hungary-almost wholely separate states
National unrest
Principle of legitimacy?
Political loyalty based on Nationality-Hungarians
Political Loyalty based on dynastic attachment to emperor
Major source of political instability throughout central and eastern Europe for all of the 4 great empires-German, Russian, ottoman, and Austrian
Russia: Emancipation and revolutionary Stirrings Alexander II: Reforming Czar Humiliation after Crimean war Abolition of Serfdom-1861 Abolished serfdom-did not give them
land! Village elders controlled titles to land
and installed collective taxes for 49 years
Peasants fell behind in debt to powerful landowners
Other reforms
Authority of village communes over peasants
Local councils of nobles organized in 1864 Alex II introduces western legal principles
–equality before law and jury trials Reform of the army-mandatory service
reduced to 15 years, and then to 6 years
Polish January insurrection of 1863-alexander II moves to Russify Poland
Problems
Reforms did not go far enough Serfs not truly emancipated Nobles resented lack of influence in
government 1866-Attempt made on Czar’s life Government becomes a police state Rise of radical groups Autocracy becomes reactionary
Revolutionary ideas
Populism: sought a social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants
Alexander Herzen: The Bell Land and Freedom- radical society
Winter of 1877-78-students and the intelligentsia take message to peasants in villages-hundreds arrested and tried
Repression
Policy of terrorism adopted Jan 1878-Vera Zasulich attempts to
assassinate military governor of St Petersburg
1879- The People’s Will – manifesto called for destruction of autocracy
March 1881-Assassinated Alexander IINicholas III-Reactionary autocrat-rolled
back reforms
The dastardly deed
The Czar in repose
The executions
Great Britain: Towards Democracy Confident liberal state with maturing
institutions New groups and institutions
absorbed into Parliament and shared general prosperity
2 remarkable Prime Ministers- Benjamin Disraeli-Conservative William Gladstone-Liberal
The Great Rivalry
Benjamin Disraeli
Conservative minister in HOC Introduced Reform bill in 1867 after
failure of liberal bill Extended vote to male working class
voters Thought workers and middle class
would be more responsive to Conservatives if responsive to social issues
William Gladstone: (1868-1874)-4 times liberal PM Culmination of classical British
liberalism 1870-civil service reform 1870-Educaton Act-Govt assumed
responsibility for running elementary schools
1872-Secret Ballot act All able citizens compete on base of
ability and merit
Benjamin Disraeli-(1874-1880) Founder of Modern British conservatism More paternalistic than Gladstone Protect the weak and ease class antagonism
Public Health Act of 1875-state would protect public health and physical well being dealing with sanitation
Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875-housing for the working class
Gave new protection to British trade unions-allowed to raise picket lines
Act of Union of 1800-Kingdom of Ireland and GB United United Kingdom-1801
Abolished Irish Parliament Irish represented at Westminster by 100
MPs Est of Church of Ireland No Catholics allowed in office
The Irish Question
Irish question of home rule-1880’s to 1914-question of more autonomy for Ireland within British empire
Home Rule League-Charles Stewart Parnell Legislation passed during Gladstone’s
ministries 1. Disestablished Church of Ireland 2. land act-compensation to evicted Irish
farmers 3. 2nd Land act-tenant rights for Irish 4. Coercion Act-restore law and order in Ireland
Irish question
1912-Third Irish Home Rule bill passed
Festered in British politics until after WW1-suspended during the war
Created division in British politics that made social and political reform difficult
Made the creation of new party of Labor to fill vacuum