THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CELL BIOLOGY...ASCB committee were Ellen Dirksen, Nina Allen, Kathryn...

Women inCell Biology

forLifeScientistsII

THE AMERICANSOCIETY FORCELLBIOLOGY

Career Advice

Career Advicefor Life Scientists II

T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y F O R C E L L B I O L O G Y

Career Advice

Volume EditorElizabeth Marincola

Production ManagerRaymond Everngam

Editorial AssistantRachel Altemus

Published with support from the Office of Research on Women’s Health of the National Institutes of Healthand the Burroughs Wellcome Fund

for Life Scientists II

T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y F O R C E L L B I O L O G Y

©2004 The American Society for Cell Biology

Table of ContentsIntroduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. THE LAB COMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Confronting the Social Context of Science . . . . . . . . . . 4Conflict Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology . . . . . . . . 11

2. DEALING WITH EVERYTHING AT ONCE 15Dual(ing) Academic Careers . . . . . . . 16Effective Time Management . . . . . . . . 20On Being a Scientist and Parent . . . . . 24How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . 31The Misconduct of Others: Prevention Techniques for Researchers 32Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy . . . . . . . . . . 36Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations? . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHING. . . . . . . . . 43Me Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper . . . . 44How to Read and Respond to a Journal Rejection Letter . . . . . . . . 48The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act . . . . . . . . . . 53What Happened to My Figures?! . . . . 56

5. POSTDOC ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc . . . . . . . . 60Making the Most of Your Postdoctoral Experience . . . . . . . . . . 64Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean . . . . . . . . . 67

6. CAREER TRANSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71The Art of the Interview . . . . . . . . . . . 72Salary Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76What Else Can I Do?: ExploringOpportunities in Business and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Late Career Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7. GRANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Study Section Service: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Responding to the NIH Summary Statement . . . . . . . . . . 95

8. ACADEMIC CAREERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Teaching Is Good for Research . . . . . 100Academic Careers without Tenure . . . 102

9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . 107Do’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

ENDNOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

vi CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS II

Introduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists II

T he Women in Cell Biology Committee traces itsorigins to 1971, when a small assembly of Yalecolleagues determined to organize a gathering of

the few women attending the 11th Annual Meeting ofthe American Society for Cell Biology in New Orleansthat year. They posted flyers on the back of bathroomstalls and thirty women showed up.

The first sustained effort of this pick-up group was a“newsletter”—a bimonthly mimeographed job—fea-turing entries as diverse and important as sexist adver-tisements in scientific journals, job opportunities(though the jobs had not been advertised), and ACLUrulings that women should not be required to use theirhusband’s names and that single women should quali-fy to receive loans and hold mortgages.

In the subsequent thirty-plus years, The Women inCell Biology Committee has, in its way, become theheart and soul of the cell biology community. Womenin cell biology and The Women in Cell BiologyCommittee have achieved sufficient progress as tomake early concerns seem almost quaint. But the chal-lenges faced by women in science today are, whilemore subtle, still real and still attracting the commit-ment of dedicated cell biologists. We are proud of con-tributing to that history.

One of the keys to the success of The ASCB Womenin Cell Biology Committee is that its activities and serv-ices have served the many male members of the ASCBand the scientific community as well as its women. Thishas never been so true as in the past several years,when the challenge of students and post-docs in estab-lishing a satisfying career in the life sciences hasbecome acute. In response, The Women in Cell BiologyCommittee has given high priority to programs,events, publications and awards that support the careeraspirations of scientists. The Career Advice for LifeScientists series is offered in that spirit.

INTRODUCTION 1

Ursula W. GoodenoughChair, ASCB Women in Cell Biology Committee

Elizabeth MarincolaExecutive Director,

The American Society for Cell Biology

This is the second volume of selected articles from the acclaimed “Women in CellBiology” column of the award-winning ASCB Newsletter, those ranked by TheWomen in Cell Biology Committee membersas providing the most helpful career advicefor life scientists. The first volume was pub-lished in 2002 during the chairwomanship ofZena Werb, who served as committee Chairfrom 1998 through 2001, following the suc-cessful leadership of W. Sue Shafer, whoserved in the same role from 1994 through1997. Based on the success of the monthlyASCB Newsletter columns and the over-whelming popularity of Career Advice for LifeScientists, Volume I, we trust that this compila-tion will prove even more helpful than thesum of its parts.

At risk of inadvertently excluding deserv-ing colleagues, we acknowledge proudlysome of the many people who together haveconspired to make The American Society forCell Biology Women in Cell BiologyCommittee and its column widely imitatedand praised. Virginia Walbot, Mary Clutterand Mary Lake Polan made up that smallcritical mass from Yale that lit the spark in

1971; Susan Goldhor and Elizabeth Harriswere early editors of The Women in CellBiology Newsletter, whose job included gath-ering $1 and $5 contributions from colleaguesto keep it going; chairs before The Women inCell Biology Committee became an officialASCB committee were Ellen Dirksen, NinaAllen, Kathryn Vogel, Patricia Calarco, MinaBissell, Jane Peterson, Susan Gerbi, Mary LouKing and Ursula Goodenough (33% ofwhom—Gerbi, Goodenough and Bissell—were later elected President of the ASCB, aswas Zena Werb); Dorothy Skinner, whoserved as the conscience of the ASCB Councilin the early years; Laura Williams andMaureen Brandon, dedicated editors of theASCB Newsletter “Women in Cell Biology”column (Laura did much of the research thatcontributed to this history), and EmmaShelton, Dorothea Wilson, RosemarySimpson and Elizabeth Marincola, ASCBexecutives who helped nurture women’sactivities through the Society. Finally, but notleast, we thank the NIH Office of Research onWomen’s Health and the BurroughsWellcome Fund, without the support ofwhich we could not offer this resource. !

2 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS II

1. THE LAB COMMUNITYConfronting the Social Context of Science

Conflict Management

Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology

Confronting the Social Context of Science


Carl CohenScience Management

Associates

Much of biological science both in academiaand in the for-profit sector is done in com-plex group and organizational settings.

Collaborative efforts are increasingly common andoften result in spectacular contributions. But manypartnerships do not succeed or are hampered by issuesthat transcend the scientific. Chief among these issuesare those that fall into the social dimension of science,encompassing interpersonal conflict, poor teamdynamics, and dysfunctional organizations.

American universities do a superb job of teachingscientific and technical skills to those who choose sci-ence as a profession. While there will continue to bedebate as to whether we are producing too many or toofew scientifically trained professionals, those that wedo train are generally thought to be reasonably wellprepared to pursue their careers. Are they?

Scientists are typically well trained in the technolo-gies and academic subjects of their discipline.However, they are missing a set of skills that handicapsthem both in academic and for-profit environments.These are the interpersonal, social, and organizationalskills needed to practice science in a social context.

Many partnerships do not succeed orare hampered by issues that transcendthe scientific. Chief among these issuesare those that fall into the socialdimension of science, encompassinginterpersonal conflict, poor teamdynamics, and dysfunctionalorganizations.

They include conflict management and nego-tiation skills, working in and managingteams, understanding and working withincomplex scientific organizations, and com-munication skills.

Every first-year graduate student canrelate stories of projects stymied or collabora-tions hampered by principal investigatorswho fail to communicate clear objectives,simmering conflicts gone unaddressed, andteam members who function more as antago-nists than supporters. The private sector isafflicted by all of the problems encounteredin academe (interpersonal conflicts, poorteam dynamics, turf issues, etc.) and a few ofits own. As the barrier between academe andthe private sector, especially biotechnology,becomes more porous, the problems willbecome indistinguishable.

Scientists who enter the biotechnologyindustry spend their first three or more yearsadapting with difficulty to new reward struc-tures and new work paradigms. In academia,rewards come largely on the basis of individ-ual achievement (although much of the work

is done in teams). In the private sector, well-meaning attempts are made to reward on thebasis of team performance. Under such con-ditions, young scientists may hoard informa-

tion or ideas and use them as currency toenhance their individual status. In biotech-nology especially, projects begin and end forreasons that are often opaque to bench scien-tists. Because scientists become intellectuallybonded to projects, they often react to thisexperience with feelings of frustration and ofbeing manipulated. In some cases they mayavoid fully committing themselves to proj-ects to minimize disappointment. Thesebehaviors hamper productivity and are typi-cally attributed to individual personalityissues. In fact, they are a direct result of thepoor preparation that scientists receive forfunctioning as a member of a team and of thefailure of scientific leaders to anticipate anddeal with the human consequences of scien-tific and business decisions. In short, both themembers and leaders of science efforts aredeficient in skills that extend beyond thetechnical discipline of their specialty.

Traditionally, scientists have believedstrongly that if you get the science right,everything else is irrelevant. While this viewmay be harmless in a scientist working by

In academia, rewards comelargely on the basis ofindividual achievement(although much of the work isdone in teams). In the privatesector, well-meaning attemptsare made to reward on the basisof team performance.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CELL BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 • THE LAB COMMUNITY 5

Traditionally, scientists havebelieved strongly that if you getthe science right, everything elseis irrelevant. While this viewmay be harmless in a scientistworking by him- or herself,it is detrimental when adoptedin a social or organizationalscientific context andconstitutes a fatal conceptualerror when adopted by scientistsin the private sector.

him- or herself, it is detrimental when adoptedin a social or organizational scientific contextand constitutes a fatal conceptual error whenadopted by scientists in the private sector.

Scholarly studies in other disciplinesreveal that biological scientists are no morelikely to fall into the trap of focusing only onthe technical aspects of their discipline thanothers. Analysis of catastrophic failures in thechemical industry1, in the space program2,and in military contexts3 is instructive. Theprincipal cause of failure to learn from mili-tary disasters lies in the tendency of analyststo focus exclusively on technical and logisti-cal explanations.3 This narrow focus betrays anaive indifference to the roles of leadershipstyle, command structure, and of the organi-zation as a whole. By the same token, becausethe business of biotechnology is one that isdeeply rooted in science, what post hoc analy-ses of success and failures there are tend tofocus on the science, technology, and eco-nomics and fail to include the organizationaland managerial context in which the sciencewas applied.

It is a tribute to the individuals and organ-izations involved that despite managerialand organizational problems, science, andoften superb science, gets done. Scientists intraining will bear an enormous amount ofconflict, ambiguity, and heavy-handedmanipulation in order to achieve their educa-tional and professional goals. Unfortunately,

in addition to acquiring superb technicalskills, trainees frequently are imprinted withthe same dysfunctional managerial skills astheir mentors. If we take the view that workstyle is as important for scientific and busi-ness success as technological methods andapproaches, this is a serious deficiency.

The scope of scientific training should beincreased in the service of improved commu-nication, greater productivity, and, from theperspective of the private sector, greaterreturn on investment. Seizing the opportuni-ty requires an explicit recognition that muchcurrent biological science is inherently ateam, group, or organizational activity donein the context of economic, business, andsocial constraints. Training scientists withoutattention to this larger context makes nomore sense than training soldiers in the use ofautomatic weapons without simultaneoustraining in teamwork and group tactics. !


Training scientists withoutattention to this larger contextmakes no more sense thantraining soldiers in the use ofautomatic weapons withoutsimultaneous training inteamwork and group tactics.

Lynne RichardsonMt. Sinai School

of Medicine

Conflict Management

Conflict is part of life: an inevitable consequenceof interacting with other people. In both ourprofessional lives and in our personal lives, we

are constantly faced with statements, actions, needs,drives, wishes, demands, or positions that are incom-patible with or opposed to our own. Conflict can create stress, produce anxiety, adversely affect per-formance, decrease productivity, and disrupt the work(or home) environment. It can be difficult to decidehow to respond when faced with conflict. We oftenreact emotionally or reflexively, without thought orconscious decision. Learning to deal effectively withconflict requires that we learn to control our response,choosing the most appropriate strategy for the partic-ular situation.

Responses to ConflictResponse to conflict can be described along two dimen-sions: assertiveness and cooperativeness. Assertivenessis the extent to which you attempt to satisfy your ownconcerns. Cooperativeness is the extent to which youattempt to satisfy another person’s concerns. There arefive well-described strategies for managing conflict,which comprise varying combinations of assertivenessand cooperativeness. They are competing, accommodat-ing, avoiding, collaborating, and compromising.

Competing is assertive and uncooperative; you pursue your own concerns or interests exclusively. This is frequently characterized as “I win/you lose.”


Learning to deal effectively with conflictrequires that we learn to control ourresponse, choosing the most appropriatestrategy for the particular situation.

Accommodating is the opposite of competing;it is cooperative and unassertive. You pursuethe interests or concerns of the other partyand ignore your own: “I lose/you win.”Avoiding is both unassertive and uncoopera-tive. You pursue neither the other party’sinterest nor your own. You do not pursue theissue at all; you disengage from theencounter or situation. Extending the gamemetaphor, avoiding means, “I won’t play.”Collaborating is both assertive and coopera-tive; you simultaneously attempt to satisfyyour own concerns and those of the otherparty. This is the “win/win” scenario.Collaborating is often the most difficult of thestrategies to employ. It may require signifi-cant time and effort from both parties.Compromising may be described as unsuccess-fully assertive or reluctantly cooperative; it isa trade-off, each party gets part of what theywant. Depending on the quality of the com-promise, this may be a low form of“win/win” or, in particularly acrimoniousconflicts, it may be “lose/lose.”

To clarify the differences among theseapproaches, let us look at an example. It is eighto’clock, the regular bedtime for a nine-year-oldgirl. Her mother wants her to go to bed; shewants to stay up until nine o’clock. A “compet-ing” response would be to send her to bedwithout further discussion; Mom wins, sheloses. An “accommodating” response would beto allow her to stay up until nine o’clock; Momloses, she wins. If the mother wants to “avoid”the conflict, she might say, “Ask your father.”She thus avoids enforcing the rule and grantingan exception to it; she doesn’t play.“Compromising” might mean that the childgoes to bed at 8:30 p.m., or she goes to bed butcan leave the lights on and read, or she stays uplate tonight but goes to bed early tomorrownight, etc. The mother can employ any of theseapproaches, immediately and unilaterally, toresolve the bedtime conflict.

A “collaborating” response is harder todevelop; how can the child simultaneouslygo to bed at eight o’clock and stay up untilnine o’clock? To collaborate, we must under-stand the reasons behind the positions, notjust the positions themselves. The mother

wants her daughter to go to bed at eighto’clock because she has to get up at 6:00 a.m.and she needs ten hours of sleep or shebecomes cranky and inattentive in school.The daughter wants to stay up until 9:00 p.m.because she desperately wants to watch aparticular television program that airs from8:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. Equipped with thisinformation, they can now craft “win/win”solutions: she goes to bed at 8:00 p.m. andMom videotapes the program so her daugh-ter can see it tomorrow; or she stays up until9:00 p.m. to see the program but she puts outher clothes, makes her lunch, and trades hermorning chores with her sister so that she cansleep an hour later in the morning—she stillgets ten hours of sleep. This is why collabo-rating takes time: the parties must communi-cate openly, giving the reasons behind theirpositions, each actively trying to understandand satisfy the concerns of the other.

None of these responses is always correct;each has advantages and disadvantages. Wehave a tendency to default to whicheverstrategy reflects our emotions or personality.Some people become relentlessly assertivewhen faced with conflict; they will always tryto “win.” Some will always seek to accommo-date others, even to their own significant


To collaborate, we mustunderstand the reasons behindthe positions, not just thepositions themselves.

detriment. Others will do almost anything to avoid conflict. Still others are always readyto compromise. Strategies that are guided byour personal feelings rather than the specificsof the situation are often dysfunctional. Thekey to effective conflict management is learn-ing to use the appropriate strategy for eachsituation. The choice is determined by thesubstance of the conflict, the time available to resolve it and the relationship between the parties.

Managing ConflictThe first rule in managing conflict is to ascer-tain that an actual conflict exists. There aremany situations where incomplete informa-tion, misunderstanding, or unwarrantedassumptions create an apparent conflictwhen the parties involved do not actually

have incompatible or opposing interests.Whenever you encounter what appears to bea conflict, the first response should be to clar-ify your position and that of the other party.It may become clear that no conflict exists. If

you do determine that an actual conflictexists, you may have gained enough informa-tion to make a deliberate choice of strategies.

When to Compete. The “I win/you lose”approach is not the exclusive province ofcompetitive sports and games. There aretimes when you must insist on having it yourway: when quick, decisive action is vital andthe decision is yours to make; when enforcingunpopular rules; and when you know youare right. Using this approach, especially ifthere is little time for discussion, may dam-age your relationship with the other party. Ifthis is your primary method of resolving con-flict you may be perceived as dogmatic,unreasonable and inflexible. Sometimes youmay be forced to use this approach to protectagainst people who take advantage of non-competitive behavior.

When to Accommodate. Giving in grace-fully may be the right thing to do when yourrelationship with the other party is moreimportant than the conflict at hand.Accommodating can be used to preserveharmony or to build up social credit for laterissues. Managers or teachers may use thisapproach to aid in the development of subor-dinates or students. You may choose to accede to someone else’s wishes to showthat you are reasonable and can learn fromothers. If you recognize that you are out-matched and losing, accommodating may beprudent. Most of us have had the experienceof realizing, in the midst of an argument, that

Incomplete information,misunderstanding orunwarranted assumptionscreate an apparent conflict whenthe parties involved do notactually have incompatible oropposing interests.



We have a tendency to defaultto whichever strategy reflectsour emotions or personality.

Giving in gracefully may be theright thing to do when yourrelationship with the other partyis more important than theconflict at hand.

we are wrong. Needless to say, when youknow you are wrong, accommodating is theappropriate choice.

When to Avoid. Conflict should be avoid-ed when there is no chance of satisfying yourconcerns or when the potential damage (tothe relationship or to you) of confronting theconflict outweighs the benefits of resolution.Avoiding can be a useful temporizing strate-gy to let people, including you, calm down. Itmay be appropriate to avoid a conflict untilmore information can be gathered, either toclarify whether or not a conflict exists or towork toward a collaborative solution.Sometimes it is appropriate to choose avoid-ing when others can resolve the conflict moreeffectively. This is often true when you are amember of a team, particularly if you are ajunior member, engaged in a conflict with apowerful external entity.

When to Collaborate. Identifying a“win/win” solution usually requires timeand effort but yields tremendous dividends.Not only do you satisfy your own concerns,you create or enhance a positive relationshipwith the other party. Collaborating can allowyou to test your own assumptions and oftenresults in significant learning on all sides.This method of resolving conflict allows youto merge insights and experience to find anintegrative solution. The process also allowsboth parties to gain commitment to the solu-tion. This approach may be used to protect orenhance important relationships; it also maybe used to work through hard feelings in thecase of previous competitive, uncooperativeor even hostile dealings. This approach to

resolving conflict, when successful, is by farthe most rewarding. However, it does requirethat you truly value and are willing to pursuethe interests of the other party, and that youforego an easy win or a quick compromise.

When to Compromise. While less satisfy-ing than collaborating, compromising is usu-ally quicker and easier. This approach maybe used to find expedient solutions undertime pressure or to achieve temporary settle-ments for complex issues. It may be anappropriate choice when the goals are mod-erately important: too important to avoid or accommodate, but insufficiently impor-tant to merit a collaborative effort.Compromising may be the only option whentwo opponents with equal power are strong-ly committed to mutually exclusive goals. Itmay also be the fallback strategy when com-petition or collaboration fails.

When faced with a conflict, the challengeis to consider, as dispassionately as we can,which approach is appropriate given thenature and importance of the conflict, thenature and importance of our relationshipwith the other party and the time availablefor resolution. If we can control our emotion-al reaction, we can think through the conse-quences of various choices. If we are awareof our default preference, we can monitorourselves to make sure we make the bestchoice, not necessarily the one that comesmost easily for us. Conflict management isan important professional skill, one that willalso serve us well in our personal relation-ships. Like all skills, it can be learned and itimproves with practice. !


Harvey F. LodishWhitehead Institute for

Biomedical Research

Two Cultures and theRevolution in Biotechnology

The two cultures of science are not those of C. P.Snow who 40 years ago articulated the growinggulf between the humanists and ascendant scien-

tists in the post-war period.1 They are the two groups ofscientists who work in academe and in industry.Bridging the considerable gulfs between these groupsis important for the benefit of industry as well as for thesupport of university research.

One major problem is that basic science research fac-ulty in general often undervalue the work done inindustry and can make it difficult for their students andfellows to pursue careers there. When groups of gradu-ate students and postdocs at a wide range of universi-ties and research institutes are asked about where theysee themselves in ten years, their answers are remark-ably similar. Only a handful see themselves directingtheir own research program in an academic laboratory,and well over half plan to work in a pharmaceutical orbiotech company.

We do a fair job educating students and postdocsabout the various career opportunities available to them.Many institutions have career days where alumni orlocal colleagues describe their careers in industrialresearch, patent law, scientific editing, laboratoryadministration, and many other professions that requirea strong background in science.

However, a critical problem exists between stu-dents/postdocs and their PIs. When asked if theywould feel comfortable asking their PI for help oradvice in seeking employment outside of academia,


One major problem is that basic scienceresearch faculty in general oftenundervalue the work done in industry.

students and postdocs respond with a uni-versal and emphatic “no.” Part of this nega-tivism results from the strong if outmodednotion that the research faculty are trainingpeople only for careers in academicresearch—in essence to become their succes-sors. Another part may result from the histor-ically strong but equally outmoded notionthat the top students and postdocs go intoacademic careers and that only less qualifiedindividuals take industrial jobs.

The negative attitude is largely attributedto the fact that only a handful of academicshave even a basic knowledge of what goes onin a biotech or pharmaceutical company.Most have only vague notions of howresearch in a for-profit lab is organized andconducted and the kinds of career paths onecan have there.

To solve this problem, companies them-selves need to take the lead by holdingresearch days or open houses to specifically

target the faculty, not the students and fellows they are trying to recruit. Theseevents could include scientific talks focusedon the company’s research. Tours of industri-

al labs are also very useful. Most academicswould be startled at the lab equipment inroutine use in for-profit research labs, muchof which is simply unavailable even in topacademic labs. These can open the way formutually profitable collaborations, assumingboth sides can overcome the other gulfs thatseparate them. Interactions like these couldalso make faculty realize the many advan-tages of non-academic careers for their ownstudents. They can result in significant

research support for an academic laboratory,but also in true collaborative partnerships in which both sides derive the benefits fromthe beginning.

Industrial collaborations with academeare most likely to succeed when both sides


Companies need to lighten upand understand the free andopen culture of researchuniversities. The intellectualproperty restrictions on a well-written contract generate norestrictions and only minimaldelays in publishing the results.

Industrial collaborations withacademe are most likely tosucceed when both sides have a real interest in the results ofthe project, and when thecontact is PI to PI.

Companies should learn to seeknot-for-profit labs in their fieldsof interest and develop long-termrelationships with the key leaders.

The negative attitude is largelyattributed to the fact that only a handful of academics haveeven a basic knowledge of what goes on in a biotech orpharmaceutical company.

have a real interest in the results of the proj-ect, and when the contact is PI to PI. (In com-panies, PI’s are often called group leaders.)While the company may very much want toknow the result, it may not have the in-houseexpertise to work on the project or more like-ly, may not want to hire extra people just fora specialized short-term project. Companiesshould learn to seek not-for-profit labs intheir fields of interest and develop long-termrelationships with the key leaders.Companies need to lighten up and under-stand the free and open culture of researchuniversities. All too frequently they try toplace unreasonable restrictions on intellectu-al property and publications that conse-

quently prevent the important research frombeing conducted.

Academic leaders should realize that thereare many potential advantages to industrialcollaborations additional to research fund-ing. Companies can provide reagents andequipment that are unavailable elsewhere.Also, the intellectual property conditions ona well-written contract do not generate sig-nificant restrictions and only create minimaldelays in publishing the results. Finally,increases in these activities should helpmake it easier for fellows and students tolearn more about industry, and to be lessintimidated about approaching their PI foradvice in non-academic careers. !




2. DEALING WITHEVERYTHING AT ONCE

Dual(ing) Academic Careers

Effective Time Management

On Being a Scientist and Parent

How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences


Dual(ing) Academic Careers

Liz GavisPrinceton University

Fred HughsonPrinceton University

When life partners both choose careers inacademic science, tough issues arise.Balancing the conflicting demands of

work, relationship, and sometimes children is dauntingfor everyone, but dual academic careers bring this chal-lenge into particularly sharp focus. Because time issuch a strong constraint, setting both career and rela-tionship priorities is essential. Certainly there is nooptimal strategy for every couple, but some strategy isrequired and the only way to reach one is by communi-cating to forge agreement on core principles.

A primary factor in the equation for many couples isthe decision to start a family. While it is widelyacknowledged that “there is no good time to have chil-dren,” the corollary that “any time is as good as anyother” is just as true. The integration of family withdual academic careers will require additional multi-tasking, whenever it occurs.

The first step in launching dual academic careers islanding two academic positions. There are at least twobasic possibilities and many variations. Both partnerscan look for academic positions simultaneously, or onepartner can find a position and the second can post-pone the process, attempting at a later time to findsomething compatible. When possible, a synchronousstrategy makes sense for one key reason: the job candi-date holds the cards during the interval betweenreceiving and accepting a job offer. A synchronous

While it is widely acknowledged that“there is no good time to havechildren,” the corollary that “any timeis as good as any other” is just as true.

strategy can take advantage of this principle.Specifically, both partners carry out large-scale simultaneous but independent jobsearches. Each partner—in his or her dealingswith prospective employers—maintainswhat amounts to a “Don’t ask, don’t tell”approach regarding the other partner. Joboffers received by either person allow thatperson to bargain from a position of strengthin attempting to place the partner. Somedepartments may, however unethically, hesi-tate to make a job offer to a candidate with a“spouse problem.” Increasingly, however,many institutions recognize the prevalence ofthis issue and, having made an offer to a can-didate in this situation, will be eager to dealwith it creatively. Some institutions may evensee a benefit in being assured of acquiringtwo excellent faculty or may be able to joinforces with a neighboring institution to theadvantage of both.

To anticipate this process, both partnersshould apply, whenever possible, to searchesat the same or neighboring institutions. Thisis worth doing even when the perceivedmatch between applicant and job search isimperfect, because institutions may be ableto bend the goals of a job search to fit the can-didate, but be unable to offer a position to acandidate who did not apply at all. Includinginstitutions that may not initially seem liketop choices is essential to maximize thechance of overlapping offers; because pre-conceptions about institutions are oftenchanged during interview visits anyway, too

narrow a focus may eliminate what couldturn out to be a golden opportunity.Geographic areas rich in job opportunitieswithin reasonable commuting distance ofone another can be particularly promisingfor dual career couples. Obtaining positionsin the same department has certain advan-tages: less commuting, opportunities forsharing equipment and supplies, and noneed to play phone tag in arranging daycarepickup. The main caveat is that issues ofindependence may arise if both partnersplan to dedicate their laboratories to similarresearch areas. In that case, and if the optionis available, it is worth considering whetherbeing in different departments is preferable.

An asynchronous job search can be moredifficult. The first partner to take a positionhas already committed to that institution,and although one hopes the institution hasreason to want to retain him or her, theincentive can seem less urgent outside thecontext of the initial recruiting effort. Inaddition to efforts to add a second positionlocally, casting a wider net and being willingto consider moving together could be bothnecessary and desirable.

In the end, reality dictates that no matterhow the job search is run, compromises willhave to be made. Even if two offers at thesame institution are secured, couples in verydifferent research areas may find disparitiesin the offers or in the scientific environment


CHAPTER 2 • DEALING WITH EVERYTHING AT ONCE 17

A synchronous strategy makessense for one key reason: the jobcandidate holds the cards duringthe interval between receivingand accepting a job offer.

Each partner—in his or herdealings with prospectiveemployers—maintains whatamounts to a “Don’t ask, don’ttell” approach regarding theother partner.

of a particular institution. Because compro-mise, especially if it entails substantial sacri-fice, will weigh heavily on a relationship,open lines of communication are essential.It’s hard to overestimate the importance ofchoosing a situation where the needs of bothpartners are taken into account. In caseswhere there is significant asymmetry in thecompromise, it is easy for the favored partnerto become comfortable, while the disfavoredpartner feels underappreciated. Therefore, itmay be better to accept more equivalent posi-tions in less desirable settings or for one part-ner to move in order to improve the other’sprospects, than to create a situation in whichone partner feels resentful.

The transition from postdoc to an inde-pendent academic position is a big one. Newtasks and responsibilities join research inconstant competition for one’s attention.Balancing research with teaching, commit-tees, grant writing, mentoring, and travel areespecially challenging for a dual career cou-ple, particularly if children are also part ofthe mix. Indeed, many in this position havebeen heard to remark that they wish theyhad a spouse! But until polygamy becomesmore widely accepted, other strategies areneeded. The default approach among aca-demic couples is to split everything 50/50—from shopping, child care, and taking out the

garbage to weekend work schedules, meet-ing travel, participating in department jobs,dinners with seminar speakers and facultycandidates, even exercise. There areinevitable exceptions, of course. One partnermay need to borrow time from the other tomeet a grant deadline. (Most dual-careercouples scrupulously avoid trying to meetthe same grant deadline, a grueling ordealone couple refers to as “emotional PCR.”)Nonetheless, an almost obsessive fairness individing up time and responsibilities is onegood strategy for maintaining balanceamong conflicting demands.

Couples with children can only build aca-demic careers on an underlying foundationof high-quality, reliable, and flexible childcare. Therefore, time spent choosing the rightsituation is extremely worthwhile. Since thedemands of two full-time jobs can becomeoverwhelming at times, especially when onepartner is traveling, the couple mustinevitably take advantage of friends and rel-atives, daycare providers, and others whocan be called into service. Such support net-works can be life savers and are worth culti-vating. Paying for help with house cleaningand participating in carpools provide other

ways to optimize time. But, in the end, therewill inevitably be days where things fallapart. On those days, one can be thankfulthat academic careers do provide a certaindegree of flexibility.


It may be better to accept moreequivalent positions in lessdesirable settings, or for onepartner to move in order toimprove the other’s prospects,than to create a situation inwhich one partner feels resentful.

There will inevitably be dayswhere things fall apart. Onthose days, one can be thankfulthat academic careers do providea certain degree of flexibility.

Promotion and tenure are stressful issuesfor everyone. Although it might seem pru-dent for a couple to choose an institutionwhere tenure is relatively assured, considera-tions of academic quality, colleagues, facili-ties, and financial support—all of which cancontribute to launching a successful career—may be more important in the long run. Bothtenure and biological clocks can seem to tickparticularly fast for couples who plan to havechildren during this time. Many institutionsnow recognize that the pre-tenure years andthe childbearing years overlap. They mayallow faculty who have children during thisperiod to postpone their tenure considera-tion, typically by one year. Since the laborato-ry continues to mature even in one’s absence,this extra year can be extremely helpful in off-setting the inevitable time lost during the pre-and post-natal months.

Many dual-academic career couples com-ment on the benefit of being able to under-stand each other’s work and relate to eachother’s needs. Both members of an academiccouple have first-hand experience with theoften-intense work schedules, the grant writ-

ing, the department politics; they canempathize vividly with bad news like paperrejections and experimental setbacks andeven offer educated advice to help get thingsback on track. On the other hand, it is alsoimportant to be able to back off and take abreak from work. When children start to

complain that grants are the only thing theirparents ever talk about, it’s probably a signthat rebalancing is needed.

In the end, communication is everything.Partners who are friends, parents, and co-conspirators in the academic game can forgea very rewarding life together. Just not anuncomplicated one. !



When children start to complainthat grants are the only thingtheir parents ever talk about, it’sprobably a sign that rebalancingis needed.


Effective Time Management

Suzanne PfefferStanford University

Why is it so easy to become overwhelmed by all of the projects that face us each day?The world of email was supposed to make

life more efficient. It has made communication andinteraction much easier, but only encourages morecommunication and interaction. Below are a few effective approaches to time management for the busy researcher.

My Work Versus Their WorkAn important aspect of time management is prioritiza-tion. As a faculty member you will be asked to reviewmanuscripts, serve on grant review panels, and serveon departmental, university, and extramural commit-tees. As a graduate student or a postdoc, you may beasked to teach others a new technique or to guide a jun-ior protégé. All of these activities are important, but ifyou fill your days with this category of work, your ownprojects will surely suffer. No one gets tenure or aresearch grant for excellence in committee service, andoriginal research findings are prerequisite for a Ph.D.or successful postdoc experience.

A useful approach for faculty is to reserve most workdays (Monday through Friday, 9–6) for their ownwork—doing experiments or helping lab members dothem, writing research papers, submitting grants, orpreparing lectures for courses. Of course it is importantto review manuscripts—this is an excellent way to keepup with the latest findings. It is important to serve ongrant-review panels, after you are established. Thesecan be rich and wonderful opportunities for scientific

No one gets tenure or a research grantfor excellence in committee service.

interaction among a diverse set of colleagues,and the success of peer review depends uponbroad participation. Try to review manu-scripts and grant applications in the eveningsor on weekends to ensure that work days arereserved, within reason, for your own work.

The most important activities for graduatestudents and postdoctoral fellows are experi-ment planning and data generation. A deliber-ate approach is required to keep up with theliterature, attend seminars and courses, andoversee the work of others while carrying outyour own research project. At the end of each

day, have a plan for what you hope to do the next morning. Write out your protocols,make up your solutions, and reserve cen-trifuges/microscopes etc. at least one daybefore. When you get to the lab in the morn-ing, you will be ready to go and able to makethe best use of the day. During incubations orwhile gels are running, think ahead about thenext experiment or use this time to read a

research article or catch up on class assign-ments. Evenings and weekends are ideal timesto catch up on reading, complete coursework,and plan ahead for upcoming experiments.The most effective students and postdocs takefull advantage of their time in the lab and con-sider themselves professional experimental-ists. Indeed, most cell biological discoveriesare made by students and postdocs.

Lists Can Help Lists help all of us keep track of commit-ments. By writing down what you need totake care of, you will be sure to accomplishmore than you might otherwise. Also, someitems require five minutes whereas othersmay require days. You might wish to keep acolumn reserved for the small things that youcan cross off in between other activities.

Stay on Top of the GamePeople who feel especially overwhelmedoften face email overload. Their inboxes growdaily, and their ability to distinguish mes-sages that require immediate action fromthose that don’t degrades every day. Respondquickly to messages and throw out anythingunessential and you will find email to bemore manageable. It is also essential toorganize your email using folders for differ-

ent projects. Someone needs a plasmid? File itunder collaborators. Faculty meeting? File itunder department business. Email spam is anirritating time-waster and an unfortunatepart of our current world. Create a filter and

Graduate students andpostdoctoral fellows need toremember that their mostimportant activities areexperiment planning and datageneration.



Try to review manuscripts andgrant applications in theevenings or on weekends toensure that work days arereserved for your own work.

Respond quickly to messages andthrow out anything unessentialand you will soon find email tobe more manageable.

remove your name from mailing lists to pro-tect yourself whenever possible. By keepingyour inbox list of messages short, you willhave an easier time finding what you need tocomplete your own projects and to be able tohelp others. Make quick work of smallrequests so you have more time for moreimportant projects.

For those still lucky enough to be able towork at the bench each day, staying on top ofthe game includes keeping your lab notebookin good order. Much time is saved when labnotebooks are maintained in a clear andorganized manner. It is essential to put thegels/films/counts in the notebook and labeland/or graph them out before doing the next

experiment. Sometimes you will notice some-thing in the data that you wouldn’t have ifyou didn’t take the time to fully documentthe experiment. Get the most from eachexperiment by keeping pristine records.When it comes time to write up the work forpublication, the details will be essential andthe writing will also be expedited.

Organize Your WorkspaceMany people think more clearly when theiroffice (or desk area) is clean. Letters andmemos can’t get lost under massive piles. Aday spent clearing off the desk and organiz-ing files is time well spent and will enhancethe ability to tackle more. Lab workers oftenfind that it is much easier to work and to gen-erate clean results working at a clean labbench. As mentioned earlier, keep your deskclean by keeping up with your lab notebookand keeping “idea lists” in a defined location.

All of us are more efficient on some daysthan others. It is important to acknowledgethis and make progress on more mindlessprojects (doing the references on a manu-script or grant, for example, or updating yourfiles) on a day when the more creative juicessimply aren’t flowing. Grad students andpostdocs will find that a day spent planningexperiments, writing protocols and preparingsolutions can also be a day well spent. Thenthere are days that are best reserved for vol-unteering to defrost the lab freezer or to cleanout the tissue culture incubators.

Take Care of Yourself No one gets much work done if they haven’tslept well or aren’t feeling well. Work isimportant, but we all have more energy whenwe are able to maintain a regular and variedexercise program and we eat regular meals.Some people ride their bikes to the lab, whichguarantees that they’ll get exercise every day.If you find it hard to fit exercise into yourschedule, use the stairs instead of elevators atwork, or park your car at a location thatrequires you to walk a longer distance to getto the lab (if weather and safety issues per-mit). Also remember that more time at workdoes not equal more work accomplished. It isessential to get away from the lab or the officeso that when you return, you feel fresh andready to tackle all that awaits you. “Burn out”is endemic among biological researchers andeducators, between grant writing and manu-script revising and lecture preparation and soon. Balance is essential and will help youaccomplish more.

Good Time ManagementIncludes Managing DeadlinesMany of us work best under the threat of adeadline. Yet last-minute efforts can’t benefitfrom the input and comments of others, andthey exhaust us emotionally and physically. If


Get the most from eachexperiment by keeping pristinerecords.

you have a major grant to write, set aside aminimum of two weeks and do nothing elseduring that time. If the deadline is the first ofthe month, use the first two weeks of the pre-vious month for your dedicated time. Allwriting projects benefit from a rest for a fewdays. When you return to them, you will havea fresh perspective and be able to improve onthe ideas and language significantly. Writingdeadlines can make one feel like they arebeing squeezed like a tube of toothpaste.

Know When to Say, “No” It is always an honor to be asked to serve ona committee, review panel, or editorial boardor to be asked to review manuscripts, writereview articles, or give lectures. If you do agood job, you will be asked to do more. Onehas to find a balance between helping othersand doing your own work. If you are a juniorfaculty member, wait until you have tenurebefore agreeing to serve on study sectionsand grant review panels. Even more valuable

is participating in research conferences whereyou are invited to present your own originalresearch. Spend as much time as you can onyour research program. The quality of yourteaching is important, and your citizenship asdemonstrated by committee service will benoted at the time of your promotion andwhen salaries are determined. But don’t over-do it—keep a list of the committees on whichyou serve to remind yourself not to committo more than you realize. Choose committeeassignments that interest you so that the time you contribute is meaningful to you. Atthe same time, remember that others canserve in your place and that your own workmust come first. This also holds true for stu-dents and postdocs. We all benefit from com-munity service, and we should contribute toour communities locally, nationally, andinternationally. But we have the most to con-tribute in all of these activities when wedevote most of our time to the science thatmakes us true scientists. !




On Being a Scientist and Parent

Ursula GoodenoughWashington University

Parent–scientists may hope to be remembered fortheir science, teaching, and/or public service, butthe most enduring memories of their own are like-

ly to be those of being a parent. As a mother of five andgrandmother of three, I’m often asked to offer advicethat might be helpful to those starting out. Herewithare some maxims.

1. The key move is to embrace the following mantra:Of course I’m going to have kids and of course I’m goingto have a scientific career. Neither is contingent ornegotiable. They are both going to happen.

2. It turns out that kids aren’t all that interested inwhat we do when we aren’t with them, and are veryadept at moving back and forth between parent timeand nonparent time. If you’re pipetting at the benchand missing your baby, it’s actually pretty unlikely thatyour baby is missing you.

3. Like most of the rest of us, kids like to know what toexpect. Try to find and maintain a family rhythm, eventhough there are of course times when things have tobe arranged differently. A ritual time for us was the din-ner meal—home-cooked, conversational, centered—which continued throughout adolescence. Another wasSunday-afternoon walks in the woods at a nearbynature preserve, coming to know the same trees and

Parent-scientists may hope to beremembered for their science, teaching,and/or public service, but the mostenduring memories of their own arelikely to be those of being a parent.

glades in different seasons. These walks alsocontinued throughout adolescence, albeitparental insistence was sometimes neededwhen other options beckoned. But by andlarge we all found the time to go because weall wanted to be there.

4. Your new babies are already persons andnot blank slates whose personhoods you willsomehow be creating. You get to know themby paying attention to who they are. Your jobis to help them best become comfortable withand good at who they are.

5. It’s much more important to encouragekids to be intense about what they’re interest-ed in than to try to influence what those inter-ests are. One son, for example, went throughdeep preoccupations with action figures,Ninja Turtles, Gameboys, skateboarding,rock climbing, and hanging out with friends.He’s now an orchestral conductor. The com-mon denominator is the passion.

6. Sometimes a parent–scientist can turn offthe science and “just” be with the kids, butlots of times that doesn’t happen. No reasonto get hung up on this. Instead, figure outhow to read Winnie the Pooh and think aboutyour data at the same time. You can restassured that your kids are probably thinkingabout Winnie the Pooh and something else aswell. The core event is that you’re readingPooh together, snuggling and giggling.

7. Choosing the people and schools thatyour kids experience when you’re at the lab is all-important. Make these choicescarefully; find contexts that you feel deeplycomfortable with, and be ready to switch ifyour decisions prove to be unwise. But it’snot essential that these contexts be replicasof your own modus operandi. My kids spentmuch of their lives with a woman of limitedformal education and of profound wisdom,intuition, and warmth. When she was present and we parents were absent, her modus prevailed, and everyone wasgreatly enriched.

8. All working parents are vulnerable toanxiety that child-caretaker bonds mightsomehow interfere with child-parentalbonds. But this turns out to be a misguidedfear. Your bonds with your children willalways be primary, and the additional lovethat they also experience with others has theeffect of expanding their capacity to formmeaningful relationships.



It’s much more important toencourage kids to be intenseabout what they’re interested inthan to try to influence whatthose interests are.

Choosing the people and schoolsthat your kids experience whenyou’re at the lab is all-important.

Your bonds with your childrenwill always be primary, and the additional love that they also experience with others has the effect of expanding their capacity to formmeaningful relationships.

9. When to have kids? Obviously it’s easierwhen you see a coherent career path beforeyou, and don’t feel you need to rush it—youcan be a great first-time parent in your late 30’s to early 40’s. But having babies earlier can work out fine also: it’s just dicierto pull off.

10. As in doing good science, it’s essential inparenthood to reach out for input and collab-oration from those who are helping you raiseyour kids, including family and friends, par-

ticularly when your kids are having difficul-ties (which they all have). What can mostflummox this process is to adopt the conceitthat the difficulties are somehow the conse-quence of your also having pursued yourown career. As they say, get over it. Yourcareer is not that big a deal in the big picture.

11. Keep in mind that your children areblessed by the fact that you are their parents,fired up with intellectual drive and curiosity.My parents were both academics, and evenhad I not chosen their career track, my mem-ories are filled with their intense interactionsand the colleagues who showed up for thoseanimated after-dinner conversations. Bringyour life to your kids, not with the intent thatthey follow in your footsteps, but becauseyou want them to experience the lives ofthose in quest. They may not seem all thatinterested, but they’ll take it with them. !


[Don’t] adopt the conceit that[your kids’] difficulties aresomehow the consequence of youralso having pursued your owncareer. As they say, get over it.

William WicknerDartmouth College

How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences

For most of us humanoids, “a life” is a melange offriendship, love, loyalty, consideration, compro-mise, kids, a profession where you excel and find

joy, hobbies, reading books, exercise, laughter, andeight hours of sleep a night. Can you find it in the lifesciences? I think so.

The pathway begins with graduate school. Choose aresearch advisor who’s passionate about science, not toodistracted by companies or administration, with a labthat’s happy, hard-working and productive, where folksget along well, and where graduates have gone on to“have a life.” There, choose a research project with anearly “decision point” (not when it’s done, but when youknow whether it’ll work), of general interest in biology,

and at the heart of the lab’s direction. Develop some novelassets as a scientist: learn to enjoy criticism when offeredin a positive spirit; the critic is helping you to hone yourideas, and this can actually be an avenue to developingfriendships. Read with “an attitude,” not only critical butalso appreciative. For each article, ask yourself what dif-ferent direction you’d take in your lab. From this reading,from gazing wide-eyed at histology texts, and throughlate night bull sessions with friends, build a fantasy “sta-ble” of hobby-horse ideas, and take ‘em out for frequentrides! Find a friend to be your partner in this fantasygame—it’s the groundwork for realities to follow.

Should you stick with it? Well, do you love benchscience, teaching, and/or reading? If not, switch! In


Learn to enjoy criticism when offered ina positive spirit; the critic is helping youto hone your ideas, and this can actuallybe an avenue to developing friendships.

your 20’s, strive to find your passions, per-sonal and professional. If you do love it, workhard in the lab (I like 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., fivedays a week; arrive knowing the experimentsyou’ll do that day), but evenings and weekends are for dinner, family, friends,reading (science and novels), music, andhikes. What should you accomplish in gradschool? Publish quality papers telling acoherent story. Learn to present science clear-ly, for audiences at different levels, with con-fidence and charm, orally and in writing. Allthe while, build the stable of hobby-horseideas for your own future research.

Postdocing. It’s for everyone—your salaryalmost doubles, you sample another region,or country and culture, and no “hoops” oftests to jump through! Think about it early (bythe end of year three of grad school), and planto complement, not extend, your graduatetraining. Of organism, scientific problem, and

technical approach (genetics, enzymology,structural biology, or informatics), keep onebut change two between grad school andpostdocship. Change universities! Seek a pro-ductive lab doing exciting research where thepostdocs go on to jobs you’d like. Ask yourgraduate department faculty about the per-sonality and reputation of prospective post-doc advisors. Spend a few hours readingrecent lab papers, write a serious and warmletter with a few new project ideas, includeyour CV and publications, and apply to onelab only at a time (and, tell this to the labchief). During postdocship, develop a creativebut practical plan for your own lab, built onthe technical approaches you’ve mastered as astudent and fellow but embarking into a newarea, chosen from your “stable” of excitingideas. For example, during graduate studiesof the enzymology of yeast membrane traf-ficking, you may dream of understandinghow Sec proteins work in neuronal networks.Your postdoctoral studies of worm apoptosisthen teach you worm genetics and physiolo-gy, and you establish your own lab to unravelthe connections and functions of the ~300worm neurons, pioneering in worm enzymol-ogy, cell culture, and other frontier areas.

How to interview for postdocships and forthat dream job? Read a paper, and have ques-tions and ideas for each scientist you’ll meet


What should you accomplish in grad school? Publish qualitypapers telling a coherent story.Learn to present science clearly,for audiences at different levels,with confidence and charm,orally and in writing.

How to interview, forpostdocships and for that dreamjob? Read a paper, and havequestions and ideas, for eachscientist you’ll meet during theinterview. Be confident but notarrogant; give a dynamite talk.

Of organism, scientific problem,and technical approach (genetics,enzymology, structural biology,or informatics), keep one butchange two between grad schooland postdocship.


during the interview. Be confident but notarrogant; give a dynamite talk. Ask each per-son about their work and spend most of thetime talking about their science. Pay atten-tion, ask germane questions, establish com-mon areas of interest. Show enthusiasm, andthat you’ll “pull your oar.” Say “please” and“thank you,” and above all Never Negotiatethe Job you Haven’t Been Offered.

What careers lie ahead; in biotech and phar-maceutical companies, doing science of funda-mental importance that also creates usefulproducts; in academia, blending teaching withbasic science, at research institutes if teaching isnot for you, at liberal arts colleges or highschools if teaching is your passion, and possi-bly in a life of letters and ideas, be it law, busi-ness, administration, or journalism. The primedirective is that you must do what you’re good

at and will find fulfilling (usually, the samething). Let no one tell you otherwise.

If you do start your own lab, in academiaor industry, remember that you’re the bestdamn postdoc you’ll likely see for a decadeor more, and ruthlessly keep yourself at thebench! Seek one project, leading to one love-ly paper, each year, and success will crownyour efforts.

Are there special considerations for womenin science? There are several. One is that theburdens of childbearing and early childrear-ing fall disproportionately on women.Furthermore, some folks are still being told1950’s fairy tales about women’s “supportiveroles” by their mom and dad. Does yourSignificant Other truly love you for you, andstand ready for the difficult give and take of asuccessful relationship? Find friends andloved ones with the right attitude. Above all,don’t drop out, don’t quit. Half the graduatestudents are women, but fewer of the postdocapplicants, and fewer yet of the job applicants.When offered a job, check how women havefared at that institution, and childcare policiesand facilities if relevant. Be among those whostay with it, if you too find that science is a joy-ful part of your life. !


Say “please” and “thank you,”and above all Never Negotiatethe Job you Haven’t BeenOffered.


3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIPThe Misconduct of Others: Prevention Techniques for Researchers

Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy

Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations?


The Misconduct of Others:Prevention Techniques for Researchers

Jane A. SteinbergThe National Institute

of Mental Health

Few people can distinguish between the smell ofday-old fish and the paper in which it waswrapped. That’s just how it is with scientific mis-

conduct. The misconduct of those working with youmay become yours. In the worst case, your lab is shutfor the investigation, your publications are retracted,and your name becomes suspect. Even if you reportedthe suspected misconduct and the investigation is fair,the accuser and the accused may become intertwinedas the investigation proceeds. All too often, the reporterand the reported blame each other, making the investi-gation protracted and contentious until the allegation issustained or not.

The good news is that you can protect yourselfagainst the misconduct of others by prevention tech-niques that are consistent with good supervision.

Exactly what are you trying to prevent? Federal reg-ulations define scientific misconduct as fabrication, fal-sification, plagiarism, or other practices that seriouslydeviate from those that are commonly accepted withinthe scientific community for proposing, conducting, orreporting research.1 It does not include honest error orhonest differences in interpretations or judgments ofdata. Other types of misconduct can occur in the

Few people can distinguish between thesmell of day-old fish and the paper inwhich it was wrapped.

The good news is that you can protectyourself against the misconduct of others.

research setting, but these are addressedthrough other laws and regulations and arenot considered scientific misconduct (e.g.,theft, harassment, and discrimination).

Prevention StrategiesSome believe that if staff or colleagues wantto dupe you, they will. This is not necessari-ly true; prevention can work. Simply letyour staff and partners know that you per-sonally verify data and any corrections.Then do it, and let them see you doing it.

Ask questions about stray marks or era-sures. If electronic data are written over orcorrected, find out why. The expectation ofmonitoring lets potential fabricators knowthat they are likely to be caught withouteven mentioning misconduct.

Encourage the immediate entry of allinformation into notebooks, and doublecheck data entered after a significant delay.Discuss tardy write-ups with the team anddetermine if the study should be repeated tominimize selective recall or reporting of pro-cedures or results.

Arrange a consultation with your institu-tion’s computer expert to learn about datasecurity options for your lab. Explore mark-ing electronic lab notebook entries with date,time, and user identification. Regularly back-up these and other electronic files, then dateand save the historic versions in a separatesecure area. These procedures protect youagainst computer crashes and natural disas-ters, as well as simultaneously providing a

data trail to discourage or document inappro-priate changes. Consider limiting access tocertain electronic files so they may be readand used, but not copied or altered. Theseprotections could avoid unauthorizedchanges and distribution. Similarly, don’t letstaff members install idiosyncratic or undoc-umented security options that could jeopard-ize your appropriate access. If that teammember became incapacitated through ill-ness or accident, you could be locked out ofyour own files.

Not all labs are ready for electronic note-books, so the old standby of using notebookswith bound spines or binders with distinctivepaper can make the substitution of pages onthe sly very onerous. Careful individuals alsokeep dated copies of these notebooks in a sec-ond secure location.

Set a tone of respect for the research proto-col. Avoid hyperbole and jokes about gettingthe results no matter what. Someone couldconfuse your humor with pressure to gener-ate findings through falsification, skimpingon animal or biohazard protections, improp-er analyses, or misleading interpretations ofresults.

Inoculate staff against the temptation tofind a “better” way to run the study mid-stream. Let them know you want to hear theirideas for the next study, but that fidelity tothe current design is essential. Remind themthat the current design is the only oneapproved by the institution’s animal care anduse committee. Explain what an unrecog-nized or unreported shift in procedures doesto the study’s analysis and interpretation.

Someone could confuse yourhumor with pressure to generatefindings.


CHAPTER 3 • SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIP 33

Let your staff and partners knowthat you personally verify dataand any corrections. Then do it,and let them see you doing it.

Watch for individuals who are working tooquickly or too well. Most protocols have anaverage run time—is anyone collecting dataat a suspiciously fast rate? If so, find out why.Some people just have the knack, but youmay want confirmation.

Learn about Research IntegrityThe Office of Research Integrity2 provideseasy-to-use guidance. On its website, you willfind published reports of completed investi-gations. In reviewing these cases, notice that

fabricators exist at all levels of science—datacollectors, graduate students, colleagues, andsupervisors. There is also a wide range ofsophistication in carrying out the fabrication.Each case report is a free lesson for you, whichcame at great personal and professionalexpense to the named individuals.

ORI staff use the website to explain inves-tigational techniques, some of which mayprovide early detection of problems in yourlab. For instance, there is a demonstration of statistical forensics using human biases in generating numbers as a telltale sign of

fabrication. It turns out it isn’t so easy tomake up convincing data. Also posted isguidance on making an allegation and onprotecting yourself against an allegation.

Read these suggestions now so you canensure that your first reaction to an allega-tion is the best one.

The website also links you to the emergingfield of research on understanding scientificmisconduct. There are reports on the percep-tions of exonerated individuals regardinghow they were treated during and after aninvestigation. You also can find applicationguidelines for grants in this area.

Another way to learn about misconduct at arm’s distance is to say “yes” when askedto consult on an investigation. Whether conducted by your institution or another orby the ORI, you will see what is consideredsuspicious and how suspicions are handled.You will help decide what is fair to the personunder suspicion, the individual making theallegation, and to science.

Promote Research IntegrityFinally, and most positively, promoteresearch integrity. Do so by teaching it inyour classes, through your mentoring, and inthe lab. Explicitly teach the standards of con-duct in research. Review cases of scientificfraud and the ramifications for theresearchers, the field, and the public trust. Besure that you explain what to do if miscon-duct is suspected at your institution.

Hold lab meetings to explain that somerules are not identical across labs or disci-plines (e.g., authorship, ownership of data,and conflicts of interest) and present the rulesthat your lab follows. These shifting areas allrequire discussion at the beginning of a col-laboration so new staff members know whatto expect for their degree of contribution.Some entering graduate students may neverhave had such a discussion, resulting inunwarranted expectations about authorshipor unlimited use of a data set. By making themeeting a discussion rather than a lectureabout your lab’s standards, you can learn


Fabricators exist at all levels ofscience—data collectors,graduate students, colleagues,and supervisors.

It turns out it isn’t so easy tomake up convincing data.

about conventions from other labs and canincorporate desirable changes immediately.Such shared expectations avoid mispercep-tions over breeches in authorship and data

access, which, although less serious than alle-gations of falsification, are much more preva-lent and generate plenty of hard feelings.

Documented scientific misconduct is rare,but a little goes a long way. With each findingof misconduct, researchers across science askif it could happen in their lab. They look foreasy tip-offs to wrongdoing, but by the timethere is reason to be suspicious, the damagemay be done. By the time someone has madean unauthorized copy of your data set, youare in the thick of it. The smart move is to incorporate preventive strategies into your everyday business practices so staff andcolleagues know what is expected of themand of you. !



Shared expectations avoidmisperceptions over breeches inauthorship and data access,which although less serious thanallegations of falsification, aremuch more prevalent andgenerate plenty of hard feelings.


Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy

Lawrence S.B. GoldsteinUniversity of California,

San Diego

B iomedical research and its applications are hav-ing an unprecedented impact on our world andsociety. The issues raised are thought-provoking

and controversial, not only among scientists, but evenmore so to the public who greet each new break-through with equal parts wonder, fear, hope, and mis-

understanding. How can our nonscientist friends andlawmakers sort through the scientific debates, informa-tion, and ideas without specialized training? Moreimportant, how can we help them to make wise andinformed decisions about how to proceed and where toinvest valuable resources?

A big part of the answer is us. As professional scien-tists, we have a special role to play in educating thepublic about what we and our colleagues do and itspotential impact and value. While many bemoan thestate of scientific understanding at large, we must hold

The issues raised are thought-provoking and controversial, not onlyamong scientists, but even more so tothe public who greet each newbreakthrough with equal parts wonder,fear, hope, and misunderstanding.

A big part of the answer is us. Asprofessional scientists, we have a specialrole to play in educating the publicabout what we and our colleagues do,and its potential impact and value.

ourselves partially responsible. Who else can,or will, explain what we do, why it has value,and what its possible uses and implicationsmay be?

There are three principles that define whyit makes sense for all practicing scientists todevote some personal effort to educating thepublic and our lawmakers about the sciencethat they conduct. These are the three R’s:Responsibility, Reputation, and Reward.

ResponsibilityWe each have a responsibility to the scientificcommunity to help the public understandwhat we do, and to help build and maintainsupport for scientific research and education.In addition, we have a responsibility to thenonscientific public to explain why what wedo has value if we expect them to pay for iteither with tax dollars or charitable dona-tions. Finally, we have a responsibility toexplain how the results of our research mightbe used, particularly when controversial dis-coveries are unleashed on a sometimesunsuspecting public.

ReputationEach of us, regardless of level of seniority, hasa special reputation as an active scientistbased on our experience and education.Thus, we all carry an earned respect and the

benefit of the doubt on many science issues.For example, many congressional officeshave never talked to a scientist and manystaffers and Members of Congress have nevermet one. I continue, however, to be surprised

and gratified by the welcome and respect wereceive when we meet with these nonscien-tists. In addition, each of us helps demon-strate that we are not mad scientists or Dr.Frankensteins, that we have children andfamilies, lives and pursuits not so dissimilarfrom our neighbors, and that we approachscience with restraint and ethical understand-ing. Finally, all of us have special expertise,not only about our precise focus area, but alsoabout much of biology in general, which wecan use to inform and educate.

RewardThere are many individual rewards toinvolvement in science policy and publiceducation. First, there is the satisfaction ofhaving a personal impact on our lawmakers’opinions and votes. Second, there is the real-ization that our special knowledge and view-point can make a difference in society. Forexample, if you write an op-ed, you will besurprised at your neighbors’ responses. Theywill appreciate it, you, and your profession.



Each of us, regardless of level ofseniority, has a special reputationas an active scientist based onour experience and education.

Each of us helps demonstratethat we are not mad scientistsor Dr. Frankensteins, that wehave children and families, livesand pursuits not so dissimilarfrom our neighbors, and that weapproach science with restraintand ethical understanding.

If you write an op-ed, you willbe surprised at your neighbors’responses.

Finally, there is the impact on our own sci-ence. Preparing oneself to discuss issues thatare current (e.g., genetically modified organ-isms and stem cells) can have a positiveimpact on one’s own research and teaching.It helps us to stay current with related areas,to think about concerns of the public at large,and to think more broadly about how ourbasic research can be used to help under-stand human disease. Such meetings withnonexperts also sharpens teaching andspeaking skills as one learns how to translatespecialized knowledge into generally acces-sible concepts.

There are also some persistent myths aboutadvocacy for biomedical research and sciencepublic policy. For example, sometimes, whenscience advocacy comes up in conversationwith friends and colleagues, the concern isexpressed that advocating for science has anegative impact on other priorities for taxdollars such as education or the environment.But, it is a mistake to assume that it is alwaysa zero-sum game. Also, remember that youhave specialized knowledge of scientific pro-grams, but not necessarily about other socialprograms. These other programs have theirown expert advocates. Advocating for sci-ence is not advocating against other pro-grams and it is not taken that way. Our repre-sentatives are getting input from othersources, and it is their job to try to weigh therelative merits to society of each.

There is also the perception that scientificadvocacy must take a lot of time. But it neednot. One or two letters per year advocatingfor a particular position on funding or policy,the periodic thank you letter for supportingsound science policy, or a yearly congression-al visit, especially in one’s home district,doesn’t take that much time. In addition,when compared to how much time it takes towrite a grant, doesn’t it make sense to spenda little bit of time helping to make sure thatfunds continue to be available? Finally, thereare 435 congressional districts and 100 sena-tors; each of us has one congressperson andtwo senators whom we can inform andengage as constituents. Thus, if we each do a little, our impact can be broad-based and extensive.

One also hears concerns on the order of:“I’m not senior (or famous) enough,” or, “I’monly a junior faculty member/a postdoc/astudent.” But, we all vote, we all have theright of free speech, and congressionaloffices are always happy to hear from con-stituents with special knowledge or experi-

ence. A young graduate student generallyhas more scientific expertise than most con-gressional staffers or Members. It is quitevaluable if they talk about what they knowin a letter or Congressional visit, why theyare excited about what they do, and why itmight be useful, even in the long-term. Asense of excitement about science can beinfectious—use it!


Preparing oneself to discussissues that are current (e.g.,genetically modified organismsand stem cells) can have apositive impact on one’s ownresearch and teaching.

Think of the congressperson as aPI, with a staff of eight to tenyoung, smart, well-educatedpeople comparable in age tograduate students and postdocs.

Most congressional offices are small, andthe staff have great influence. A comparisonto a typical medium-sized lab is not off themark. Think of the congressperson as a PI,with a staff of eight to ten young, smart, well-educated people comparable in age to gradu-ate students and postdocs. The congressper-son sets general policy and direction and vetsthe final language of bills and statements,but, the staff often write drafts, and haveinput into final language. When you write orappear, you are data! Your views, even iftransmitted first to staff, inform the generalpolicy that the office and member will set. Inaddition, staff can be incredibly valuable, areeasy to establish a long-term relationshipwith, and are often friendly, bright, knowl-edgeable people trying to do a good job inwildly chaotic circumstances. Ten or twentyletters on one subject from informed con-stituents are noticed—particularly if they arethoughtful, brief, and to the point.

What if your congressperson is not on oneof the “right” committees such asAppropriations? That could be true today,but think long-term. Committee assignmentschange as Members retire or are defeated, orthe majority control of committees shifts. Myown congressman was not originally on theAppropriations subcommittee that handles

the NIH, but he is now, and several years ofeducation by me and my colleagues about thevalue of biomedical research has paid off. Hehas gone from thinking that the NIH couldpossibly be privatized to thinking that it is avaluable government agency.

Finally, people sometimes say, “My con-gressman is too liberal/too conservative/already supportive.” In fact, Congressionalservice is a daily process of weighing costsand benefits of different programs and proposed laws. Issues and votes on cloning,stem cells, genetically modified organisms,and funding happen every year, and the fiscal tradeoffs and issues are shifting as well. Reminding your elected representativesthat they have many constituents who careabout biomedical research and science isalways helpful.

How to get the biggest bang for your time?There are many simple and non time-con-suming things you can do: join theCongressional Liaison Committee,1 take per-sonal action by writing a letter, writing an op-ed, making a phone call, or paying a visitwhen in Washington or at home during a Congressional recess. Don’t be afraid—the road out of the ivory tower is fascinatingand rewarding, and your efforts will help allof us. !




Great Expectations orRealistic Expectations?


Biomedical Research

R esearch scientists must help our elected represen-tatives help them. They must share anecdotesabout how basic NIH-supported research on cul-

tured mammalian cells and on model organisms suchas yeasts and worms have led to major insights intohuman health. They must continue to advocate forFederal support for important biomedical researchsuch as on human embryonic stem (ES) cells that willlead to advances in human health and new treatmentsfor human disease.

What is more difficult to explain to elected represen-tatives—and to the public at large—is the slow yetdetermined process by which science advances, andthe multitude of steps that must intervene before a newdrug or a new therapy can be released to the public. Itis all too easy to suggest that practical applications willcome immediately and to underrepresent the underly-ing basic science required.

Few nonscientists realize the slow pace of basic sci-ence and many are understandably impatient to havepractical applications. When interested laypeoplehave a direct interest for themselves or for loved onesin a “breakthrough,” the belief that a cure is imminentcan be particularly intense. Sometimes this optimism

When laypeople have a direct interestfor themselves or for loved ones in a“breakthrough,” the belief that a cure isimminent can be particularly intense.Sometimes this optimism can beexploited for political reasons—remember Nixon’s “War on Cancer?”

can be exploited for political reasons—remember Nixon’s “War on Cancer?” Nocures for cancer emerged during the “war.”But much basic science was initiated thatultimately led to the development of newtypes of drugs for specific cancers that wehave seen in the past years.

For example, in trying to justify the enor-mous expense of the International SpaceStation, NASA claimed that by growing pro-tein crystals under microgravity conditions,the quality of the resultant X-ray structureswould be vastly improved. This, in turn,would greatly enhance the pace of drug dis-covery. But the scientific community recog-nized that, “No serious contributions toknowledge of protein structure or to drugdiscovery or design have yet been made inspace. Thus, there is no justification for aNASA protein crystallization program.”1

Enormous sums of money were wasted on an“applied” project that had no meaning.NASA could have used the money to supportland-based basic science in areas such asplant development and detection of gravityby animals. Gene modified plants could pro-vide for human needs during space explo-ration. An understanding of the cellular anddevelopmental biology of the vestibular sys-tem, and of how humans perceive gravity,

could help astronauts during long flights.Sadly, these basic studies were deferred inpreference to short-term “applications” thatnever materialized.

History may repeat itself. We are told that,while Federal support for basic research byNIH and NSF will be cut in real terms, theDepartments of Defense and HomelandSecurity are expecting increases in fundingfor “research.”2 Will development of high-tech devices for detection of chemical or bio-logical warfare agents really make us safer asa nation? Would much of the HomelandSecurity research budget be better spent onbasic research on the cellular immunology ofhost-pathogen interactions and on identify-ing new targets for antibiotics that could leadto totally new forms of therapies?

Sadly, it is not only government bureau-crats who are to blame for promoting unrea-sonable expectations. Scientists and clini-cians (not to mention venture capitalists)share much of the responsibility for the pre-mature rush to clinical trials of gene thera-pies without understanding the underlyingbasic science. Retroviruses have long beenknown to integrate more-or-less randomly inthe cell’s DNA; powerful LTR enhancersoften activate transcription of nearby genes.As a supposed therapy for Severe CombinedImmune Deficiency (SCID), hematopoieticstem and progenitor cells were infected witha retroviral vector encoding the missing pro-tein. Was it really a surprise that two of thefirst patients developed a leukemia due to



Enormous sums of money werewasted on an “applied” projectthat had no meaning. NASAcould have used the money tosupport land-based basic sciencein areas such as plantdevelopment and detection ofgravity by animals.

Will development of high-techdevices for detection of chemicalor biological warfare agentsreally make us safer as a nation?

insertion—in a single cell—of the retrovirusnear a particular oncogene? Perhaps more tothe point, despite over a decade of hypeabout the potential for gene therapy for treat-ment of literally dozens of infectious andother diseases, not one has yet entered themarketplace.

This brings us to human embryonic stemcells. Indeed they have the potential to gen-erate any human cell type or tissue, andundoubtedly they will be the foundation ofnew effective treatment for a host of plagues,including diabetes, blood cell disorders andneurodegenerative diseases. But we mustkeep clear in our own mind—and make thepoint when we discuss this in public—thatthere are immense gaps in cell and develop-mental biology that need to be filled beforethese cells can be converted into therapies.Human ES cells are thought to be polypotentin large measure because they can form mul-tiple types of differentiated cells in culture orin a mouse transplant. But coaxing ES cells todifferentiate into a specific type of cells, andassuring that these cells are “normal,” areformidable tasks. Some progress has beenmade—particular combinations of growthfactors and surfaces can induce mouse EScell lines to become functional motor neu-rons. Ectopic expression of a certain tran-scription factor in mouse ES cells will induceformation of hematopoietic stem cells thatcan repopulate the blood system of an irradi-ated mouse.

ES cells can also generate cells that secreteinsulin, but coaxing them to make normalamounts of insulin and to secrete insulin nor-mally in response to changes in glucose levelshas yet to be achieved. Is the problem theabsence of the correct extracellular matrix pro-tein or hormone signal or appropriate cell-cellcontact? What is known of these multiple fac-tors in normal development of pancreatic islets?

The scientific community is largely opti-mistic that we indeed will be conducting tri-als of human ES-derived islet cells for dia-betes and hematopoietic stem cells for sever-al cancers in the foreseeable future. As withmany advances in human therapies, the keydiscoveries likely will come from areas of bio-logical research that at present seem unrelat-ed. Scientists have a responsibility to let thepublic know what a long-term propositionthis is; this can be delicate, especially whendealing with individuals and families whoare desperate and hopeful. !


We also have a responsibility to let the public know what along-term proposition this is.This can be delicate, especiallywhen dealing with individualsand families who are desperateand hopeful.

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHINGMe Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper

How to Read and Respond to a Journal Rejection Letter

The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act

What Happened to My Figures?!


Me Write Pretty One Day:How to Write a GoodScientific Paper

William A. WellsRockefeller University Press

The scientific literature is exploding in quantityeven as it stands still in literary quality. Followingare a few small steps that the individual can take

to make his or her writing clear, straightforward, anddigestible.

So….What Was Your Point?The first step with any manuscript is to define yourbottom line. Be realistic about how much the averagereader will take away from an article. Nonexperts willretain at most a single message. Make sure you haveone, then repeat it over and over again—at the end ofthe Abstract, in the Introduction, in the Results, and inthe Discussion. In contrast, everything but this singlesentence belongs in one section (Introduction, Results, orDiscussion) only.

To uncover your bottom line, ask some questions:What was the mystery that you wanted to answer atthe start? Have you answered it? What first got youexcited about this area of research? With any luck, itwas more than the idea that proteins X and Y mightbind to each other—there was probably a bigger ideathat motivated and intrigued you. Make sure you con-vey that reason and that excitement.

What is new? Break up the story into “It was previ-ously shown that…” and “Now it is shown that….”

Non-experts will retain at most asingle message. Make sure you haveone, and then repeat it over and overagain—at the end of the Abstract, inthe Introduction, in the Results, andin the Discussion.

Is there a significant difference between thetwo statements? Justify the interest of yourwork verbally to someone outside of yourfield. Your explanation should be compellingon a general, conceptual level, not groundedin minutiae with which your volunteer hasno familiarity or interest.

Does the reader need help understandingthe significance? If you think your discoverymight (in the future) prove to be the explana-tion for mystery X, don’t make the reader fig-ure out the identity of mystery X. State itexplicitly, make clear that the link is onlyspeculation, and explain any basis for mak-ing the speculation. Remember that yourreaders are busy in their own fields, and willnot necessarily make the jumps in logic thatare glaringly obvious to you. Make the jumpsfor them.

Show; don’t tell. Not “Our results are excit-ing…” but “Our results double the number ofknown penguin species….” If your readers

don’t think that is exciting, they won’t beconvinced by you stating that it is.

Finally, include different levels at whichyour results are significant (e.g., [a] we havefound a stem cell repressor, and [b] this maybe one of many repressors for maintaining agenerally dormant state in stem cells). This isparticularly important for papers that you aretrying to get into top-tier journals.

The Anatomy of a PaperNow that you have your bottom line, youneed a roadmap for writing the paper.Remember throughout that everyone, even ascientist, thinks in narrative. Science is astory. Tell it.

To draft a paper, simply work out what thefigures and tables would look like. Give eachfigure a simple, declarative title in the form ofa sentence. Most of the content of the papershould be evident from reading these fewsentences alone. When the sentences look asif they both tell a story and have a bottomline, it’s time to start writing.

A good paper is not a random accumula-tion of facts. Give your paper a narrativestructure that links from one finding toanother. This can be the logical order of whyone experiment was done in response to another, or you can describe from the

Show; don’t tell. Not “Ourresults are exciting…” but “Our results double the numberof known penguin species….” If your readers don’t think that isexciting, they won’t be convincedby you stating that it is.


CHAPTER 4 • WRITING AND PUBLISHING 45

If you think your discoverymight (in the future) prove to bethe explanation for mystery X,don’t make the reader figure outthe identity of mystery X.

To draft a paper, simply workout what the figures and tableswould look like.

Everyone, even a scientist,thinks in narrative. Science is a story. Tell it.

beginning to the end of a pathway. Build up this structure by writing notes, in anyorder, then rearranging them so that thereare logical links.

Start by drafting a title that is strong, direct,and as big-picture as the data can justify. Butdon’t claim more than you have shown.

An abstract can and must pack in manyelements: background, a question, what wasdone, what was found, the conclusion/answer, and implications. Make it clearwhere the background ends and the newwork begins.

Arrange Results either chronologically (asthey unfolded in the lab) or put the mostimportant result first and secondary resultslater. The latter organization works bestwhen organizing each paragraph.

Describe the data with only enough inter-pretation so that the reader can see what log-ical path the writer is taking—how oneexperiment prompts the next—and under-stand what spin the writer is trying to put onthe data so that the reader can agree or dis-agree with this spin.

Start the Discussion with a brief one-para-graph summary of the main results: first statethe answer to the question, then conciselyadd a broad-brush version of the supportingevidence. Organize subsequent topics frommost to least important (i.e., start with topicsmost closely related to the answer). The firstsentence of each paragraph should indicatethe structure of the discussion.

Do NOT just repeat the Results (orIntroduction) section, but discuss how theresults affect the field. Reveal any large areasthat remain a complete mystery.

The Introduction sets up the backgroundfor what we are about to learn (the bottomline) and why it matters. Funnel from known(the big picture significance of the field) tounknown (the specific gaps in knowledge) tothe specific question being asked by you. The

introduction is not a literature review but ameans to set up the question.

How to Write ClearlyNow that the text is down in rough form,tackle style issues. Think about each elementused to construct the paper. Sentences shouldhave an active construction, address onethought at a time, and generally be kept shortand to the point. Treat each paragraph as athought, with a single, clear message.

More general style issues include signposts,flow, editing, and specificity. Signposts tell thereader where you’re going with the argumentthat follows. Many authors mistakenly feel thatthey have to build the entire case before tellingus the conclusion. They list all their evidencebefore stating: “Thus, X = Y.” But this leavesreaders scratching their heads for sentenceupon sentence. Put a preview first.

Flow comes about when the writer makesconnections between the end of each sen-tence, paragraph or section and the next.Make all transitions so there are no gaps inlogic. Don’t presume that the reader will doany work. Do the work for them.

The main route to clarity is to cut, cut, cut.Chop out everything from single words to


Don’t presume that the readerwill do any work. Do the workfor them.

Many authors mistakenly feelthat they have to build theentire case before telling us the conclusion.

entire thoughts. “In spite of the fact that…”becomes “Although….” Only after choppingout text will the average reader make itthrough your words without drowning.

Specificity means using only words with pre-cise meanings. Replace lazy phrases such as

“gives important insight into…” with words thatactually mean something. Use the specific (dognot animal) but simple (girl not female child;used not utilized) and necessary (“X was exam-ined and found to vary” becomes “X varied”).

Stuffy writing is frequently used to dis-guise intellectual fuzziness. Think aboutwhat you really want to say. Be exact.

There is one Golden Rule when dealingwith journals: be polite to editors, no matterhow you are provoked. Editors are trying todo a good job, and screaming at them will notadvance your cause, and could well damageit. Be forceful, but civil. And good luck! !



The main route to clarity is to cut, cut, cut. Chop outeverything from single words to entire thoughts.


How to Read and Respondto a Journal Rejection Letter

Vivian SiegelPublic Library of Science

Zena WerbUniversity of California,

San Francisco

A fter putting your best work and thoughts andefforts into a manuscript and sending it off forpublication, the day of decision arrives. As you

open the letter a wave of anger sweeps through yourbody. Your paper has been rejected! Or has it?

WAIT 24 HOURS. It is almost impossible to read arejection letter or critical reviews objectively while stillsmarting from the rejection. It is important to be (rela-tively) calm when trying to understand the nature ofthe rejection.

The DecisionFirst read the letter carefully. Was the rejection editorial(without review) or was your manuscript rejected afterreview by several experts? Here are some translations:

The paper is not acceptable in its present form: Thisessentially means that the manuscript is likely to beaccepted, subject to satisfactory revisions. Most jour-nals have the pro forma policy to reject manuscripts thatrequire more than cosmetic corrections or shortening.The journal may be interested in your study, but willnot commit itself until the editors and reviewers see theadded data or corrections. This type of rejection letterwill usually say that should you choose to resubmit,the manuscript would need to be received within a rea-sonable period of time (usually 2–3 months) to be con-sidered as a revision.

The paper did not get a high enough priority: Only afew journals have the policy of publishing all manu-scripts that are scientifically sound. Most scientific

Only a few journals have the policy ofpublishing all manuscripts that arescientifically sound.

journals publish a predetermined and limitednumber of pages annually. As a result, theyset priorities, based on the perceived interestsof their readership. If the rejection was edito-rial, then the manuscript was viewed as notbeing a likely candidate for acceptance evenif reviewed favorably. With electronic sub-mission, the editorial rejection can occurwithin a few hours, and thus allows you toturn it around quickly for another journal.

The study is interesting but too prelimi-nary: Here the editor indicates that the man-uscript is interesting, but is not a completestory. This is an opening for a revised manu-script. The main question is whether youactually have the data. Were you saving thedata for another manuscript, perhaps withother authors, or is this the first step in a longseries of studies? Will the complete story takefive more years of work?

The study is interesting but is technicallyflawed: Here the editor indicates that thereviewers have serious reservations aboutsome of the data. What is perceived as a seri-ous problem may require showing data thatyou omitted or a simple experiment. If youcan address these issues, the paper may bereconsidered.

The work is more appropriate for a spe-cialized journal: This statement says that themanuscript seems specialized for the journalin question. This also means that a revision isunlikely to be considered.

The reviewers’ comments will help youprepare the manuscript for another journal:This statement implicitly indicates that the journal will not consider a revised manuscript.

The CritiqueThe reason for writing papers is to communi-cate your science. The most important thingto communicate is the excitement and the sig-nificance of the work in a broad context.Next, the question being addressed must beconsidered to be interesting and matched tothe journal. The reviewers’ comments indi-cate whether they were able to understandthe logic and believe the conclusions of thestudy and whether they find those conclu-sions interesting and significant. Most studieshave some imperfections. The question is thenature and severity of those flaws.

The study is descriptive: This is the deathknell of reviews. All research by its naturedescribes observations. When this is used ascriticism, the reviewers are indicating that thestudy reads as a collection of data that do notcome together into a clear, hypothesis-drivenstudy.

The study is incremental: All sciencebuilds on the work of others. But how far doyou need to go to be publishable? If the studyrepeats experiments in a slightly different celltype with essentially the same outcome, itmay not be of great interest. Did you researchthe literature thoroughly to find out if yourstudy is an original contribution?



What is perceived as a seriousproblem may require showingdata that you omitted, or asimple experiment. If you canaddress these issues, the papermay be reconsidered.

Most studies have someimperfections. The question isthe nature and severity of thoseflaws.

The manuscript lacks important controls:With limitations on manuscript length, con-trol experiments are often left out. If these arecritical they should have been part of themanuscript. If it is important to show thesecontrols, they may be supplied as supple-mental data for the reviewers and later pub-lished online.

The data are not convincing: You have not provided enough compelling data toconvince the reviewer of your conclusions.Did you use several ways to come to theconclusion? Did you do the experiment suf-ficient times to get statistical validity? Is thequality of the data (gels, photographs, andscatter in the data points) good enough to beconvincing?

Are the criticisms fair? Poor writing, poororganization of the manuscript, inadequateknowledge of the literature, poor quality orpoorly labeled figures and tables, repetition,spelling and grammar errors, inconclusiveresults, and lack of controls are also reasonsthat the reviewers may not find your study

compelling. If the reviewers misread yourmanuscript or missed a point, chances arethat your writing style confused them. Ifyour conclusions go against conventional

wisdom, then you need to explain and convince the reviewers why your view is thevalid one.

The ResponseNow consider whether to fight the rejection orto move on. Do the Title, Abstract, andIntroduction communicate the points that you

think are the most significant about yourwork? Can you respond to all the reasonablecriticisms? Some of the responses will result inadditions, deletions, or changes in the manu-script. Other responses are only directed to theeditor or reviewers. Merely arguing about thecriticisms does little good. If you disagree withthe reviewer, the burden is on you to convincethe reviewer, not to dismiss him or her. If thereviewer misinterpreted your study, the wayyou wrote about it is the likely culprit.

Contacting the Editor. Journals will recon-sider rejected manuscripts if you can makecompelling arguments. If, after reading the let-ter and evaluating the reviews, you feel thatyou can respond in a way that may make themanuscript acceptable, it is a good idea to con-tact the editor in writing, asking if the journalwill reconsider the paper on the grounds thatyou can respond to the critique, and send withit your rewritten Abstract and a brief list of thechanges that you intend to make.

The Next TimeDid You Target the Right Journal for the Study? Often authors choose journalsbased on their citation index rather than amore rational analysis of suitability. Whereare comparable studies in your field pub-


If the reviewers misread yourmanuscript or missed a point,chances are that your writingstyle confused them.

If your conclusions go againstconventional wisdom, then youneed to explain and convincewhy your view is the valid one.

If you disagree with the reviewer,the burden is on you to convincethem, not to dismiss them.

lished? Is the study of broad interest ormore specialized? Be realistic in targetingspecific journals.

Did the Manuscript Conform to the Styleof the Journal to which it Had BeenSubmitted? Nothing annoys reviewers morethan a sloppy manuscript. If you cannot bebothered to make sure you write the manu-script according to the journal style guide, or

if you are submitting a manuscript previous-ly rejected by another journal and did notmake the effort to change the style to that ofthe current journal, you are sending a nega-tive message to the reviewers.

Did the Title and Abstract Communicatethe Major Findings Accurately? Once apaper has been rejected, it is time to critical-ly evaluate whether you really communicat-ed your enthusiasm for your own study.Your letter of response will often outline themajor points of your study better than youroriginal summary. Rewrite the Abstract withthis in mind.

Did You Accurately Point Out What WasNovel in Your Study that Makes it aSignificant Advance over Previous Work?Often in their desire to be comprehensive,authors make it sound as if previous studieshave already shown what their study nowshows. It takes care in writing to make clearwhat is new about your study.

Did You Accurately Point Out Controlsand Shortcomings of the Observations? Justas you do not want to understate your study,you do not want to hype it either, especiallyat the cost of ignoring controls and alterna-tive explanations for the data. The datashould never lie. Interpretations may change.

Did You Submit the Work Prematurely?Rushing into publication means that thestudy may not be complete or the manuscriptmay not have had the time to pass the “shelftest.” If you can let the manuscript sit for aweek or so, a fresh view may reveal flawsthat should be changed.

Did You Submit a “Least PublishableUnit?” The pressure for productivity (for grant renewal, promotions, etc.) meansthat you need to publish with reasonablefrequency. Cutting studies into multiplemanuscripts can be risky. Reviewers stillexpect each manuscript to be a completestudy. Short papers are not necessarily minimal studies.

Did You Accurately Cite PreviousLiterature? Those who do not know the pastare doomed to repeat it. You need to cite liter-ature fairly. Exclusive self-citation carrieswith it the danger that uncited competitorsmay review your manuscript.

Did You Have Colleagues or a ScientificEditor Read and Critique the Manuscript?You should send your best effort to journals.The review process should not be an alterna-tive to careful writing and editing of yourmanuscript.

Exclusive self-citation carrieswith it the danger that uncitedcompetitors may review yourmanuscript.



Nothing annoys reviewers morethan a sloppy manuscript.

The data should never lie.Interpretations may change.

Did You Get a Presubmission Decision?Journals that can publish only some of thescientifically valid manuscripts that theyreceive will usually give you an indication ifa manuscript is of interest if you send a letteroutlining the point of your study and theabstract. Since you can do this while yourpaper is still in preparation, you can find outif the paper is likely to be viewed as low pri-ority without losing time.

Did You Suggest Appropriate Reviewers?A recurring complaint of the review processis that the reviewers do not have the expert-

ise to judge the work. One way to help over-come this problem is to suggest two to fivescientists who would be appropriate review-ers. Chances are that the editors will use atleast one of your suggestions.

Did You Assess the Value and Impact ofYour Research Correctly? Did you target thepaper to the correct level of journal in yourfield? If you overvalue your work, it willalways be rejected. If you undervalue yourwork, you may be publishing in less visiblejournals than you deserve. In between, some-times you will prevail, but not always. !


Randy SchekmanUniversity of California,

Berkeley

The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act

A cademic and professional journal editors arehonest and hard-working people who havebusy days and much more important things to

do than to hatch plots to suppress the careers of eager,young authors. Why is it, then, that a colleague who onthe one hand is a collaborator or friend becomes an

opponent to be vanquished when he/she conveys badtidings of critical referee reports on a manuscript forpublication? In fact, in spite of near universal grouchi-ness, particularly about the most selective journals, thesystem works quite well to promote the publication ofthe fruits of our labor.

Perhaps a few words of advice to budding authors,referees, and editorial board members will help smoothsome of the wrinkles that add unnecessarily to the bur-den of publication.

Editorial Advice to the AuthorEven a perfect article, one that reports an originalobservation clearly and concisely, suffers if an editor isunable to understand the significance of the work. Aneditor will almost always rely on the title and abstractof a manuscript to make a preliminary decision aboutthe appropriateness of the work for the journal in ques-tion and to choose referees. The title and abstract mustconvey the experimental approach, key results, andnovel conclusions of the work. Excessively long and


Journal editors are honest and hard-working people who have busy daysand much more important things to dothan to hatch plots to suppress thecareers of eager, young authors.

comprehensive titles and abstracts make theeditor’s job more difficult.

Help guide the editor to the most appro-priate members of the editorial board and ref-erees. Do not assume that an editor is famil-iar with all research areas covered in his/herjournal. A short list of expert Board membersand referees is an essential part of a good

introductory letter. Potential conflicts ofinterest should be mentioned, but a long listof referees to be excluded (or even all expertsfrom a particular country!) alerts the editor topotential problems with a submission.

Advice to a Monitoring EditorNot-for-profit journals usually employ busyacademics to serve as monitoring editorswhose charge is to establish whether a manu-script is appropriate for the journal, to selectexpert referees, and to render a final editorialdecision on the fate of the work. Some papersare rejected without review when the moni-toring editor decides that the work is not

within the scope of a journal or if it seemsunlikely that a manuscript will pass musterwith critical referees. Many journals, includ-ing Molecular Biology of the Cell, have the pol-icy of not publishing work that describes agene or protein in no greater depth than pre-viously published work on an ortholog fromanother organism. Similarly, many journalswill not publish the modification of an exist-ing technique if the application does notreach a novel conclusion. Obviously, for themost competitive journals, the criteriabecome quite subjective. Prospective authorsshould consult an editor in advance of sub-mitting a manuscript to such a journal toestablish if the work has a chance of success.It is the monitoring editor’s responsibility tospare the author and potential reviewerswasted time and effort in considering a man-uscript that is inappropriate for the journal.

Referees also have day jobs, and it is themonitoring editor’s role to identify appropri-ate and responsible reviewers. Most col-leagues are honest and fair and can be count-ed on for a timely return of a constructive cri-tique. Editors will often cultivate groups ofsuch cooperative reviewers who are appropri-ate for the areas for which the editor is respon-sible. Unfortunately, some colleagues cannotbe counted on for fair and impartial judg-ments. Typical antisocial behaviors include

excessive delays in returning critiques, vagueand judgmental decisions, impossible andexcessively detailed demands, and even theoccasional breach of confidentiality where the


A short list of expert boardmembers and referees is anessential part of a goodintroductory letter.

An editor will almost alwaysrely on the title and abstract of a manuscript to make apreliminary decision about theappropriateness of the work forthe journal in question and tochoose referees.

Some of the most competitivejournals have the unfortunatehabit of consulting far too manyreferees.

referee transmits privileged information to acolleague or student. Referees who displaysuch behavior must be avoided.

Some of the most competitive journalshave the unfortunate habit of consulting toomany referees. Whereas two opinions shouldsuffice, three or more are sought by editorswho seem unwilling to exercise independentjudgment in weighing the merits of twodivergent opinions. This has the effect of increasing the burden on responsiblereviewers who are deluged with requests,and it increases the prospect that an antisocialreferee will be consulted.

When the critiques are in, the monitoringeditor must weigh the opinions and make adetermination of the prospects for publishingan amended version of the work. Some deci-sions are clearly positive or negative, butmost rely on the editor’s judgment. Manyreviewers prioritize their criticisms. The edi-tor must determine if the most serious flawsin a manuscript can be rectified by experi-ments that are well within the scope of theauthor’s laboratory. Although some decisionsrest on one or more flaws identified by bothreviewers, usually this is not the case, andone reviewer may identify a serious issue notconsidered by the other. For this reason, aconscientious editor will read and weigh themerits of each opinion, and then decidewhich will form the basis of a final decision.Some difficult decisions are best left to theday after the critiques are first considered. Agood rule of thumb is that both refereesshould be consulted when the revisions takemore than three months to complete.

The decision letter is an opportunity forthe monitoring editor to place reviewers’criticisms in the context of a field or thescope of the journal. Conscientious editorswill interpret and not merely repeat the bottom line of a referee. Key criticismsshould be highlighted and an honestappraisal of the prospects for favorable con-sideration of an amended manuscript shouldbe spelled out. Authors are not well servedby false encouragement. If a manuscript is inprinciple publishable, but not in the journalunder consideration, the editor should sug-gest an alternative venue.

In a minority of cases, the author choosesto contest the decision of a monitoring editor.These cases can usually be handled by apolite response from the monitoring editoror, in the event of an irreconcilable difference,through the intervention of a senior editor.Experienced authors avoid invective in pos-ing questions to the editor. In some cases theeditor may choose to forward commentsdirectly to the reviewer; thus, it is wise toavoid questioning the integrity or intelli-

gence of someone whose judgment you wishto challenge. Some authors’ first reaction is tophone the editor to secure some promise ofcompromise. However, a written record ofcommunications between an author and aneditor is an essential element of any success-ful negotiation.

Authors and editors are often friends andcolleagues. A healthy relationship ensures thevigor of our peer review system. !

It is wise to avoid questioningthe integrity or intelligence ofsomeone whose judgment youwish to challenge.



Conscientious editors willinterpret and not merely repeatthe bottom line of a referee.


What Happened to My Figures?!

Liana HolmbergPublic Library of Science

After all the work you put into your research andgetting your article published, it’s a shock tocrack open that journal and find the printed fig-

ures bear little resemblance to the images you thoughtyou submitted. Here are some suggestions to help min-imize such unpleasant surprises.

A Few Tips to Take the Headache Out of Graphics PrepDo Your Homework. Before you start preparing yourfigures, read the graphics specifications published by thejournals you’re most likely to submit to. Specs vary fromjournal to journal, and they are often available onlineand can be quite instructive. Some important things tolook for are resolution requirements for each type ofgraphic, preferred file formats, and page dimensions.

Learn to Use Your Software. Even if it means readingthe dreaded manual. Whether it’s Illustrator, Corel-Draw, or something else, most of the best graphics pro-grams perform similar tasks at comparable quality: theimportant thing is to learn to use what you have well.Any program worth the price will have instructions forconverting your graphics to the file formats required bypublishers. Learning to use professional graphics-prepsoftware can be time consuming, but if you use anotherkind of program because you’re more familiar with it,you’ll be disappointed. Programs like Microsoft Wordautomatically downsample your images and embed

Most of the best graphics programsperform similar tasks at comparablequality: the important thing is to learnto use what you have well.

them in the document as screen-resolutiongraphics (usually 72 dots per inch [dpi]). Thatmeans the images are now at a resolution toolow for professional off-set printing. Manypeople run into similar trouble when theymake figures in PowerPoint. PowerPoint hasa “Compress Pictures” wizard that downsam-ples the embedded figures to a lower resolu-tion (96-200 dpi) in order to decrease the filesize. If you use this feature, make a low-rescopy for presentations and keep another ver-sion for publishing that has the figuresembedded at their highest resolution.

Keep Your Originals. Some file formats,like JPEGs, are “lossy,” which means thatevery time you re-save a JPEG, you lose reso-lution. Always keep an unadulterated, high

resolution original version of each element ofyour figures; when you want to manipulatethe image, make a copy first.

Size for Print. More than likely, your fig-ures will be reduced to fit the column width ofthe journal, so it’s a good idea to create figuresas near to that size as possible. Be sure yourfonts are neither too big nor too small and thevisual information is readable at that size—and don’t forget to embed the fonts. Also, con-sider how your figures will look as a group,and size the elements relative to one another.For example, make sure stains have the samedimensions from one figure to the next.

Plan Ahead. Beware that convertinggraphics from one format to another cancause color changes, among other problems.It’s best to choose the correct software for thetype of image you want and create it in thatsoftware from the start.

Image TypesThe three most common image types arehalftones, line art, and combination figures.Each type is processed differently during print-ing and therefore has different specifications.

Halftones. The best example of a halftoneis a photograph, but halftones include anyimage that uses continuous shading or blend-ing of colors or grays, such as gels, stains,microarrays, brain scans, and molecularstructures. Most publishers require thathalftone images have a resolution of 300 dpi.Some software will measure ppi (pixels perinch) rather than dpi, but for all intents andpurposes ppi and dpi are interchangeable. Toprepare and manipulate halftone images, usePhotoshop or a comparable photo-editingprogram, and save the files in TIFF format.

Line Art. The distinguishing feature of lineart is that it has sharp, clean lines and geo-metrical shapes, usually against a white back-ground, such as tables, charts, graphs, andgene sequences. Line art can be color or black



Learning to use professionalgraphics-prep software can betime consuming, but if you useanother kind of program becauseyou’re more familiar with it,you’ll be disappointed.

Programs like Microsoft Wordautomatically downsample your images and embed them in the document as screen-resolution graphics (usually 72 dots per inch [dpi]). Thatmeans the images are now at a resolution too low forprofessional off-set printing.

and white; color fills are solid, without grada-tion or fades. To prepare and manipulate lineart graphics, use Illustrator or a comparablevector drawing program, and save the files inEPS format. Line art resolution should bevery high—around 1200 dpi—in order tomaintain the crisp edges of the lines andshapes. Note that text placed in an image isfor all practical purposes line art, whichbrings us to…

Combination Figures. These are the mostcommon type of scientific figure becausemost images combine halftones with text.While the former only needs to be at 300 dpiresolution, the latter needs 1200 dpi—other-wise text ends up looking soft, and lines canbe faint and/or pixilated. Most publisherssplit the difference and require a resolutionbetween 600 and 900 dpi. Depending on whattype of image dominates the figure, you’llwant to prepare it in the program that besthandles that type—Photoshop for halftones,Illustrator for line art—and save it in the cor-responding file format.

ColorThe two biggest problems encountered whenconverting graphics from one file format toanother are loss of resolution and changes incolor output. The first can be ameliorated byusing the steps described above; the seconddeserves further discussion. Color reproduc-

tion is a fuzzy science, and what you see inyour office is not necessarily what you get inprint, since colors vary widely from one mon-itor to the next, from one printer to another.One thing you can do to preserve the colorsof your original file is to put the imagethrough as few conversion steps as possible.Once again, that means planning ahead andknowing before you make the image whatkind of output you want in the end.

CMYK Versus RGB. If the journal youintend to publish in is a print journal, thenchoose a CMYK color space for your graph-ics; if it’s an online journal, choose RGB; if it’sboth, find out from the journal which formatis preferred. Switching back and forthbetween CMYK and RGB will cause the col-ors to change, sometimes dramatically.Similarly, changing from one file format toanother can cause color changes. For exam-ple, opening an EPS of a microarray inPhotoshop can result in a loss of severaldegrees of green—and thus some of yourvisual data. You can reduce the risk of colorloss by sending high-quality images in a fileformat that is as close as possible to theirnative format, carefully reviewing yourproofs for accurate color, and saving youroriginal, unadulterated images in case youneed to remake the figure from scratch orsend the originals to the publisher for them toremake or use to match color.

Perhaps Most Important: Ask Questions.Scientific publishing is a service industry, andonce your paper is accepted by a journal, theproduction staff should be available to helpyou with the technical details of preparingfigures that meet the journal’s specifications.You need to prepare the figures, but the pub-lisher has a responsibility to ensure theirprint quality, so don’t be shy about asking fortechnical assistance. !


The two biggest problemsencountered when convertinggraphics from one file format to another are loss of resolutionand changes in color output.

5. POSTDOC ISSUESTo Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc

Making the Most of Your Postdoctoral Experience

Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean


To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc?

Sigrid ReinschNational Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Why go abroad for training when there are so many opportunities here in theUnited States? Perhaps you would like to

finally capitalize on your wild success with high schoolFrench and can’t seem to nip the urge for wanderlust.Maybe you gravitate naturally to Europeans in a crowd.

Whatever the reasons, you can buck the trend of theEuropean “brain-drain”. European scientists are frus-trated by the tendency for European postdocs to headto the United States—often permanently. Europeangovernments and scientists believe this adverselyaffects the quality of European science. The European

Union has several organizations whose mission is toincrease pan-European mobility so that scientists willchoose other European countries for training alterna-tives rather than the United States. Does this brain-drain mean that European postdoc training is “worse”than in the United States? The Eurodocs I queriedbelieved their European training was as good as that oftheir U.S.-trained counterparts, and claimed innumer-able benefits from their overall experience.

Planning Your Eurodoc It’s relatively easy to plan a European postdoc. E-mailmakes communication with potential sponsors rapid

European labs are happy to host Americanpostdocs, especially those with a goodpedigree. Having a native English speakerin the lab can also boost the overallproductivity of the lab simply by having aready editor for manuscripts. Be preparedto serve as such.

and inexpensive, and the Internet facilitatesan in-depth investigation into the lab, theinstitute, the successes of former lab mem-bers, and the local amenities. European labsare happy to host American postdocs, espe-cially those with a good pedigree. Having anative English speaker in the lab can alsoboost the overall productivity of the lab sim-ply by having a ready editor for manuscripts.Be prepared to serve as such.

Choosing a SponsorThe same tactics apply when choosing a men-tor in Europe as when choosing one in theUnited States.1 Successful Eurodocs consis-tently indicate that they seek internationallyknown labs. They choose sponsors with ademonstrated ability to recruit and train for-eign postdocs. Consider how many foreignpostdocs are currently in the lab. Assess thepotential sponsor’s track record for helpingthem to become independent. Find out howthe lab is funded. Is there technical supportfor postdocs? How about teaching opportu-nities? Contact former postdocs for recom-mendations. If your ultimate goal is to headyour own lab, you will need to know howyour sponsor deals with postdocs when theyleave; is it easy to take reagents and projects?

If you are considering several potentialEuropean sponsors, you probably want moredirect exposure to facilitate your decision. AEuropean tour may be especially important ifyou are including a spouse and/or childrenin your adventure. This might seem prohibi-tively expensive, but outside funding is

sometimes available. One way to do this is toprepare a seminar that highlights your grad-uate work. Diplomatically inquire whetherthe institute would provide partial reim-bursement if you give a formal seminar dur-ing your visit to the institute. A sponsor mayconsider funding a part of the trip and pro-viding accommodations. You can fund theentire trip with several sponsors.

Not All Institutes Are Created EqualChoose an institute with a large internationalpresence. Some examples are the EuropeanMolecular Biology Labs (EMBL) inHeidelberg, universities like Cambridge orBasel, or national institutes (Pasteur, MaxPlanck) that regularly train foreign scientistsfrom Europe and other countries. Such insti-tutes may greatly ease and streamline helpwith immigration, visas, housing, bankingand language courses. Some operate withEnglish as the official scientific language: this is a must for those individuals that carryforeign language null alleles.

FundingIt is easy to find sponsors that have fundingfor a postdoc position, but it is always prefer-able to have your own funding in hand. If youare going to a top lab and have a decent proj-ect with the backing of your sponsor, yourchances of obtaining an internationally

If you are going to a top lab andhave a decent project with thebacking of your sponsor, yourchances of obtaining aninternationally portablefellowship are very good.


CHAPTER 5 • POSTDOC ISSUES 61

A European tour may beespecially important if you areincluding a spouse and childrenin your adventure.

portable fellowship are very good.2 In additionto fellowships, find out whether the institutionprovides additional funds for foreign nation-als. Such funding may include “topping-upfunds” so that all postdocs at the institute arefunded at the same level. Additional fundsmay also be available to help support spousesand/or children. Apply for as many fellow-ships as possible to increase your chances andoptions. Some provide much higher levels offunding or longer tenures than others.

Bringing Along the FamilyA European adventure can be enriched bybringing your family. Find contacts at your institute for questions on childcare,schools, work options for your spouse, andsupport. Make sure you understand localschool and daycare schedules and holidaytimes before you go, as these factors mayaffect your decision.

Children learn foreign languages andassimilate into foreign society quickly. Theycan open doors to social interactions withinyour host country. If they attend publicschools, this will force you to learn enough oflocal language to help with homework, hostbirthday parties, attend parent/teacher con-ferences and doctor visits.

Protection of personal time pervades thesociety here: spending time with your kids and not at work is accepted, encour-aged, and made easy in many ways bothconcrete and intangible.3

Make Connections One of the greatest lifelong benefits of aEurodoc is international connections. Usethis experience to develop world contactsfor future jobs, sabbatical experiences andespecially for collaborations. You neverknow where you will end up, so it is veryuseful to make as many contacts as possible.You will establish many friendships as well.Your global understanding will ultimatelymake you a better mentor when you startyour own lab. Your international colleagueswill more readily recommend you as mentorto their own protégés that seek a UnitedStates position. Attend and present atEuropean meetings as often as possible.Investigate other European institutes andpresent your work. Be vocal and visiblewithin your own institute so that scientistsget to know you and your strengths. In theend you will find yourself more self-reliant,independent, and better connected withworld leaders than your North American-trained colleagues.

Keep the Home Embers Burning Just as important as developing internation-al connections is not to let your colleagues inthe United States forget you. Attend theASCB Annual Meeting. As you near the timeof your return, also go to smaller meetingsin the United States. Write regularly to yourNorth American scientific colleagues to keepthem abreast of your training successes orfor advice.


Protection of personal timepervades the society here: spendingtime with your kids and not atwork is accepted, encouraged, andmade easy in many ways bothconcrete and intangible.

Use this experience to developworld contacts for future jobs,sabbatical experiences andespecially for collaborations.

Enjoy the ViewTake some time to get involved in local activi-ties so that you can mingle with yourEuropean community. Most of all, enjoy yourEuropean life. Sports, dance, singing groups,and community or neighborhood events pro-vide easy access to your European hosts.While you might initially feel overwhelmedby differences in simple things like food choic-es or shop schedules, adaptation doesn’t takelong; you may ultimately celebrate the differ-ences and miss them dearly once you leave. Itcan be refreshing to see the value Europeansput on their free time and on nature. The atti-tude that you can only work effectively if youalso take time out for other activities seemsmuch more healthy than the U.S. attitude ofwork, work, work (regardless of how mind-less it becomes). Europeans also tend to gravi-tate toward nonsynthetic foods and some levelof self-propulsion (walking/biking) instead ofthe American penchants for fast food anddriving everywhere.4

The Transition HomeAn easy transition back to the United States isa second postdoc. This allows a less stressfulreturn to the United States and a moreleisurely search for an independent position.But if you are ready for independence and area competitive candidate with an impressiveCV and publications record, you will succeedin the U.S. job market. If not, then applying toendless ads in Science and Nature is definitely

not the route. Creating contacts is the mostimportant step either in small meetings or bygoing on your own “job tour.” Contact a fewof the world experts in your field, ask to visittheir labs and give a seminar, and mentionthat if there are positions available, youwould be interested in applying.5

Or Settling in Europe?The European experience can be especiallyattractive to women scientists with children.There is an idea in the United States that theEuropean lifestyle does not support a womanworking. Rather the opposite may be the case.For example, because you don’t have the com-muting lifestyle in Europe, life is simpler. Onecan take their child by bike to school. TheEuropean lifestyle is by nature very support-ive.6 People may be offered independence andpromotion to tenure earlier in the U.K. thanthey would have been in the United States.7

And Finally…Faculty who served as Eurodocs often tell stu-dents that if they have the slightest inkling todo a postdoc abroad, they should. They canfind a superb mentor and it would likely be abroadening experience. The postdoc years areoften the ideal time in someone’s life and careerto spend a significant amount of time abroad.8

While a European postdoc is sure toexpand your mind and your horizons, oneotherwise fabulously successful Eurodoccame away disappointed on one front: “I thought I would get to hang out with cool Italians, but they wanted nothing to dowith me....” !



While you might initially feeloverwhelmed by differences insimple things like food choicesor shop schedules, adaptationdoesn’t take long.

The postdoc years are often theideal time in someone’s life andcareer to spend a significantamount of time abroad.


Making the Most of YourPostdoctoral Experience

Thea D. TlstyUniversity of California,

San Francisco

Ahhh, when I was a postdoc…” sighs many asenior scientist, dreaming of what theyremember as a simpler time. While many have

forgotten the pressures and uncertainties, it is true thatthe time following graduate school can be one of the best times of a scientific career. Ideally, graduatestudents have learned some of the basic skills ofresearch and are entering a period of refining thoseskills and preparing for entry into a career path. Whilethere are many different career paths that trained sci-entists can enter today, a common set of skills lies atthe heart of preparing for most of them. In general, aworking knowledge and mastery of scientific processand practices are crucial to careers as diverse as jour-nal editor, teacher, grants administrator, principalinvestigator/professor, career scientist, scientificreporter, and public policy administrator.

The postdoctoral fellowship is an apprenticeshipand should be tailored to the specific needs of a partic-ular career. While it is not necessary to know the exactcareer destination, since many of the skills are applica-ble to a broad range of opportunities, it is helpful tohave a career goal identified so that the postdoctoralexperience will be successful and productive.

It is also helpful to identify the areas where addition-al experience is needed and to arrange for the fellow-ship to address those areas. This requires an accurateassessment of goals accomplished during graduate

The postdoctoral fellowship is an apprenticeship and should betailored to the specific needs of aparticular career.

study and what additional goals are neces-sary for the chosen career path. In the best ofall worlds, graduate students learn the suc-cessful practices of asking a scientific ques-tion, designing and executing a set of experi-ments to obtain the answer, reporting resultsto the scientific community, and identifyingfuture areas of pursuit. However, if anyaspect of this experience is lacking, the post-doctoral fellowship is where this is remediedand refined.

Choosing the proper postdoctoral environ-ment is important for a successful postdoc-toral experience. Individuals who work bestwith a minimal amount of guidance or whoprefer a small lab group should find situa-tions that meet those needs. Those whosefuture plans include teaching should find asetting where that experience can beobtained. In most cases, it is beneficial tochange fields and institutions for postgradu-ate education for exposure to differentapproaches to science and new groups ofpeople and ideas. Often, advancements inscience are made when two previouslyuncoupled areas come together. Adding newapproaches and perspectives to the graduate

experience optimizes a new scientist’s abili-ties to contribute to new areas of research.

A postdoctoral fellow should extend thescientific way of thinking and problem solv-ing learned in graduate school to a new prob-lem and level of involvement. In choosingexperimental projects, it is often beneficial tochoose two projects, each of which providedifferent educational experiences. One projectmay be a continuation of ongoing work in thenew laboratory, while the second projectextends the work in directions that provide anopportunity for novel creative approaches.

In the first type of project, a new scientistquickly learns the basic techniques in thelaboratory and has an opportunity to devel-op teamwork skills. This “bread and butter”type of project should be designed to gener-ate useful data no matter what the outcomeof technically solid, individual experiments.As this work comes to fruition, it providesthe opportunity to work with the senior scientists of the group in all aspects of publishing a manuscript, such as choosingthe appropriate journal, preparing the draftand final version of the manuscript, com-municating with journal editors, respond-ing to reviewers’ critiques, and proofread-ing final galleys.

In addition to providing experience in sci-entific writing, this “bread and butter” projectalso provides opportunities for oral or posterpresentations at department, local or nationalmeetings. Lessons in seminar preparation andpresentation that were not absorbed as agraduate student can be addressed as a postgraduate researcher. Participation in a unit ofwork that contributes to a larger ongoingstudy in the laboratory also positions the newscientist to aid in the preparation of grantapplications that include this work. Lessonsin grantsmanship as a fellow are invaluablefor those individuals who plan to developtheir own laboratories.



In the best of all worlds,graduate students learn thesuccessful practices of asking ascientific question, designingand executing a set ofexperiments to obtain theanswer, reporting results to the scientific community,and identifying future areas of pursuit.

The second type of project should bedesigned to develop the skills of determiningwhich scientific questions are important,timely and approachable. Not all questionscan be addressed with present techniques orcontemporary insights. How does one deter-mine when to pursue a line of investigationand when to terminate experiments if theyare not producing interpretable data?Developing a “nose” for important questionsand novel approaches is a more risky line ofexperimentation because these scoutingefforts can terminate in a dead end. However,scientists who wish to lead an area of investi-gation rather than simply follow approachesthat others have opened must hone theseskills for the future. This skill is also essentialfor scientists in careers other than bench sci-ence. For example, journal editors and scien-tific reporters need to be able to recognizeblossoming areas of inquiry, just as the appli-cant for scientific funding needs to identifynew areas of research. This type of projectoften requires a more extended period of timebefore it is productive and, therefore, is notoptimal for exercising the basic skillsobtained in the “bread and butter” project.For those individuals interested in pursuing acareer as an independent investigator, tack-

ling this type of project often identifies futureareas of expertise and research.

Preparation for the future does not endwith addressing the technical aspects of sci-ence. As with most careers, the social aspectsof a profession are also of great importance.Science is increasingly a team endeavor,requiring the input of many colleagues toaccomplish a goal. The postdoctoral fellow-ship period is a time when many aspects ofscientific interactions can be practiced. Ifgraduate work did not offer the opportunityto work with others in the laboratory or teachtechniques to others, the fellowship is anexcellent time to extend those experiences. Inaddition to the interactions within the labora-tory group, networking with other laboratorygroups within and among institutions isimportant. Discussions and interactions withother groups lay the basis for future letters ofrecommendation, opportunities, friendshipsand potential mentors.

Obtaining a graduate degree opens thedoor to many professions, some of whichmay not even exist at the present time.Acquiring a basic set of skills as an investiga-tor will position a new scientist for thesecareer opportunities and provide a solid plat-form to launch an exciting future. !


Demonstrate productivity and creativity.

Refine your scientific way of thinkingand problem-solving.

Learn skills in writing papers andshepherding them to publication.

Learn oral presentation skills.

Extend technical skills.

Learn grantsmanship.

Learn teaching and supervisory skills.

Learn how to work effectively withothers within the group.

Learn how to collaborate with peers.

Learn how to network.

Stay balanced and have fun.

ELEVEN GOALS FOR A SUCCESSFUL POSTDOCTORAL EXPERIENCE

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Liqun LuoStanford University

Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean

S cientists born and educated in Asia have con-tributed significantly to life sciences research inthe United States. Read any leading journal and

one will find first authors—and increasingly seniorauthors—whose names are hard to pronounce fornative English speakers. Applications to graduateschool, postdoctoral and faculty positions are increas-

ingly coming from Asian-born scientists. A significantproportion of this surge is contributed by scientistsborn in the People’s Republic of China, which openedthe door to scientific as well as student exchange about20 years ago. Given that one in five people living onthis planet is born in China and assuming a roughlyproportional distribution of talent and interest in bio-logical research, it is not surprising that the suddenavailability of this talent pool should contribute to theabove phenomenon.

By many measures, scientists born and educated inAsia, usually through college, have been successful as agroup in the development of their scientific careers in theUnited States (or going back to Asia after they are trainedin the United States). However, behind these successesare many difficulties that Asian-born scientists have toovercome in pursuing science across the Pacific Ocean.In this essay I will focus on the special challenges facingscientists from China, although many of these challengesalso apply to those from other Asian countries.


Read any leading journal and onewill find first authors—andincreasingly senior authors—whosenames are hard to pronounce fornative English speakers.

First, Chinese students need to find anappropriate graduate school to accept themfor advanced education. Most top graduateschools need to interview their applicantsbefore offering a place. This can be difficultto arrange for applicants from China. Inaddition, many schools have limited slotsfor international students because of NIHtraining grant restrictions. Having benefitedfrom talented Asian students, some U.S. uni-versities have started to send professors toAsia to interview candidates there, which isa good idea.

After they get admitted, Chinese studentsmust overcome visa problems. This hasbecome much more problematic since 9/11.Often multiple interviews are required atAmerican embassies or consulates, and eventhen, visa requests are frequently declined. Forthose that are successful in gaining permissionto study in U.S. graduate schools, Asian stu-dents have to face many challenges includinglanguage, communication and socialization

skills, and learning through critical evaluationof existing knowledge, probably in increasingorder of difficulty. The last is especially prob-lematic for many Chinese students, becausethe culture of the educational system in Chinais quite different from the United States: whatthe textbooks say is regarded as absolute truth;respecting authority (professors) is an impor-tant virtue. Asian students are not used togroup discussions and critiquing textbooks,lectures, published papers, or what professorshave to say. In addition, a general lack of labo-ratory training in the undergraduate curricu-lum in China makes students’ laboratory rota-tions disorienting.

The help they receive from their Americanclassmates and professors is invaluable. Forstudents who are newly exposed to the envi-ronment and culture, an off-hand, carelessremark could be devastating at such a fragilestage. On the other hand, a kind gesture orword from a fellow student or professor canencourage a student immeasurably and maywell change the destiny of his or her life.

The many students who are successful asgraduate students move on to postdoctoralfellowships, and many of them then to facul-ty or other senior positions. Often the limit-ing factors are presentation skills and theability to engage in interesting and effectivescientific exchanges with their colleagues,both of which are important determinants inevaluations for these higher positions. Thesedeficiencies stem from the original differ-


Often multiple interviews are required at Americanembassies or consulates, andeven then visa requests arefrequently declined.

The culture of the educationalsystem in China is quitedifferent from the United States:what the textbooks say isregarded as absolute truth;respecting authority (professors)is an important virtue.

A kind gesture or word from a fellow student or professor can encourage a studentimmeasurably and may wellchange the destiny of their life.

ences in language, culture, social and com-munication skills, and become all the moreprominent as one’s career advances. Some getthrough this bottleneck by truly exceptionalresearch accomplishments, others by con-sciously training themselves throughoutgraduate school and postdoc years. It cannotbe overemphasized how important commu-nication skills are, both oral and written. Thisof course is true for all scientists, but forChinese scientists it takes extraordinary effortto train in these skills. From the perspectiveof faculty search committees, an open-mind-edness to including colleagues raised in dif-ferent cultures could increase diversity andexploit the talent pool from all over theworld, both essential to keeping U.S. scientif-ic research at the forefront.

After securing a faculty position, the end-less tasks a professor has to deal with—teaching, grant writing, recruiting graduatestudents and postdocs, then not only trainingthem in science but also sometimes beingtheir psychological counselor—are amplifiedby whatever deficiencies have not been over-come since moving across the Pacific. Animportant new challenge at this stage is thatsocial interactions with peers and leaders inthe field become more important for namerecognition (an area in which Chinese peoplein the United States are at an inherent disad-vantage), successful grant and award appli-cations, and promotion. There is more objec-tivity in science than in some other profes-sions, yet one cannot deny the advantage

gained by being proactive about promotingone’s own research and being in the rightsocial circle. These advantages are often lessaccessible to Chinese-born scientists, againbecause of their socialization skills, culturalbarriers and their upbringing (modesty is agreat virtue; pride is a vice).

Despite these challenges, many Asian-born scientists nevertheless achieve highlydesired success, contributing to landmarkscientific discoveries. Time will tell if theywill also play leadership roles in their insti-tutions and professional societies. Asian-born scientists at different levels also face thechallenge of how they can contribute to sci-entific research and education in the countrywhere they themselves grew up and wereeducated. Some choose to go back altogetherto lead research laboratories and institutionsthere. Others spend considerable time super-vising research groups in their home coun-tries. Yet others actively participate in advis-ing their home government on strategicplanning, resource allocation and researchmanagement, including development ofpeer-review systems. Finally, some choose tofocus on the young: they return to teach notonly cutting edge research but also criticalthinking and the social and communication



Social interactions with peersand leaders in the field becomemore important for namerecognition (an area in whichChinese people in the UnitedStates are at an inherentdisadvantage), successfulgrant and award applications,and promotion.

The limiting factors arepresentation skills and theability to engage in interestingand effective scientificexchanges with … colleagues.

skills that are key success factors in U.S. sci-ence. All these efforts take considerable time,but the hope is that such efforts will make iteasier for the next generation of Asian-bornand educated scientists to pursue researchcareers, whether in the United States or intheir home countries. !


6. CAREER TRANSITIONThe Art of the Interview

Salary Negotiation

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities in Business and Management

Late Career Opportunities and Challenges


The Art of the Interview

Elizabeth MarincolaThe American Society

for Cell Biology

S cientists interviewing for jobs have a naturalinclination to focus on the “scientific informationexchange.” As important as this is, general inter-

view protocol and behavior are also critical. The fol-lowing offers general advice about some subtle butimportant aspects of winning an interview, making theinterview successful, and maximizing the chance that asuccessful interview becomes a job offer.

The Initial ContactThink of the initial contact as an opportunity for thereviewer to exclude your candidacy. Act on the assump-tion that the employer receives many, many more indi-cations of interest than the number of people the com-pany or organization has the resources to pursue. For

this reason, a small misstep at this stage can lead to adead end. This does not mean that your prospectiveemployer expects you to be perfect—it just means thatthere’s much more room for individual differences and

There’s much more room for individualdifferences and imperfections in thecontext of considering a whole personthan in the context of a description of a human on paper in whom theemployer has no vested interest.

Think of the initial contact as anopportunity for the reviewer toexclude your candidacy.

imperfections in the context of considering awhole person than in the context of a descrip-tion of a human on paper in whom theemployer has no vested interest.

Write to the contact person listed on theannouncement. If you know someone otherthan the contact person at the company, youmay send a copy of your correspondence tothe person you know with a personal notesaying that you’re applying for a position at their company and that their supportwould be appreciated. One way to informthe official contact that you’ve also sent yourCV to someone else is to add a P.S. to yourcover letter that says, “I have taken the liber-ty of sending a copy of this correspondenceto Jane Doe, who was my colleague at theUniversity of Alabama.” Do not blind-side apotential employer by unnecessarily sup-pressing relevant information.

Take time to write a letter that clearly refer-ences the particular job for which you areapplying. Generic letters that indicate thatthe candidate is looking, for example, for aposition “that utilizes my skills in research”scream, “form letter!” and are not worthsending. Touch upon your most impressivecredentials, but do not repeat your CV in thetext of the cover letter. The letter should typi-cally be three paragraphs: the first states sim-ply that you are applying for the position; thesecond states briefly the nature of your inter-

est and most relevant and impressive qualifi-cations, and the third asks for considerationand can indicate for example how you arebest reached. The cover letter should fit easi-ly, using 12-point type, on one page, andshould leave ample white space at top, bot-tom and at the margins. In a cover letter, lessis more.

Proofread the cover letter three times, thenask a trusted friend, colleague, or relative toproofread it. Grammatical or typographicalerrors in the cover letter, like a cover letterthat is unnecessarily long, are often groundsfor exclusion.

If you’re sending a paper letter, sign yourname in ink (do not use an electronic signa-ture). Enclose your CV. Do not include a listof references unless requested.

Arranging an InterviewIt is more preferable for the employer to con-tact you for an interview than for you to fol-low your letter with an additional request foran interview. However, if you hear nothingfor two weeks after you send the initial letteror email, you may follow up with a phonecall or email inquiring, cordially, if you canschedule an interview. Do not be defensive,accusatory, or impatient.

A good analogy is datingbehavior. People generally liketo be pursued, but not tooaggressively. Don’t devalueyourself or appear desperate.


CHAPTER 6 • CAREER TRANSITION 73

Generic letters that indicate thatthe candidate is looking, forexample, for a position “thatutilizes my skills in research”scream, “form letter!” and arenot worth sending.

In a cover letter, less is more.

A good analogy is dating behavior. Peoplegenerally like to be pursued, but not tooaggressively. Don’t devalue yourself orappear desperate.

It is typical for an interview to be sched-uled by an administrative or clerical person.Be respectful, accommodating and profes-sional with anyone who contacts you. Bear inmind that sometimes interviews must berescheduled or there can be other inconven-iences or annoyances in the logisticalarrangements. All it takes is for a trusted sup-port person to comment to the principal,“Boy, he sounds like such a jerk!” for yourcandidacy to end, even for an otherwisestrong candidate.

The InterviewThe most important possible thing youcan do is your homework. Go to the orga-nization’s website and spend some timethere. You should be aware of the generalparameters of the organization: its prod-ucts and services, its corporate goals, thesize of its staff, and its revenues. If it’s a

start-up, learn how it is financed: throughventure capital? Is it publicly traded? Ifit’s a nonprofit, where does it get its rev-enues? Publications? Membership dues?All this information is available on theorganization’s site.

Be on time for the interview, which meansyou should allow enough travel time to beearly (this does not follow dating protocol!).Prepare questions in your mind but don’tread them. Many questions may be answeredin the course of the conversation: don’t repeatthem. When you ask a question, listen to theanswer, and ask follow-up questions todemonstrate that you are engaged in the con-versation, not just reeling off a list of pre-pared questions. Don’t take exhaustive notes

at an interview because it can inhibit theinterviewer and make you appear distrustful.The interview should feel like a conversation,not an interrogation—the candidate has tocontribute to making the interviewer relaxed,not just the other way around. It is essentialto ask intelligent questions about the organi-zation, but don’t wear out your welcome: besensitive to the other person’s answersbecoming briefer and glances at their watch.If you find yourself asking about CasualFriday policy, you have prolonged the inter-view too long. The interviewer should likeyou more at the end of an interview than atthe beginning.


All it takes is for a trustedsupport person to comment tothe principal, “Boy, he soundslike such a jerk!” for yourcandidacy to end, even for anotherwise strong candidate.

The interview should feel like a conversation, not aninterrogation—the candidatehas to contribute to making theinterviewer relaxed, not just theother way around.

The most important possiblething you can do is yourhomework.

Everyone has “a life.” You should neitheroffer up the details of it nor apologize for it ifit comes out in the interview. For example,you may not wish to mention your spouse orchildren in an initial interview, because theinterview is about you, not about your fami-ly. But if the question of children emerges(employers will often try to steer a conversa-tion in that direction rather than asking directquestions, which can be illegal), you can com-ment matter-of-factly. For example, if theinterviewer says, “I have two sons but Ialways wanted a daughter,” you couldrespond, “Yes, I can testify that daughters arewonderful, since I have one and I am one!”

After the InterviewWithin two days after the interview, write aletter or email to thank the interviewer. If youare seriously interested in the position, saythat you are and what you learned in theinterview about the job that appeals to you. Ifthere were pending issues from the interview,address them in the follow-up letter. This is agood time to send references, even if youwere not asked for them. Make sure that ref-erences have consented to speaking toprospective employers on your behalf andthat their contact information is current. Thecontact information you provide should beapproved by the references—for example, donot give a home phone number unless a ref-erence asks you to.

Even if you are not offered the positionyou wanted, having been through the inter-view is in your interest, because you will bemore prepared for the next one. !



The interviewer should like youmore at the end of an interviewthan at the beginning.


Salary Negotiation

Julie TheriotStanford University

Medical Center

Many young scientists entering the job marketfor the first time are unprepared to negotiatetheir salary. Graduate and postdoctoral

stipends are usually fixed by the department or institu-tion, so the first independent job offer may also be thefirst occasion for scientists to question their own finan-cial worth. Many people in this position feel so flat-tered to have gotten a job offer that they decline tonegotiate their salary at all.

Starting Salary is ImportantUsually yearly raises are based on existing salary.The first opportunity to negotiate a substantialraise may not be until a major promotion, three toseven years in the future. When an applicant is con-sidering whether she can live with a particularstarting salary offer, she should account for thelong-term financial impact of only modest increas-es over several years.

This issue is not mitigated when changing jobs. Mostcompanies will base an offer on an applicant’s existingsalary. Furthermore, aggregate salary information isfrequently used to compare competing institutions andto expose discriminatory practices. In a sense, it is theduty as well as the right of a new employee to negoti-ate an appropriate starting salary.

An applicant must consider a salary offer in the con-text of the whole job offer package, including the chal-lenge of the work and the work environment.

In negotiations as well as interviews,knowledge is strength. The well-preparedapplicant will have gathered informationin advance of the negotiation.

Negotiate from a Position of StrengthThe recruit starts with a strong hand, becauseshe was selected from among many appli-cants. It is in the best interest of the employerto meet the applicant’s reasonable requests tosucceed in recruitment. However, other appli-cants may have been attractive; the employermay withdraw the unaccepted offer if theapplicant’s requests are unreasonable.

In negotiations as well as interviews,knowledge is strength. The well-preparedapplicant will have gathered information inadvance of the negotiation.

Know What You NeedBefore beginning negotiations, the applicantmust consider what she needs, as opposed towhat she wants. A starting salary must sus-tain a reasonable lifestyle for several years.For applicants used to accumulating debtthrough years of low-salaried training, it isuseful to calculate realistic financial needs,including student loan repayments, housing,utilities, transportation, child care, food,entertainment, vacations, insurance, andtaxes. Also it may be advisable to save forretirement and future family expenditures.Regular expenses will vary substantiallydepending on the location of the job; thearrival of children will cause significant,long-term increases in living expenses.Although employers generally do not consid-er an applicant’s individual financial needs,the applicant should be aware if her obliga-tions prevent her from considering a low-paying but otherwise rewarding job.

Consider Salary AlternativesPeople have different needs and priorities,which may include buying a house, qualityday care, future wealth, or travel.

Recruits should consider potential bene-fits in lieu of higher salary. Universities locat-ed in high-cost areas frequently can assistnew faculty in buying homes through low-interest loans or co-investment.Pharmaceutical and biotechnology compa-nies are less likely to offer real estate loansbut more likely to offer signing or relocationbonuses that may be applied to a down-pay-ment. Some employers may offer on-site orsubsidized child care, and most offer familymedical insurance. Some companies may bewilling to sweeten a salary offer with stockoptions. Others may offer extra vacation orsabbatical time. The relative value of thesebenefits is individual, depending on anapplicant’s priorities and goals, and shouldbe weighed along with the salary.Frequently, an employer will have more lati-tude to add benefits than increase salary.

A stock option is the right to purchase ashare of company stock at a fixed price atsome future time. Stock offers should beresearched seriously, including restrictions onexercising options and tax consequences. Ifthe company’s stock is worth more than the

Recruits should considerpotential benefits in lieu of higher salary.



A starting salary must sustaina reasonable lifestyle forseveral years.

Frequently, an employer willhave more latitude to addbenefits than increase salary.

cost of the option at the time of purchase, thisamounts to cash. But most stock options vestover periods of time ranging from months toyears. If the stock value falls below the optionprice, or if the company fails, the options arevalueless. If the employee leaves the compa-ny, she loses the unvested options. The valueof stock options for companies that are pri-vately held (i.e., not traded in stockexchanges) is particularly hard to measure.

Consider Stability and TermsMost academic job offers require that somepart of the applicant’s salary be paid by exter-nal grants. This portion can range from 100% at“soft money” institutions to 25% or less at uni-versities that expect the applicant to cover only“summer salary,” to 0% at the NIH. At manyinstitutions, this fraction may be reduced in thefirst years to help a new P.I. get started.

An offer of $60k as a nine-month basesalary represents a larger commitment on thepart of the institution than an offer of $90kthat is entirely soft money. To weigh the rela-tive merits of these offers, the applicant mustconsider the likelihood of attracting sufficientgrant money to cover the higher salary, espe-cially in a grant climate where roughly 25% ofnew NIH grants are funded. Since most NIHgrants are now modular, any grant moneythat is earmarked for the P.I.’s salary willdecrease the amount of grant money avail-able for graduate and postdoctoral stipends,supplies, and equipment.

Similarly, in industry long-term stabilitymust be weighed against short-term gain.Small start-up biotechnology companies mayoffer attractive salary and stock options, but ifthe company fails, stock options become val-ueless. Pharmaceutical companies will typical-ly offer lower salaries and fewer stock options,but are less likely to lay off scientists or fail.

Be InformedPublicly available data can provide usefulbenchmarks for negotiation. All public universities and many private universitiespublish average faculty salaries. Search theInternet or campus newspapers. The univer-sity’s human resources department can helpdirect the applicant to this information.

Nationwide salary surveys are available.Consult them.1

Know the RulesThe well-prepared applicant has a good senseof what she wants and what she is likely toget. Actual salary negotiation depends on thepolicies and limitations of the specificemployer. The best source of information is a


An offer of $60K as a nine-month base salary represents alarger commitment on the partof the institution than an offer of$90K that is entirely soft money.

Any grant money that isearmarked for the P.I.’s salarywill decrease the amount of grantmoney available for graduate andpostdoctoral stipends, suppliesand equipment.

Publicly available data canprovide useful benchmarks for negotiation.

sympathetic colleague at the institution.Some places, especially public universities,have essentially non-negotiable salary scalesbased on rank. An applicant need not wastetime negotiating salary there and shouldfocus instead on negotiable variables or ahigher starting rank. Some public universitiesand many private ones have an X or scalecomponent of salary, distinguished from theY or off-scale component. The Y component isusually negotiable.

Know the person empowered to negotiateon behalf of the institution. This could be thedean, the department chair, or someone else.The applicant should seek to negotiate direct-ly with the person making the offer, but it isuseful to know whether that person has thesole authority to negotiate salary. Similarly incompanies, salary ranges may be set by direc-tors or vice presidents, but group leadersmay have some freedom to negotiate.

The applicant should also learn the rules ofadvancement. At some companies scientistsmay expect to be promoted frequently, withsalary increase with each promotion. Othersbase salary increases solely on productivity.Some employers may offer a better title forlower salary, but the applicant should bewareof a low-paid Assistant Director position at acompany that has 50 Ph.D. employees ofwhom 30 are Assistant Directors.

Don’t Be RushedThe first offer is an opening bid. The salaryoffer may be made in a one-on-one conversa-tion, ending with, “What do you think aboutthat amount?” Unless the offer is generous

beyond the applicant’s wildest imaginings, itis best not to respond immediately. It isappropriate for the applicant to expressappreciation, and say, “I need a little time toconsider the offer [and/or] think about it inlight of my other offers [and/or] discuss itwith my partner.” Even if an applicant even-tually accepts the offer, clear and calm-head-ed consideration is preferable to a rush judg-ment in a flush of flattery.

Use Competing OffersAn applicant’s bargaining power is enhancedby a tangible competing offer. It is appropri-ate to let the prospective employer knowabout the competition to give the prospectiveemployer the chance to sweeten their offer. Itis easier for an institution to justify a highersalary to match a competing offer than tomake the case on merit alone.

Some high-salary offers from industry donot influence negotiations with academicdepartments because the jobs are not compa-rable. Likewise, a top-rated academic depart-ment may not respond to a more lucrativeoffer from a less prestigious institution. Anapplicant should provide competing offerinformation to her first-choice employerrather than to make an explicit demand thatthe offer be matched.

An applicant should never exaggerate orlie about the existence or value of competingoffers. The scientific community is like agossipy small town where everyone knowseveryone else’s business, and this willinevitably come to light eventually. Someemployers will not respond to a competingoffer unless they see it written. Furthermore,it is counterproductive to cultivate offersmerely to up the ante for the first-choiceoffer, a practice which is almost alwaystransparent: the first-choice employer feelsmanipulated and the second-choice employ-er feels used. Long-term professional good-



The best source of information is a sympathetic colleague at the institution.

will and personal integrity should not besacrificed for what may be a modest short-term gain.

Value the Goodwill of YourColleagues-to-beIn the long run, honesty about needs, goals,and priorities is the best policy for salarynegotiations. The salary negotiator is often adepartment chair or project leader who islimited by institutional policy. This individ-ual is strongly invested in recruiting the top

applicant and can intercede on behalf of thecandidate only if she knows the applicant’sactual needs and priorities. If an applicantwould like to accept a job offer but cannotbecause her partner has been unable to find ajob, the employer may be able to help. If theapplicant is enthusiastic about the job butshell-shocked by property values, theemployer may be able to swing assistance.However, an applicant should only makespecial requests if she intends to accept theoffer if they are met.

Accepting an OfferWhen you have considered all the issues andnegotiated a good starting salary at a placewhere you are eager to begin work, acceptthe offer and don’t look back. The negotiationprocess is idiosyncratic and never completelyfair. It is likely that you will learn that a col-league at your level is making more moneythan you. As long as you entered the negotia-tion well-prepared and feel good about theprocess and the outcome, you did well. !


An applicant should neverexaggerate or lie about theexistence or value of competingoffers. The scientific communityis like a gossipy small townwhere everyone knows everyoneelse’s business.

Kathleen GwynnKirsch Foundation

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities inBusiness and Management

T he logical answer to “What are you going to dowhen you finish your doctorate?” is research and,possibly, teaching. But you may wonder—as you

look for the right postdoc position or later in yourcareer—“what else is out there?”

The good news is that there are options, althoughfew paths are as clear as that of research in academia orindustry. Despite the hardships and pitfalls you canencounter in securing a full-time research position, youknow the drill through your mentors and advisors whoknow how to work the system and help you with rec-ommendations and connections.

If you are contemplating a career in business or man-agement, connections may not be as readily available.Ask yourself: How do I know whether it’s a good fit forme? How do I get the training or education I need? CanI make it without formal training?

Management and Business“Business” and “management” are often used inter-changeably. “Management” is the art and science ofjudiciously using resources to accomplish an end; itoften assumes that you are leading a team or group ofpeople to accomplish a goal. “Business” refers to a com-mercial enterprise that expects to be profitable. You canbe in business without being a manager. You can be amanager without working at a commercial enterprise.

What does it take to be successful?


Your scientific education andtraining has demanded analyticalskills, project planning and strongintellectual aptitude. These are easilytransferable to the business world.

One hears about “soft” and “hard” skillswhen it comes to management and business,respectively. The “hard” skills needed for busi-ness include data analysis, project planning,budgeting, accounting, and the use of othertools that are best acquired in an academic set-ting. Your scientific education and training hasdemanded analytical skills, project planningand strong intellectual aptitude. These are eas-ily transferable to the business world.

“Soft” skills, which are important for man-agement, include the ability to communicateeffectively, to inspire or lead a team of people,to listen, and to work effectively with othersto accomplish a common goal. “Soft” skillsare primarily personal traits that can behoned, but not taught.

If you enjoy working with others and havethese “soft” skills, and want to move beyondthe research lab, then management, whetherin business, academia, philanthropy, or thenon-profit world, may be a great choice foryou. If making a profit for yourself or yourcompany sounds exciting, then businesscould be a good match.

From Here to ThereSeveral options for pursuing management asa career exist. They range from taking theplunge into a full-time MBA program to tak-

ing an occasional seminar, to making the leapwithout the benefit of formal training.

A full-time MBA program works best ifyou want to switch from research to business.You will learn the required tools, develop anetwork (similar to that in the researchworld), and gain access to on-campusrecruiters and a career placement center. Asummer position between the two years ofschool enables you to add a business job toyour resume (in this world it’s not called a“CV”!), furthering your ability to secure apermanent position. As a critical side benefit,most MBA programs also help you to honeyour “soft” skills.

Unlike graduate school in science, profes-sional schools, including business school,require a significant, front-end financialinvestment. Unless you are independentlywealthy, you will have to assume significantdebt, as scholarships are rare at graduate busi-ness schools. Starting salaries for MBAs, how-ever, often are double or triple the salary of anacademic, so this should be taken into account.

If you are curious about the business world,but not willing to make the sacrifice requiredof a full-time MBA program, consider part-time programs that meet in the eveningsand/or over the weekend. This option is effec-tive if you want to minimize the financial bur-den or are unsure that you want to leaveresearch. You will miss the interaction amongclassmates and the intensity of a full-time pro-gram, but you will have access to career place-


Unlike graduate school inscience, professional schools,including business school,require a significant, front-endfinancial investment.

“Soft” skills, which areimportant for management,include the ability tocommunicate effectively, toinspire or lead a team of people,to listen, and to work effectivelywith others to accomplish acommon goal.

ment services and, most importantly, you willlearn the necessary business skills. Of course,you will also continue to earn an income andadvance in your current position.

Even if you want to remain in the researchworld, taking occasional management cours-es, or enrolling in seminars offered by organ-izations such as the American ManagementAssociation1 may be smart. Successfulresearchers in academia, industry or othersettings must manage a lab with significantgrants and staff. You could also be asked toserve as a Chair, on the Board of a biotechstart-up, or as an officer of your scientificsociety. In these circumstances, good businessand management skills will serve you andyour institution well.

The Direct RoutePharmaceutical companies and health- andmedicine-related businesses and foundationsseek individuals who have academic creden-tials in the life sciences. These venues canoffer the opportunity to go directly from yourdoctoral program or the bench to a positionin a corporation or foundation.

If you wish to move up the managementranks in the corporate world without the

benefit of an MBA, you are likely to start outin research. From there, you can explore pro-fessional development through in-housetraining or the Human ResourcesDepartment. As project manager positionsbecome available, your research skills, com-bined with on-site management training,should lead to promotions.

Foundations that are committed to medicalresearch often seek program officers whounderstand basic science. Program officersmust track and interpret research activities soas to identify and fund the most promisingopportunities. Foundations expect you to bean expert and to have numerous connectionsthroughout your field. This ensures that youstay current with developments and helpcraft new grant initiatives. Foundations areless likely to provide in-house training, butmay support your effort to pursue a part-time MBA program or seminars to shore upyour scientific knowledge with business andmanagement acumen.

The culture of business and managementmay seem foreign to many basic scientists,but the skills, intelligence and intensityrequired have much in common with the cul-ture of science. !




Late Career Opportunities and Challenges

J. Richard McIntoshUniversity of Colorado

C onversation with any group of cell biologists55–65 years old will elicit a range of opinionsabout their ideas for the years ahead. Some are

committed to ever more research and/or teaching,essentially a continuation of mid-career activities.Others are looking forward with enthusiasm to theprospect of doing something different, perhaps doingnothing at all, while many fall in between.1

There is no general solution to optimizing late careeroptions, because the pertinent issues are so complexand personal that each individual must think thingsthrough for him/herself. There are, however, a numberof processes that seem generally important for the per-sonal decisions that must be made.

Some people think of retirement as an event that willoccur at a specific date, a Rubicon to be crossed that alltoo much resembles the River Styx. One can, however,approach one’s late career with more personal control,organizing a gradual change. Many employers willpermit and even encourage a phased retirement inwhich duties diminish over some years, either throughpart time work or a negotiated agreement.2 If one isenjoying most of professional life but finding that thepace has become too demanding, a gradual retirementprobably makes sense. This course may also be advan-tageous for one’s department, allowing several olderscientists to wind down and release their positions,while the department initiates hirings that will bring innew blood.

Some people think of retirement as anevent that will occur at a specific date,a Rubicon to be crossed that all toomuch resembles the River Styx.

Some older scientists are still full of energybut bored with the problems they have stud-ied for a significant time. Unfortunately, mostfunding agencies are conservative about newendeavors, so a change of field is not easy atany career stage (new grants are harder to getthan renewals for everyone). Late careerdoes, however, offer opportunities for changethat are less obvious. Seniority can allow youto reduce the stresses of running a lab, pro-viding a welcome splash of freedom. If, forexample, you enjoy lab work but not thestruggle for resources, you can probably finda congenial younger colleague who wouldwelcome you into the lab as an associate towork on scientific problems of common inter-est. This would give chances both to train stu-dents in techniques and thought processesthat you know well and to pursue your ownresearch. Similarly, many institutions havebudgets for lab instruction that can help topay the expenses of independent study stu-dents (undergraduates, summer visitors,even medical students); these young peoplecould come to your own lab and help withresearch questions of your choosing. Thepoint is that there are ways to continueresearch, albeit at a slower pace, without thepressure of competing for major researchgrants. Such changes can readily be initiated,given the independence that accompaniesout-growing the need for further profession-al advancement.

Some older scientists find that a new per-spective on teaching can provide a change ofpace and an exciting challenge, as well as sig-

nificant personal reward. Recent research oninteractive learning suggests ways to engagestudents, even in large lecture courses, help-ing them learn more effectively.3 Moderninformation technology can provide instruc-tors with immediate feedback on the successor failure of their exposition, allowing lecturemodification on the fly and a significantincrease in the efficacy of information trans-fer.4 Computers can serve as teachingmachines or as surrogates for hands-on labo-ratory work. While such ideas are not neces-sarily new, one can find rewarding and effec-tive ways to use a professional lifetime ofteaching and learning experience to enrich thepedagogic process. As a senior scientist, onehas the opportunity to revisit teaching withcreativity rather than regarding it as a chore.

Helping younger people understand thecraft of science can also be a highly reward-ing. Time spent mentoring younger col-leagues one-on-one, or in a workshop setting,can make a significant contribution. One canalso teach as far afield as pre-college, evenelementary school. Big cities have benefitedtremendously from the work of senior scien-tists who have worked with teachers to effectcurriculum change or subject innovation.5

Such efforts can be a big commitment, buteven occasional volunteer work as a tutor ina school can make a significant difference to afew students and provide a valuable alterna-tive to continuing your customary work.

The issue of volunteering brings up twocomplicated subjects. One is finances, sinceworking without compensation is a luxurythat not everyone can afford. Universities, theTeacher’s Insurance and AnnuityAssociation6, and many investment compa-nies offer information and guidance aboutfinancial planning for retirement. Attendingseminars or workshops by several suchorganizations is sensible, since it providesmultiple viewpoints and demystifies this



Some older scientists are stillfull of energy but bored withthe problems they have studiedfor a significant time.

planning process. Such interactions mayreduce one’s sense of dependency and canprovide assurance that resources in retire-ment will be sufficient. One’s retirement pack-age can stretch even further if one undertakessomething adventurous, like working as avolunteer teacher in a poor country. Livingcosts in the Third World are so low that aretired American can live very graciously onmodest resources. It is rare that a school oruniversity in such a country can pay a salary,but a volunteer is almost certain to be wel-comed with gratitude and enthusiasm. Suchopportunities can be organized independent-ly, through Internet and email, but Fulbright,7

the Peace Corps8 and several non-governmentorganizations9 can also help.

The second issue related to volunteering isfreedom. It is easy to view the winding downof one’s professional activities as a loss of priv-ilege and power. Certainly some valuablethings will go, but constructive additions cancompensate. A reduced professional load canprovide freedom that is simply not availableunder the pressure of competitive paper- andgrant-writing. This suggests that an importantpart of late career thinking should be identify-ing the things that you would like to initiate.

Some people think of new activities interms of hobbies while others think of newacademic projects. The point is that one of thegreatest opportunities offered by late career

flexibility is the chance to explore: activities,fields, and ideas for which there has previ-ously been no time. Retired people often talkabout their opportunities for travel, reading,attending lectures, music, and sociability. Forsomeone who has led an intensely focusedlife in science, such “opportunity” maysound foreign, even terrifying. This is why agradual transition may be important for cap-italizing on the opportunities of late careerdevelopment. As one ages, life will change, ofthis there is no question. With luck, thechanges will not be crippling ill health butinstead the chance to explore and enjoythings one cares about and finds worthwhile.Emerging from a total focus on a specific fieldof science can include elements of metamor-

phosis and ecdysis that will allow the spread-ing of new-found wings.

Underlying the issue of late career transi-tion is the fact that although our country’s


Retired people often talk abouttheir opportunities for travel,reading, attending lectures,music, and sociability. Forsomeone who has led anintensely focused life in science,such “opportunity” may soundforeign, even terrifying.

It is easy to view the windingdown of one’s professionalactivities as a loss of privilegeand power. Certainly somevaluable things will go, butconstructive additions cancompensate.

A grant to a senior scientist ismoney not given to someoneyounger; a position occupied byan old-timer is one not filled bya beginner.

investment in science is large, it is not infi-nite. A grant to a senior scientist is moneynot given to someone younger; a positionoccupied by an old-timer is one not filled bya beginner. Some senior scientists claim thatthey have always been under-paid, and ifthey are now earning more for less work, it’sabout time and they deserve it. Frankly, Idisagree. Most of us have done sciencebecause we wanted to. Earning a good, mid-dle-class wage for following one’s own

interests is an appropriate reward. At somepoint it makes sense to bow out and givesomeone else a chance.

The above generalities hardly constitute aplan, but they do contain a message: if youbuild upon your career in science to identifyand/or generate opportunities for explo-ration, it is possible to make and use free-doms that will enrich the latter part of yourcareer, potentially making it one of the beststages of your life. !




7. GRANTSStudy Section Service: An Introduction

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement


Study Section Service: An Introduction

Frank SolomonMassachusetts Institute

of Technology

By several criteria, life sciences research in theUnited States has been phenomenally successfulover the past 40 years. Some analyses ascribe at

least part of that success to the peer review system forawarding research support. The core of the peer review

system is the study section—a committee of scientiststhat evaluates the research in each proposal. But ofcourse study section review is a human endeavor. Itsquality depends entirely on the wisdom, commitment,and integrity of the people who serve. Their task is todistinguish good and valuable science independent ofwhether it comes from new investigators or establishedones, representing large programs or small, in fieldsfashionable at the time or relatively obscure.

At the beginning of their careers, most scientistsview study section as a mysterious body, powerful anddistant, in a position to make fateful decisions.

Study section review is a humanendeavor. Its quality depends entirelyon the wisdom, commitment andintegrity of the people who serve.

The ways of serving effectively—gettingthe most out of the experience and inturn making the most significantcontribution to peer review—arehappily congruent with the ways ofmaking study sections work well.

Especially over the past several years, theNIH has worked to dispel some of that mys-tery and to make the review process moretransparent. Still, the best way to learn howstudy sections work is to serve on one. Theways of serving effectively—getting the mostout of the experience and in turn making themost significant contribution to peerreview—are happily congruent with theways of making study sections work well.

The MechanicsDifferent study sections operate differently,but the following description will fit many ofthem. Most study sections are organizedaround relatively contiguous areas ofresearch, and its members are selected fortheir relevant expertise. Ideally, panel mem-bers will share sufficient common knowl-edge that they will be able to assess propos-als in areas that are at least fairly closelyrelated. That said, the range of proposalseach study section must consider requiresconsiderable breadth.

A term on study section is usually fouryears. The NIH officer assigned to the studysection, the Scientific Review Administrator(SRA), is a fixture. The Chair, selected by theSRA from among the roughly twenty mem-bers, usually serves in that role for the lasttwo years of the term.

NIH study sections meet three times a year(somewhere near Washington, DC in mostcases). Each meeting may deal with 70 to 100or more proposals. Principal investigatorscan indicate which study section they want toreview their proposal, based on experience—their own or their colleagues’—and the mem-bership rosters are posted by the NIH Centerfor Scientific Review for each study section.1

Those lists are not a guarantee; at any givensession, some regular members may beabsent, and substitutes not on the roster maybe present.

Commonly, the SRA assigns primaryresponsibility for each proposal to two mem-bers, who write detailed reviews in a formand tone suitable for transmission to theapplicant. A third person, the reader, maywrite a shorter set of comments. These write-ups are prepared before the study sectionmeets. The SRA identifies formal conflicts—when the applicant is at the same institutionas a prospective reviewer, for example—butit is up to the reviewer to notify the SRA ofother conflicts that may interfere with objec-tive evaluation.

Study sections meet for about 12 hours—one full day until dinner time and then asmuch time as needed on the second day.Nearly everyone arrives the night before thefirst session, and the proceedings conclude intime to allow people on the West Coast to gethome that evening.

The sessions are intense. The review of eachproposal begins, once the members with con-flicts leave the room, with a report from thereviewers and the reader. Frequently, eachreviewer will declare a level of enthusiasm forthe proposal, and then present the findingsand analyses that justify that opinion. Therefollows a discussion involving everyone onthe panel. Of course, proposals that are unani-mously viewed as terrific, or as deeply flawed,do not require a lot of discussion. But for themany proposals that are somewhere betweenthose poles, or about which there are signifi-cantly divergent opinions among the review-ers or other members, a full discussion is nec-essary for the system to work. The discussioncan help resolve differences among thereviewers, sometimes by going back and forthbetween themselves, sometimes in response toquestions asked by other members. It is notuncommon for reviewers to change their posi-tions significantly as a result of these discus-sions, helping the panel to reach a consensusview. Some differences simply do not resolve.


CHAPTER 7 • GRANTS 91

Either way, how this discussion is conduct-ed is crucial to the success of the study sec-tion. It is the preamble to a confidentialvote—a number attached to the proposal byeach member (it would take another article todo justice to the voting process) which is thebasis for the priority score. Each membervotes on each proposal regardless of expert-ise. Different study sections—and in fact dif-ferent chairs, who are responsible for the pace

of the meeting—have different ideas abouthow these discussions should be regulated,ranging from the Stopwatch School to theSocratic School. The essential point is that acomplete explication of the issues and con-cerns provides a more informed, better justi-fied basis for voting.

The Reviewer’s Work LoadA study section with twenty members andeighty proposals will require that each ofits members writes an average of eight fullreviews and serves as reader on four otherproposals—a “light” to “average” load, inmost people’s experience. Reading twelvegrants carefully is not trivial: each proposalis twenty-five single-spaced pages of usu-ally dense scientific prose. But the impor-tance of the job requires reviewers to readevery word and to try to understand everythought. For beginners, it may take six toeight hours to read a proposal, but that

time goes down with experience. Writing athoughtful review takes another couple ofhours. On top of all this work, reviewersfrequently read proposals that are not theirprimary responsibility, for examplebecause they’re interested in the field.

Effective ServiceBecoming an effective and valuable memberof a study section is an acquired skill. Some ofthe same qualities that help us in our workpertain: the ability to analyze complex situa-tions, to identify important questions, todesign well-controlled experiments, and soon. But peer review of grants also calls uponother qualities from reviewers:

• Generosity with respect to time and atten-tion demanded from already busy lives, tobe sure, but also in allowing for sciencethat is substantially different from what thereviewer practices.

• Listening to one’s co-reviewer on a partic-ular proposal, or to the disagreeingreviewers discussing a proposal that is dis-tant from one’s own field. Some peoplemake a point of listening for what theyconsider to be crucial determinants. Forexample, how will this proposal, if fund-ed, advance the field?

• Fairness: the ability of study sections toassess all proposals in an even-handedmanner, so that differences in scores aremeaningful, depends absolutely upon the


Chairs, who are responsible forthe pace of the meeting, havedifferent ideas about how thesediscussions should be regulated,ranging from the StopwatchSchool to the Socratic School.

The importance of the jobrequires reviewers to read every word and to try tounderstand every thought.

fairness of the members. Each scientistbrings to the table a sense of what consti-tutes excellence—in hypotheses, experi-mental design, and impact. Applyingthose standards throughout, and keepingin check one’s biases—personal and scien-tific—allow the study section to establishhigh and firm standards as a group.

• Clarity: reviews that convey effectively thereviewer’s analysis are extremely important.Reviews of high quality that are consistentwith the score that the proposal receivesenhance confidence in the system.

• Persuasiveness: the ability to articulatecrisply the qualities of a grant that under-lie one’s opinion of it matter in the meet-ing. The majority of study section mem-bers must rely upon the reviewers for a guide to both the proposal and the fieldit represents.

What’s in It for the Study Section Member?

Most of those who have served as membersagree that they have enjoyed multiple bene-fits from study section service:

• The opportunity to contribute in a signif-icant way to the research enterprise. Byputting themselves in a position to be anadvocate for interesting and well-done sci-ence, they help lift the standards and per-formance of their fields.

• The opportunity to learn how to write abetter grant. Reading others’ proposals,good and bad, allows people to see whatworks and what doesn’t, how to presentdata, how to keep reviewers engaged, whatsorts of traps to avoid. The common expe-

rience is that study section members’ pro-posals get better and easier to write as aresult of their service.

• The chance to participate in an intellectualexperience of a high order. The analysis of ascientific program, and its relationship to afield, calls upon the reviewers’ intellect andtraining in a way that too few other activitiesdo. Members also can learn a lot of science ina short time.

• The opportunity to form relationshipswith new colleagues that carry onthroughout one’s career.

Which Study Section and When?People usually join study section after beinginvited to serve at a session or two as an adhoc member. The invitation comes from theSRA (SRAs are notoriously on the prowl forwilling talent) acting on names receivedfrom members of the study section past andpresent and other scientists in the field.These sessions give the study section and thepotential member a chance to find out ifthey’re compatible. It’s a good idea to pick astudy section that deals primarily with sci-ence relevant to one’s own interests. Allthose hours in a meeting talking about thingsthat you don’t know or care about will make

Reading others’ proposals, goodand bad, allows people to seewhat works and what doesn’t,how to present data, how to keepreviewers engaged, what sorts of traps to avoid.



what is constitutively a demanding experi-ence thoroughly unbearable.

When in your career to join is a delicatequestion. Evaluations of grants have a muchlarger impact than reviews of papers. Butstudy section members are much more visi-ble than anonymous journal reviewers.Rosters of study sections are available on thenet, and the author of a proposal willinevitably guess (rightly or wrongly) whichtwo or three members are the most likely

reviewers. So people on study section canfeel exposed, and many members have beenblamed or (much less often) credited—again, rightly or wrongly—by a colleaguefor the disposition of a proposal. These cir-cumstances frankly make study sectionservice problematic for junior people. Addto that the time it takes and the level of judg-ment and experience required. That’s whymany advise waiting until tenure to join astudy section, save for exceptional cases.That’s a shame, because the learning part isespecially beneficial to young people, butit’s probably sound advice.

There are many other aspects of studysections that are important: how the reviewsare turned into numerical scores; what cango wrong in study section, and why, and who is responsible for making thingsright; the ethics of reviewing; and more.Dedicated, thoughtful members make all the difference. !


People on study section can feelexposed, and many membershave been blamed or (much less often) credited—rightly or wrongly—by a colleague forthe disposition of a proposal.

Sally Ann Amero The National Institutes

of Health

Marcia Steinberg The National Institutes

of Health

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement

W e’ve all been there, probably more timesthan anyone will admit. You spent monthsreading the literature, staring at your com-

puter, and imposing on your family and friends beforesubmitting your grant application to the NationalInstitutes of Health. Several weeks later, you receive anotice from the NIH, confirming receipt of the applica-tion and listing its assignments.1 All seems fine, until afew months later.

The seasoned applicant knows that the NIH sendsletters to Principal Investigators soon after a study sec-tion meeting,2 usually within two weeks. The letterindicates whether the study section voted to streamline(“unscore”) the application or to assign it a numericalpriority score3; if they chose the latter, the priority scoreand perhaps the percentile ranking will be given.

If Your Application Got an OutstandingPriority Score and Percentile RankingCongratulations, you stand an excellent chance of receiv-ing a grant award! However, you should not make com-mitments based on your expectation of funding support,because your application will be further reviewed by anNIH Institute or Center Advisory Committee for rele-vance to established priorities and public health needs,and the funding decision will be influenced by the rec-ommendation of this committee and the level of fundscurrently available at the given Institute or Center.Therefore, you should wait for the summary statementand actual notice of award, and check with your ProgramOfficer before making commitments.

If Your Application Got an UnfavorableScore and Percentile RankingIf your application received an unfavorable score, youwill need to formulate an action plan that is based onlogic, sound advice and knowledge of the NIH peer


review system. The Center for ScientificReview homepage4 is an excellent place tostart. It contains the policies, procedures, and review guidelines that NIH study sections follow, and are sent to the reviewers with the applications underreview. Particularly noteworthy are the fivemajor review criteria—(1) Significance, (2) Approach, (3) Innovation, (4) Investigator,and (5) Environment—that are used in theevaluation of the vast majority of researchapplications that are submitted to the NIH, asare the special guidelines that are used in theevaluation of research applications from newinvestigators. Equally important are the doc-uments that describe the format of a studysection meeting and the responsibilities of theassigned reviewers.

It is critical to understand the differentresponsibilities of review staff and programstaff at the NIH, and where an applicationgoes within the NIH. The initial phase of

receipt and referral is managed by a ReferralOfficer in the Center for Scientific Review.Referral officers make initial decisions con-cerning the assignment of the application toan appropriate study section for initial peerreview and to an appropriate Institute orCenter for funding consideration.

The next phase, peer review by a studysection and preparation of the summarystatement, is managed by a Scientific ReviewAdministrator (SRA). Most SRAs and theirstudy sections reside in the Center forScientific Review, but some reside in theInstitutes and Centers. After the initial peerreview, your application is in the hands of aProgram Officer, all of whom reside in anInstitute or Center.

Questions concerning study section assess-ments for a pending grant application, or thelikelihood for funding, should be directed tothe appropriate Program Officer—the indi-vidual listed in the upper left corner of thesummary statement and on the priority scorenotification letter. After the meeting of thestudy section, the SRA is no longer your pointof contact concerning the application, but heor she can discuss matters of general reviewpolicy and procedure. It may be tempting tocontact a reviewer to find out “the real story”of how your application was discussed. Youshould not do so. Reviewers understand theneed for complete confidentiality regardingthe discussions in the study section.

You should not attempt to discuss yourapplication, the manner in which it wasreviewed, or an appropriate course of actionuntil you have the summary statement inhand and have given it adequate considera-tion. The summary statement is mailed tothe Principal Investigator within six to eight weeks after the study section meeting.The summary statement includes a resumeand summary of discussion written by theSRA, the (largely unedited) reviewers’ cri-


It is critical to understand thedifferent responsibilities ofreview staff and program staff at NIH, and where yourapplication goes within the NIH.

Particularly noteworthy are the five major review criteria—Significance, Approach,Innovation, Investigator, andEnvironment—that are used inthe evaluation of most researchapplications submitted to NIH.

tiques, a budget recommendation, a meetingroster, and contact information for theappropriate Program Officer in the assignedInstitute or Center.

If Your Application Was Not FundedIf your application was not funded, you havetwo options. If the summary statement out-lines specific points that can be addressedsuccinctly, then fixing those weaknesses andsubmitting an amended application for thenext deadline is advisable. For amendedapplications, reviewers are given the priorsummary statement and they are instructedto comment on both the applicant’s responseto the previous review and the degree to

which the application is improved, so a keyfactor in crafting a successful amended appli-cation is addressing the reviewers’ criticisms.This does not necessarily mean acceptingthem; sometimes reviewers’ criticisms can behandled by providing additional information

or a more thorough explanation. In mostcases, the amended application will be sent tothe same study section, although differentreviewers may be assigned to review it. If theapplicant requests another study section in acover letter and the new study section has theexpertise required to review the application,the request is generally honored.

Scores are often improved in subsequentsubmissions (for a given project, one canmake three submissions). However, changingthe application according to the prior studysection’s comments does not guarantee fund-ing. Sometimes the second set of reviewersuncover weaknesses not found during thefirst review. Therefore, it is common for evenan amended application to receive an unfa-vorable score; it may even score more poorlythan did the original.

If you believe that a substantive factualerror has been made in the review process,your second option is to initiate a formalappeal by writing a letter to the ProgramOfficer. Your concern will be discussed atNIH and your letter may be sent to theAdvisory Council or Board of the fundingInstitute or Center, seeking their recommen-dation for an appropriate course of action. Inorder to be effective, an appeal letter shouldaddress specific issues or comments in thesummary statement that can be documented,rather than differences of scientific opinion.



You should not attempt todiscuss your application, themanner in which it wasreviewed or an appropriatecourse of action until you havethe summary statement in handand have given it adequateconsideration.

A key factor in crafting asuccessful amended applicationis addressing the reviewers’criticisms.

In order to be effective, anappeal letter should addressspecific issues or comments in the summary statementthat can be documented,rather than differences ofscientific opinion.

The Advisory Council or Board may upholdthe study section’s review or recommend thatthe review be done over (deferral). NIH oper-ates on a schedule of three review cycles ayear, and the Advisory Council or Boardmeetings occur late in each review cycle.Therefore, a recommendation by Council forre-review is likely to result in deferral of theapplication for re-review in the next reviewcycle. Only infrequently does the AdvisoryCouncil or Board recommend funding with-out re-review.

An important difference exists betweenthe two options in the document that is re-reviewed: deferral entails the re-review ofthe original application without revision,whereas submitting an amended applicationgives the applicant the opportunity toaddress the comments of the study section.The review schedule for the two options isoften the same.

What’s My Next Move? If revising the application a second time didnot work, it’s probably time to overhaul theproject or to turn in a new direction. Be pre-pared to ask yourself some hard questions:Are the research questions I’m addressing

important? What if my ideas don’t work? AmI working in the wrong place? Am I boredwith this? Also, be prepared to back up andtake some baby steps. Small awards fromlocal funding agencies or internal fundingfrom your institution can give you an oppor-tunity to demonstrate your abilities and toproduce important preliminary data. Finally,take advantage of every resource available toyou that can help you succeed. Ask yourProgram Officer to steer you toward specialNIH initiatives that may be appropriate foryou; ask your SRA to discuss appropriatereview venues for your new ideas; and ask atrusted, senior colleague or former mentor todiscuss your outline and later to proofread

your application. If your institution offers aninternal pre-review service, use it. If yourinstitution offers a course on grant writingskills, take it. If you need assurances andapprovals, get them. An outstanding presen-tation probably can’t rescue a mediocre proj-ect but a mediocre presentation can kill anoutstanding project, especially if it is difficultto understand or if it is incomplete. Don’tleave anything to chance—now is your timeto shine. !


An outstanding presentationprobably can’t rescue a mediocreproject but a mediocrepresentation can kill anoutstanding project.If revising the application a

second time did not work, it’sprobably time to overhaul theproject or to turn in a newdirection.

8. ACADEMIC CAREERSTeaching Is Good for Research

Academic Careers without Tenure


Teaching Is Good for Research


Biomedical Research

Few would argue with the premise that researchis an important part of teaching and that manyof our greatest teachers have also been top

researchers. Students are taught the experimentalunderpinnings of key results and concepts, oftenillustrating actual experimental data to establish apoint. The latest results and methods are incorpo-rated in class lectures and problem sets; discussionson genomics, DNA “chip” microarray technology,and bioinformatics commonly interdigitate lectureson cell-cell signaling pathways, protein traffic, andthe cytoskeleton. In laboratory courses studentslearn how to carry out some of the newest experi-mental techniques. In many, many ways, researchinforms teaching.

But what of the converse premise—that teaching isgood for the development of one’s research program?By requiring faculty to master new and unfamiliarareas of biology, teaching naturally leads into newareas of investigation and enhances one’s research pro-gram. Also, in many medical schools and researchinstitutes both in the United States and abroad,research faculty rarely teach undergraduates or evengraduate students, while at the same institutions facul-ty in other colleges or administrative groups handlethe bulk of the graduate and certainly the undergrad-uate instruction.

By requiring faculty to master new andunfamiliar areas of biology, teachingnaturally leads into totally new areasof investigation and enhances one’sresearch program.

It is troubling that faculty at most med-ical schools in the United States do little orno teaching, especially at the undergradu-ate level, even when many are among themost inspiring and creative lecturers.Many who teach give only a few lecturesand only in their area of specialty. Indeed,those who do not teach are vulnerable to

research programs that become narrowand routine. Teachers know that prepar-ing for and teaching a topic to a group ofstudents forces one to read up and learnnew concepts and information. As life sci-ence is becoming more interdisciplinary,there is the need to have a much broaderappreciation of many related subjects, andteaching is a good way to acquire this.Lacking exposure to the questions by stu-dents, and perhaps more importantlylacking the perspective obtained by read-ing broadly and deeply outside of one’sparticular field, many nonteachers seem-ingly have been unable to refocus theirresearch into new areas when the oldareas had become stale.

There are lessons here for young scientistsbeginning a research career. First, gain as muchteaching experience as possible. Often the bestresearch lectures are given by experiencedteachers. Standing in front of a group of stu-dents and presenting complex materials simplyand concisely is a skill that can help one give thefantastic research lecture that lands a top job.

Once beginning researchers have a facultyjob, they should teach. If they do not have toteach, they should volunteer to organize a sem-inar course in a field near but not part of theirown. Reading and criticizing papers in a fieldnot one’s own, as part of a seminar course, is agreat way to learn a new set of technologies orconcepts. Or they should volunteer to teachpart of a core graduate course in their depart-ment or develop and co-teach a new coursewith a colleague in a nearby field. Amongother benefits, they may find common interestsfor collaborations and also get exposure to stu-dents who may decide to work with them.

Thus teaching can inform research asmuch as research can inform teaching. Also,each of us has benefited from inspiring teach-ers and thus each of us has acquired the obli-gation to teach at whatever level we can inorder to train and inspire the generations ofscientists who will follow us. !


CHAPTER 8 • ACADEMIC CAREERS 101

Many non-teachers seeminglyhave been unable to refocus theirresearch into new areas whenthe old areas had become stale.

If you do not have to teach,volunteer to organize a seminarcourse in a field near but notpart of your own.

Standing in front of a group ofstudents and presentingcomplex materials simply andconcisely is a skill that can helpone give the fantastic researchlecture that lands a top job.

Teaching can inform research asmuch as research can informteaching.


Academic Careers without Tenure

Caroline M. KaneUniversity of California,

Berkeley

Tenure (Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary): a statusgranted after a trial period to a teacher protecting him fromsummary dismissal.

Universities and colleges maintain a variety ofcategories among faculty, and each has itsown expectations, responsibilities, privileges,

job security, and respect. Institutions of higher edu-cation have neither the resources nor the desire tohire all members of the faculty into positions thatmight require funds in perpetuity (tenured), and yetthey have a great need for faculty in teaching,research, and service to carry out the mission of theinstitution successfully.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to thescientist who signs on to a career without tenure at anacademic institution? Is tenure a dinosaur that shouldbe allowed to achieve extinction? When one is consid-ering a position at an academic institution, whataspects are differentially negotiable for tenured andnontenured faculty?

There are many job titles outside the traditionalAssistant, Associate and Full Professor at academicinstitutions, and they can be confusing to students, staffand even other faculty at the same institution. AdjunctProfessor, Specialist, Research Faculty, Lecturer,Instructor, Professor in Residence: other titles and per-

The most remarkable finding amongcolleagues across institutions is that theyfeel that the respect among colleagues inone’s field off the home campus isunrelated to a campus job title.

sonnel categories might be specific to individ-ual institutions, and each title comes with itsown rules, responsibilities and privileges.

What advantages accrue to scientists atacademic institutions when they do notenjoy traditional job titles? The most remark-able finding among colleagues across institu-tions is that they feel that the respect amongcolleagues in one’s field off the home cam-pus is unrelated to a campus job title. Oncampus, many important aspects are report-ed positively: the opportunity to conductresearch, teach and participate in depart-ment policy discussions is often blind to atitle. While there is no tenure, such positions,when full or nearly full time, usually havethe benefits of traditional faculty, includinghealth insurance and contribution to retire-ment. These benefits accord significantfinancial advantages in any employment sit-uation. These positions can sometimes allowfor part-time assignments which can be aparticular attraction when raising a family,caring for a sick parent or dealing with othersignificant personal needs.

A common perception is that nontradition-al faculty enjoy the advantage of being free ofthe crushing burden of grant writing. This issometimes the case. However, this “advan-tage” may be illusory if the same person findsher- or himself being the ghost writer for theperson who is officially the Principal

Investigator. Many times, there is a strongcontribution to the grant without assumingthe majority role in the writing, and this col-laboration with the Principal Investigator canbe particularly productive.

Association with the institution is widelyregarded as a very positive feature, offeringthe opportunity to work with graduate stu-dents, postdoctoral fellows and visiting fac-ulty, regardless of whether it’s within one’sindependent laboratory or in someone else’s.It is also generally perceived that faculty inthese positions enjoy the opportunity to putextra effort into teaching; indeed some posi-tions, such as lecturer and instructor, have noresearch responsibilities and often no admin-istrative responsibilities outside those associ-ated with classes. This is because expecta-

tions are usually different from those of tradi-tional faculty whose advancement is nearlyentirely based on research output, regardlessof protestation to the contrary. Many facultywithout employment security derive satisfac-

Faculty in these positions enjoythe opportunity to put extraeffort into teaching; indeed somepositions, such as lecturer andinstructor, have no researchresponsibilities.



A common perception is thatnontraditional faculty enjoy the advantage of being free ofthe crushing burden of grantwriting. This is sometimes the case.

The biggest single burdennontraditional faculty endurecompared to other faculty is lackof job security.


tion from and are very successful in theirresearch contributions.

The biggest single burden nontraditionalfaculty endure compared to other faculty islack of job security. Contracts for these posi-tions are typically one to three years, andsometimes less, since salary funds are usual-ly soft money, dependent upon grant fund-ing. While more and more academic institu-tions are moving away from tenure andtoward such rolling contracts, these collegesand universities remain the exception ratherthan the rule. There is also often ambiguity inevaluating one’s success in these nontradi-tional positions, although it almost alwaysreflects a combination of the usual research,

teaching and service. Nonetheless, institu-tions utilize extensive latitude in evaluatingperformance in these positions, and some-times this vagueness can be intentional inorder to be able to eliminate positions or tojustify maintaining a scientist in a nonperma-nent status, depending upon the immediateneeds of a department or institution.Nontraditional faculty indisputably enjoyless salary and research support than theirtenured colleagues.

There is an undeniable perception, if notreality, that one gets less respect for accom-

plishments at one’s home institution. Theunspoken sense is that even if one is doing agood job at teaching, service and evenresearch, if one were just “better,” one wouldhave a permanent position. Moreover, thefeeling of inclusion depends on the depart-ment, and perhaps on the title itself. One non-tenured faculty member indicated that he is“virtually invisible” to his departmentdespite being on the faculty for over eightyears. An interesting research topic would bea comparison of the impact of individualsfrom different job categories on both the suc-cess of the educational institution and one’sresearch field.

These positions are sometimes considered“way stations” on the road to a “real career.”This misconception overlooks the depth andbreadth of excellence and commitment of thecadre of professionals in these roles. Manyscientists have chosen these jobs for all theadvantages outlined above, and their inten-tion is to advance within these nontraditionalranks, enjoying the independence and satis-faction of the significant contributions theyare making. Others however are indeed hiredwith the misleading understanding that as atraditional position opens up, they will befirst in line for full consideration.

The most important advice for scientistsconsidering impermanent positions is, “Lookbefore you leap.” Often one may be told, “Wewill try to move you into a more secure posi-

The unspoken sense is that evenif one is doing a good job atteaching, service and evenresearch, if one were just“better,” one would have apermanent position.

Institutions utilize extensivelatitude in evaluatingperformance in these positions,and sometimes this vaguenesscan be intentional in order to beable to eliminate positions or tojustify maintaining a scientistin a nonpermanent status.

tion.” Analyze the history of the depart-ment’s achieving that. Be ready to be yourown advocate and to initiate interactions

with others in your department or acrossyour campus. Learn clearly, preferably inwriting, how you will be evaluated for pro-motion and how the department or campus

may come to your assistance if you have atemporary lapse in grant funding. How com-mitted is the department to assuring theresearch space and resources for you toadvance professionally? What specificresponsibilities are required of you each aca-demic year? Ask how your opinions will becounted in departmental decisions on policy,hiring, and retention of other faculty, tradi-tional or not. In addition, ask the Dean orother upper level administrator how the posi-tion is significant for the campus. Answerswill vary, and the decision to accept the posi-tion or not will depend upon personal cir-cumstance. Going in with eyes open and withsupporters to promote professional develop-ment are essential. !



Often one may be told, “We willtry to move you into a moresecure position.” Analyze thehistory of the department’sachieving that.


9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONDo’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation

You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard


Do’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation

Steven M. BlockStanford University

This guide offers advice on preparing a good scien-tific poster. As with all communication, which isan art form, there is no single recipe for success.

There are many alternative, creative ways to displayand convey scientific information pictorially.Occasionally, breaking with tradition can pay off, butnot always. It’s generally best to leave experimentationto the laboratory, and stick with tried-and-true meth-ods for poster presentations. Remember that when itcomes to posters, style, format, color, readability, attrac-tiveness and showmanship all count.

DON’T make your poster up on just one or two largeboards. These are a clumsy nuisance to lug around.They put large strains on poster pins and often falldown. They frequently don’t fit well into the posterspace provided. They don’t lend themselves well to re-arrangement, alignment or last-minute modifications.DO make up your poster in a large number of sepa-rate sections, all of comparable size. The handiestmethod is to mount each standard-sized piece ofpaper individually on a colored board of its own, ofslightly larger dimensions, about 9.5” x 12”. Thisframes each poster segment with a nice border andmakes for a versatile poster that can be put up any-where, yet knocks down easily to fit into a briefcase orbackpack for transport.

DON’T write an overlong title. Save it for yourabstract. Titles that use excess jargon are a bore. Titleswith colons in them are a bore. Titles that are too cuteare even more of a bore.

Titles with colons in them are a bore. Titlesthat are too cute are even more of a bore.

DO keep your title short, snappy, and on tar-get. The title needs to highlight your subjectmatter, but need not state all your conclu-sions. Some good titles simply ask questions.Others answer them.

DON’T make the title type size too large ortoo small.DO make your title large enough to be read easily from a considerable distance(25–50 ft.), without exceeding the width ofyour poster area. It should never occupy morethan two lines. If things don’t fit, shorten thetitle—don’t reduce the type size! Format yourtitle using title case, which means initial capi-tals followed by lowercase letters.

DON’T leave people wondering about whodid this work.DO put the names of all the authors and insti-tutional affiliations just below (or next to)your title. It’s a nice touch to supply firstnames, rather than initials. Don’t use thesame large type size as you did for the title:use something smaller and more discreet.This is not the cult of personality.

DON’T use too small a type size for yourposter. This is the single most common error!!Never, ever, use 10- or 12-point type. Don’tuse it in your text. Don’t use it for captions.Don’t use it for figure legends, annotations,footnotes or subscripts. Don’t use it any-

where. Don’t ever use small type on a poster!Remember, no one ever complained thatsomeone’s poster was too easy to read.

DO use a type size that can be read easily ata distance of 4 feet or more. You do want alarge crowd to develop around your poster,don’t you? Think of 14-pt. type as being suit-able only for the “fine print” and work yourway up (never down) from there. A type sizeof 20 pt. is about right for text (18 pt., if nec-essary). Not enough space to fit all your text?Shorten your text!

DON’T pick a font that’s a pain to read.Please, don’t get too creative in your type-face selections: to struggle through a posterin Gothic or Broadway or Tekton or any-thing garish is painful. Less obvious is thefact that sans-serif fonts, Helvetica and Arialbeing the most common offenders, are moredifficult to read, and certain letters areambiguous (l = lower case ‘l’ and I = uppercase ‘I’). Serifs help guide the eye along theline and have been shown in numerous stud-ies to improve readability and comprehen-sion. Equally hard to read are most mono-spaced fonts, such as Courier. Generallyspeaking, it’s better to leave Helvetica to CellPress, reserving its use in posters for shorttext items such as titles and graph labels, andreserve monospaced fonts for use innucleotide sequence alignments.DO use a high-quality laser or inkjet printerto print your poster: no dot matrix printers,no typewriters, no handwriting. Select ahighly legible font with serifs and a large “x-height.” The x-height of a typeface is a typog-rapher’s term for the relative height of the

Not enough space to fit all your text? Shorten your text!


CHAPTER 9 • EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION 109

Never, ever, use 10- or 12-pointtype. Don’t use it in your text.Don’t use it for captions. Don’t useit for figure legends, annotations,footnotes or subscripts. Don’t useit anywhere.

lowercase ‘x’ compared with an uppercaseletter, such as ‘A,’ or a lowercase letter withascenders, such as ‘b.’ A large x-height makesfor easy reading from a distance. Good ol’Times Roman (A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q qX x Y y Z z) and its look-alike clones such asTimes New Roman represent the standardchoice. But if you seek a different look, con-sider Baskerville (A a B b C c D d E e G g Pp Q q X x Y y Z z), Century Schoolbook(A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q q Xx Y y Zz), Palatino (A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q qX x Y y Z z), or anything else with proven leg-ibility. Also, consider adjusting the kerning(the letter spacing) for improved readability.This is particularly helpful when using largefont sizes.

DON’T vary type sizes or typefaces exces-sively throughout the poster. For example,don’t use something different for every bit oftext and graphics.DO design your poster as if you were design-ing the layout for a magazine or newspaper.Select fonts and sizes that work together well.Strive for consistency, uniformity and a clean,readable look.

DON’T make your reader jump all over theposter area to follow your presentation. Don’tsegregate your text, figures, and legends inseparate areas.DO lay out the poster segments in a logicalorder, so that reading proceeds in some kindof linear fashion from one segment to thenext, moving sequentially in a raster pattern.

The best way to set up this pattern is colum-nar format, so the reader proceeds verticallyfirst, from top to bottom, then left to right.This has the advantage that several peoplecan read your poster at the same time, walk-ing through it from left to right, without hav-ing to exchange places. Consider numberingyour individual poster pieces (1, 2, 3, ...) sothat the reading sequence is obvious to all.And always make sure that all figure legendsare located immediately adjacent to the rele-vant figures.

DON’T use gratuitous colors. Colors attractattention, but can also detract from your mes-sage when misused. Fluorescent (neon) colorborders just don’t cut it for posters. Neitherdo excessive variations in color (the “rainbowlook”). Forget paisley, tie-dye, stripes, polkadots, and batik. In graphics, use color withdeliberation. DO use colors in your poster, but in a waythat helps to convey additional meaning. Forcolor borders, select something that drawsattention but doesn’t overwhelm. For colorartwork, make sure that the colors actuallymean something and serve to make usefuldistinctions. If pseudocoloring is necessary,give thought to the color scale being used,making sure that it is tasteful, sensible, and,above all, intuitive. Also, be mindful of colorcontrast when choosing colors: never placeisoluminous colors in close proximity (darkred on navy blue, chartreuse on light grey,etc.), and remember that a lot of people outthere happen to be red/green colorblind.


Consider numbering yourindividual poster pieces (1, 2, 3, ...) so that the readingsequence is obvious to all.

Forget paisley, tie-dye, stripes,polka dots, and batik. Ingraphics, use color withdeliberation.

Please remember this advice when you createcolor slides and transparencies, as well!

DON’T write your poster as one long, mean-dering thread.DO break your poster up into sections, muchlike a scientific article. Label each sectionwith titles. Always start with an abstract, andwrite it to be easily read and digested, in con-trast to the abstracts found in some scientificjournals. You should not attempt to includeeverything possible in 150 words or less.Make sure that your abstract contains a clearstatement of your conclusions. Other sectionsshould describe the Strategy, Methods, andResults (although you need not call these sec-

tions by those names). Display all yourgraphs, pictures, photos, illustrations, etc., incontext. Write clear, short legends for everyfigure. Follow up with a Conclusions section.You may wish to add an “Executive Summary”at the end: many successful posters provide abulleted list of conclusions, questionsanswered/raised, or both.

DON’T ever expect anyone to spend morethan 3–5 minutes at your poster. If you can’tconvey your message clearly in less timethan this, chances are you haven’t done thejob properly.DO get right to the heart of the matter, andremember the all-important “KISS Principle”:Keep It Simple, Stupid! In clear, brief, jargon-free terms, your poster must explain the sci-entific problem in mind (what’s the ques-tion?), its significance (why should we care?),how your particular experiment addressesthe problem (what’s your strategy?), theexperiments performed (what did you actu-ally do?), the results obtained (what did youactually find?), the conclusions (what do youthink it all means?), and, optionally, caveats(any reservations?), and future prospects(where do you go from here?).

DON’T write your poster as if it were a scientific paper. It’s not. Don’t waste lots ofprecious space on messy experimental details(Materials and Methods should be abbreviated)or on irrelevant minutia. Don’t display everygel, every sequence, every genotype. Don’tever supply long tables: no one has the timeor inclination to wade through these. And don’t ever lift long sections of textdirectly from some manuscript and use theseas a part of your poster. A poster is not aworked-over manuscript.DO recall that a poster should be telegraphicin style and very accessible. Avoid jargon.Eschew obfuscation. Write plainly, simply,briefly—never cryptically. A little informalitycan help, but don’t get too cute. Stress exper-imental strategy, key results, and conclusions.Don’t get bogged down in little stuff. Conveythe Big Picture.

DON’T leave prospective readers hanging orassume they’re all experts. They’re not, espe-cially at a broad meeting like the ASCB,



Remember that a lot of peopleout there happen to be red/greencolor-blind. Please rememberthis advice when you createcolor slides and transparencies,as well!

Display all your graphs,pictures, photos, illustrations,etc. in context. Write clear,short legends for every figure.

where people from different fields will beviewing your poster.DO consider adding a helpful tutorial sectionto your poster. For example, consider one ormore of these additions to the “standardfare”: a brief, possibly annotated bibliogra-phy; a short account describing some specialapparatus or technique; a synopsis of the his-torical background of a particular scientificproblem; a pictorial glossary describing somejargon terms (e.g., a definition of syntheticlethality with an illustration of alternativeways it can develop); a website for supple-mentary material; photographs of yoursetup; or anything else that would help teachyour readers what they need to know to

understand and appreciate your work. Usegraphics! Many of the items above are whatan editor would call a sidebar to the mainstory. Sidebars help to communicate the mes-sage. Remember that you are the single bestadvocate of your own work.

DON’T leave out acknowledgments.DO remember that it never hurts to give cred-it where it’s due. Write up a shortAcknowledgment section, including yoursources of financial support and everyonewho helped you to get the work done. No onewas ever accused of being too generous here.

DON’T leave out the references.DO provide routes into the literature andsupply a context for your work. Poster refer-ences need not be as extensive as those inpapers. If your poster work, or work closelyrelated to it, has already been published, dis-play the citation(s). Footnotes are permissible

but not preferable, so if they’re necessary,keep them brief. People hate having to jumparound while reading posters. A website formore information is useful.

DON’T leave everything until the lastminute! Avoid resorting to handwritten text(no felt-tip pens!) or using white-out. Don’thold everything together with tape. Be pro-fessional.DO start putting your poster together early.Get the Title, Acknowledgments, Bibliography,and other standard items out of the way first,so you aren’t unnecessarily stuck at the lastminute with these details. Experiment withlayout, type fonts, sizes, and colors early. Buyyour posterboard, pushpins, etc., early. Pre-cut posterboard pieces. Make any graphicsthat you know in advance are destined foryour poster early. Buy a can of spray mount(artist’s adhesive) so you can dry mount allthe poster segments. The best kind to get isthe type that allows you to reposition the art-work without damaging it.

DON’T stand directly in front of your posterat the session or get too close to it. Don’tbecome so engrossed in conversation with anysingle individual that you (or they) accidental-ly prevent others from viewing your poster.DO try to stay close by, but off to the side justa bit, so that passersby can see things and sothat you don’t block the vision of peoplealready gathered ‘round.

DON’T be an eager beaver and badger thenice people who come to read your poster.DO give them some space. Allow them todrink it all in. If they engage you with a ques-tion, that is your opening to offer to takethem through the poster or discuss matters ofmutual scientific interest. Conversely, don’tignore people who look interested: you canhave a beer with your buddies later.


Sidebars help to communicatethe message.

DON’T pull a disappearing act. DO stick around. It’s your poster, your work!Be there for the full scheduled presentationtime. This is especially important at the ASCBAnnual Meeting where there’s so much goingon that interested viewers may be duckingout of other things just to catch the end ofyour poster presentation.

DON’T forget ancillary materials.DO come prepared to your poster, armedwith reprints of any of your own relevantpapers that you might have, plus extra copiesof any material you may wish to share. Haveready some business cards if you have them,

or prepare in advance slips of paper withyour coordinates. Bring a pad of paper with ahard back for writing and some pens. Postersare a terrific way to get scientific suggestionsand meet like-minded individuals! Don’t for-get to bring plenty of push-pins.

DON’T hesitate to provide supporting mate-rials, if these can help. But don’t overdo it.DO consider using some kind of attention-getting gimmick, but beware that it doesn’tbackfire! A video set-up can be orderedthrough the ASCB, or you can supply yourown laptop computer. Some interestingposters provide physical models or variouskinds of three-dimensional display. Still oth-ers display actual data traces, or computer-based simulations, or something else thatmakes them stand out from the crowd. But ifyou do this, be sure your “hook” is legitimateand that it doesn’t detract from the science, ortrivialize it. !

Don’t ignore people who lookinterested: you can have a beerwith your buddies later.




You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard

W. Sue ShaferUniversity of California,

San Francisco

Richard L. ShaferRetired, The National

Institutes of Health

How can I get my point across? Everyone con-fronts this question. Women particularly mayworry about being heard. They wonder if they

can exert authority or get things accomplished withoutusing macho behavior.

“Christiana” suggests a neat new idea to the productdevelopment group, only to have it ignored. Later on, when“Frank” suggests it, he gets credit and compliments for it.

Do things like this really happen? Observe and ana-lyze behaviors in meetings you attend, and you’ll agreethat it happens too often.

Going to Meetings Many of us attend one or more recurring meetings, suchas a lab meeting, a product development meeting, or apolicy meeting. Next time, try to map out the interac-tions you see, and measure the meeting’s effectiveness: • Is the leader in control of the meeting? Do you like

the way the meeting is run?• How many participants speak up? Are there a few

dominant personalities who hog all the air time? • Do people interrupt each other? Do men interrupt

more than women do? Women more than men? • Does everyone get to contribute? Are ideas freely

shared and acknowledged?

If you like the way the meeting is working, try tothink about why. Who is making it happen and what isshe or he doing? Who is effective and why?

If you don’t like the dynamics of the meeting, try topinpoint the causes. What would you do to changethem? How would you do it?

One-time meetings pose another opportunity toanalyze and understand the meeting culture aroundyou. As you develop your skills of observation andanalysis, you’ll adjust your style more quickly to theseone-time events.

Making Meetings BetterTwo golden rules will make the meetings youattend more constructive for you: Be courteousand Be substantive.

Be courteous• Make sure you know the name of everyone

attending. Ask for a round of introductionsif people don’t know each other.

• Use others’ names when speaking to themor referring to their statements.

• Be brief. Speak only to add something new.Don’t speak only to be heard.

• Listen to the person speaking. Don’t beplanning your next statement while some-one else is talking.

• Look at the speaker.• Speak in friendly terms to others. Never

yell at other participants. If someoneyells at you, try to reply quietly, in a friendly voice, perhaps with a bit of humor.

After a well-run meeting, compliment itsleader. Reinforce what you liked about it.

Be Substantive• Speak only when you have something

to say.• Acknowledge the ideas of others, even if

you want to build on them instead of usethem as-is.

• If you disagree with an idea, acknowledgeit and the person who offered it, while stat-ing your differences.

• Ask for clarification if you do not under-stand what someone is suggesting. Be firmin your dealings with those who try to runover you.

• If someone “steals” your idea, reclaim it.“That’s just what I was trying to say earli-er...you’ve made it much clearer.”

If you model these behaviors for others, youmight raise the entire meeting’s effectiveness.

Leading Better MeetingsIf you regularly lead meetings, analyze howyour meeting looks to the participants. Askthe same questions as participants might, butanswer them from your leader’s perspective.

The same golden rules apply to those wholead meetings: Be courteous and Be substantive.

Be courteous• Prepare in advance by sending out an

agenda. If appropriate, send out a roster of attendees, including their first and lastnames, titles and organizational affiliations.

• Start and end on time. Keep your meetingsto a reasonable and previously agreedupon length. Schedule the time to fit thetasks to be accomplished.

Acknowledge the ideas of others,even if you want to build onthem instead of use them as-is.



These two golden rules willmake the meetings youattend more constructive for you: Be courteous and Be substantive.

Listen to the person speaking.Don’t be planning your nextstatement while someone else is talking.

• Be sure all participants know each others’names, and if appropriate, areas of expertise.If they don’t, introduce them to one another.Use their names as you speak to them.

• Look at and listen to speakers. Ask for clar-ification when needed.

• Assure that all have a chance to speak, andassure that no one speaks just to be heard.Be sensitive to women and men whoseideas might get lost.

Be Substantive• Clarify your own objective(s) before

your meeting. Begin the meeting by stating the objective(s) as clearly as youcan manage. Highlight and acknowledgeany murky areas.

• Describe the ground rules for how you’lluse the meeting to accomplish its objective.Describe your plans for keeping the meet-ing on task.

• Don’t try to accomplish in big meetingsthings that should be handled privately.For example, telling another scientist thatshe/he doesn’t fit in the project you areplanning is best done in private, even if itfirst becomes clear to you in the course ofyour bigger meeting.

• Use subgroups to accomplish appropriatetasks, when subgroups can do so moreefficiently.

• Encourage participants to speak brieflywhen adding new ideas or expanding onthose already offered.

• Encourage participants who disagree withone another’s ideas to debate the ideas,without attacking one another personally.

• End your meetings with a summary ofwhat has been accomplished and a list ofaction items with due dates.

• Thank the participants for their help andcontributions.

The Real World People who are knowledgeable in some areamake it easier for others to respect them,especially if they convey the knowledge in afriendly fashion…. A man will display atleast a small amount of deference to hisfemale conversational partner—by lookingat her when she is speaking—if she knowsmore about the topic under discussion thanhe does.1

Depending on the environment, it can be hard or easy to be heard and to be effective. Your self-confidence, firmness,consideration for others, and clear sense ofpurpose will make it easier. Your successand effectiveness in being heard will build one more step toward a world where women contribute their talents without hindrance. !


Be sensitive to women and menwhose ideas might get lost.

ENDNOTES1. THE LAB COMMUNITYConfronting the Social Context of Science1 C. Perrow. Normal Accidents: Living With High-RiskTechnologies (Basic Books, New York, 1984).2 D. Vaughan. The Challenger Launch Decision: RiskyTechnology, Culture and Deviance at NASA (Universityof Chicago Press, Chicago, 1996).3 E. A. Cohen and J. Gooch. Military Misfortunes: TheAnatomy of Failure in War (Vintage, New York, 1991).

Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology1 C. P. Snow. The Two Cultures. (Cambridge UniversityPress, New York, 1959).

3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIPThe Misconduct of Others: Prevention Techniques for ResearchersThis article is modified from one published by theauthor in the American Psychological Society’sObserver. Reproduced with permission.1 Code of Federal Regulations. 42 C.F.R. Part 50 subpartA, section 102.2 http://ori.hhs.gov.

Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy1 http://www.jscpp.org.

Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations?1 http://www.ascb.org/publicpolicy/nasareport.html.2 http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/proj05u.htm.

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHINGMe Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific PaperSome of the content of this article is based on an earlier guide by R. Ward and K. LaMarco.

5. POSTDOC ISSUES To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc1 For general tips, see http://pingu.salk.edu/%7Eforsburg/bio.html.2 Funding sources include the NIH, Damon Runyon-Walter Winchell Cancer Research Fund,Human Frontiers, National Science Foundation, American Cancer Society, and the FrenchMuscular Dystrophy Association (AFM). Grantsnet (http://www.grantsnet.org/) providesinformation about fellowships without international restrictions. Speak with your sponsorabout institutional, national or European fellowships for which you are eligible.3 Janet Chenevert (Ville Franche).4 Christine Blaumueller (European Molecular Biology Laboratory).5 Kelly McNagy (University of British Columbia).6 Karla Neugebauer (Max Planck Institute).7 Laura Machesky (University of Birmingham).8 Judy White (University of Virginia).

6. CAREER TRANSITIONSalary Negotiation1 Abbott, Langer and Associates publishes Compensation in the Life Sciences that tabulatessalaries for life scientists in all sectors as a function of rank, type of work, type of organization,and geographical location. Radford Surveys publishes a similar report for the biotechnologysector. The American Association of University Professors (AAUP) publishes an Annual Reporton the Economic Status of the Profession. Similarly, the American Association of Medical Collegestracks salaries for basic scientists at U.S. medical schools.

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities in Business and ManagementAuthor served as Director of MBA Admissions at the Graduate School of Business at Stanford University from 1981 to 1985.1 www.amanet.org.

Late Career Opportunities and Challenges1 For an audiotape of a 2001 American Society for Cell Biology Annual Meeting panel on Late Career Options, see http://ascb.org/audio/audio01mtg.html. 2 For an analysis of the policies found in many American universities, seehttp://www.aaup.org/Issues/retirement/retrpt.htm. 3 J. Handelsman et al., Science 304: 521-522 (2004).4 See, for example, http://umperg.physics.umass.edu/library/UMPERG-2001-12.5 See, for example, http://www.nas.edu/rise/.6 http://www.tiaa-cref.org/.7 http://www.iie.org/.8 http://www.peacecorps.gov/.9 http://www.crossculturalsolutions.org/ or http://www.iearn.org/.


7. GRANTSStudy Section Service: An Introduction1 http://www. csr.nih.gov/.

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement1 As soon as possible after the receipt date, usually within 6 weeks, the PHS will send thePrincipal Investigator/Program Director and the applicant organization the application’sassignment number; the name, address, and telephone number of the Scientific ReviewAdministrator of the Scientific Review Group (SRG) to which the application has beenassigned; and the assigned Institute contact and phone number. If this information is notreceived within that time, contact the Division of Receipt and Referral, Center for ScientificReview (CSR), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-7720 (301-435-0715). If thereis a change in the assignment, another notification will be sent. 2 Most applications submitted to the Public Health System, which includes NIH, are reviewedthrough a two-tier system. The first level of review is performed by the Scientific ReviewGroup (SRG), which is often called the study section or review committee and is managed bythe Scientific Review Administrator (SRA). The purpose of the SRG is to evaluate the scientificand technical merit of applications. The SRG does not make funding decisions. The secondlevel of review usually is performed by the Advisory Council or Board of the potential award-ing component (Institute, Center, or other unit). Council or Board recommendations are basednot only on considerations of scientific merit, as judged by the SRGs, but also on the relevanceof the proposed study to an Institute’s programs and priorities. Program Officers, on the otherhand, are NIH officials in the various Institutes and Centers responsible for presenting appli-cations to the Advisory Council or Board.3 The review of most research applications includes a process called streamlining, in whichonly those applications deemed to be amongst the top half of those being reviewed are discussed and assigned a priority score. The remainder are generally not discussed and not scored. Each scored application is assigned a single, global score that reflects the overallimpact that the project could have on the field based on consideration of the five review criteria (significance, approach, innovation, investigator, and environment), with the emphasison each criterion varying from one application to another, depending on the nature of theapplication and its relative strengths. The best possible priority score is 100 and the worst is500. Individual reviewers mark scores to two significant figures (e.g., 2.2), and the individualscores are averaged and then multiplied by 100 to yield a single overall score for each scoredapplication (e.g., 220).4 http://www.csr.nih.gov/review/policy.htm.

9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONDo’s and Don’t’s of Poster PresentationBased on an article by the author that appeared in Biophysical Journal 71: 3527–3529 (1996).Reprinted with permission.

You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard1 Virginia Valian. Why So Slow? The Advancement of Women. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999).


ENDNOTES 119

THE AMERICANSOCIETY FORCELLBIOLOGY

8120 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 750Bethesda, MD 20814-2762www.ascb.org

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