The “Celebritization” of Home Shopping:
An Examination of the Phenomenon of Celebrity Endorsement and How a Home
Shopping Channel Utilizes Their Celebrities and Twitter
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Drexel University
by
Jessica L. Hargreaves
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
of
Master of Science in Television Management
July 2013
© Copyright 2013 Jessica L. Hargreaves. All Rights Reserved.
ii
Dedications
To my sister, my forever friend of 23 years and counting. I am so thankful to have you in
my life. There is nothing I treasure more than our times together when all we do is sit
and laugh.
To my father, you are the reason they created the words hardworking and generous. I
admire your devotion to our family more than words can say.
To my mother, my confidante and very best friend. Without your unconditional love,
your unwavering guidance, and encouragement, all of this could never have come to
reality.
All three of you make up my entire universe. I love you.
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Acknowledgments
Thank you to my thesis advisor, Terry Maher and program director, Albert Tedesco. I
appreciate your wisdom and guidance throughout my graduate studies and thesis writing
process. Both of you have made my experience in graduate school a memorable one.
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Table of Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................. ix
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Background and Need .................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Significance of the Problem ......................................................................................... 4
1.6 Definitions ................................................................................................................... 5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Celebrity Endorsement: Not a Recent Phenomenon ................................................... 8
2.3 Celebrity Endorsement: Infomercials ........................................................................ 13
2.4 Celebrity Endorsement: Televised Home Shopping Channels .................................. 20
2.4.1 HSN – Home Shopping Network, Inc. .................................................................................. 21
2.4.2 QVC, Inc. ............................................................................................................................... 22
2.5 Celebrity Endorsement turned Celebrity-Branding: Connecting Home Shopping Channels, Their Celebrities, and Customers .............................................................. 25
2.5.1 Connecting Through Twitter .................................................................................................. 27
3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 30
3.2 Criteria for Content Analysis ..................................................................................... 30
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3.3 Data Collection and Procedure .................................................................................. 33
3.3.1 QVC’s Twitter Account ......................................................................................................... 33
3.3.2 Affiliated Celebrities’ Twitter Accounts ............................................................................... 33
3.3.3 Collection of Tweets .............................................................................................................. 35
3.3.4 Coding the Tweets ................................................................................................................. 37
3.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 37
4. RESULTS .................................................................................................................. 49
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 49
4.2 How Has the Concept of Celebrity Endorsement Transformed and Evolved Since its Inception? .................................................................................................................. 49
4.3 How Do Home Shopping Channels Endorse Their Celebrities and Celebrity Product Lines Through Social Media, Specifically Twitter? .................................................. 50
4.3.1 Totals of QVC Tweet Categories ........................................................................................... 50
4.3.2 Relationships between Tweet Categories .............................................................................. 53
4.3.3 Agenda for Tweets Generated ............................................................................................... 59
5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 65
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 65
5.2 Discussion .................................................................................................................. 65
5.2.1 QVC’s Twitter Feed and their Celebrity Related Tweets ...................................................... 66
5.3 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 80
5.4 Recommendations for Future Research ..................................................................... 83
5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 85
LIST OF REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 86
Appendix A: Celebrity Endorsement Advertisements ...................................................... 90
Appendix B: Collection of QVC Tweets and Coding ...................................................... 94
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List of Tables 1. Hashtags Used on QVC Twitter Feed ....................................................................... 68
2. Celebrity Tweets as Seen Via @QVC Twitter Feed ................................................. 69
3. Pictures on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ............................................................. 70
4. Product Links on @ QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ................................................... 72
5. Customer/Fan Conversations on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ............................ 73
6. Celebrity Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ............................................ 75
7. Customer/Fan Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) .................................... 75
8. Celebrity Conversations on @QVC Twitter Feed ..................................................... 77
9. Mentions on @QVC Twitter Feed ............................................................................. 78
10. Host Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ................................................... 78
11. Live Show Streaming Tweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ........................... 79
12. Tune In Now Tweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study) ........................................ 80
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List of Figures 1. Screenshot of Shout-out Tweet .................................................................................. 39
2. Screenshot of Mention Tweet .................................................................................... 39
3. Screenshot of Hashtag Tweet .................................................................................... 40
4. Screenshot of Picture Tweet ...................................................................................... 41
5. Screenshot of Product Link Tweet ............................................................................ 41
6. Screenshot of Host Retweet ....................................................................................... 42
7. Screenshot of Celebrity Retweet ............................................................................... 43
8. Screenshot of Customer/Fan Retweet ........................................................................ 43
9. Screenshot of Celebrity Conversation Tweet ............................................................ 44
10. Screenshot of Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet .................................................... 45
11. Screenshot of Upcoming Airing Tweet ..................................................................... 45
12. Screenshot of Tune In Now Tweet ............................................................................ 46
13. Screenshot of Live Show Streaming Tweet ............................................................... 47
14. Total QVC Tweet Categories Generated ................................................................... 52
15. Percent Occurrences of Tweet Categories ................................................................. 53
16. Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity Airings ................................................... 54
17. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity Airings .............. 55
18. Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction ...................... 56
19. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction .................................................................................................................. 57
20. Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics .............................................. 58
21. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics ......... 59
22. Tweets Generated in Accordance to Days of the Week ............................................ 60
viii
23. Tweets Generated in Accordance to Television Dayparts ......................................... 61
24. QVC Retweets Generated .......................................................................................... 63
25. QVC Conversation Tweets Generated ....................................................................... 64
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List of Appendices Appendix A: Celebrity Endorsement Advertisements ...................................................... 90
Appendix B: Collection of QVC Tweets and Coding ...................................................... 94
x
Abstract The “Celebritization” of Home Shopping:
An Examination of the Phenomenon of Celebrity Endorsement and How a Home Shopping Channel Utilizes Their Celebrities and Twitter
Jessica L. Hargreaves The goal of this thesis is to initially examine the origins and history of celebrity
endorsement in its earliest forms of direct response television to today’s televised home
shopping channels. A case study explores the concept of celebrity endorsement from the
nineteenth century through today, providing a chronological timeline of each major
communications medium and its influence on celebrity endorsement. Secondly, the
thesis provides original research in the form of a content analysis to reveal the way in
which a home shopping channel endorses and promotes its affiliated celebrities and
celebrity product lines through the use of a popular social media platform.
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The use of celebrity endorsement has become an essential component to the
success of televised home shopping channels. With a television remote in hand, couch-
sitters all across the country shop in-home and interact with their favorite celebrities.
Home shopping channels utilize celebrity to their advantage through the collaboration
and selling of celebrity product lines. In recent years, home shopping channels have
worked closely with a variety of A-list celebrities in order to create and design various
product lines, which those celebrities endorse and present on air. Lately, televised home
shopping channels have put a major focus on their celebrity endorsement deals, which
proves to be a highly lucrative business model as reflected by their earnings. Home
shopping channels also utilize social media in their favor by incorporating the use of a
Twitter page to promote and endorse their celebrity product lines in a new way. Both the
incorporation of celebrity endorsement and social media has had an overall positive
impact on the in-home shopping business.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Currently, home shopping channels face several obstacles. Mintel Reports
suggests that home shopping channels will likely need to improve the entertainment value
of their shows to bring in a wider audience (Mintel Group, Ltd., 2009). Mintel posed a
question regarding attitudes towards home shopping channels, “Please tell us why you
don’t shop through home shopping channels such as QVC and HSN?” and four in ten
respondents who had not shopped through TV shopping channels say these channels are
boring (Mintel Group, Ltd., 2009). Harnessing celebrities to endorse product lines on
2
home shopping channels is a way to increase the entertainment value of this
programming, thus in some way could help to increase viewership.
Today, more than ever, the home shopping industry needs to utilize their affiliated
celebrities to attract and sustain customers. In addition to their celebrities, home
shopping channels utilize their social media accounts to reach a larger customer base.
Social media are a way for home shopping channels to revamp their once lackluster
image and become more relevant to a younger audience. Social media platforms are a
relatively new and valuable tool for the home shopping industry in attracting and
interacting with customers. Mintel Analyst Insight states that “because the majority of
home shopping transactions are completed online, multichannel retailers are increasingly
using online marketing, such as social networking, as a way to expand their reach,
particularly among younger demographics” (Mintel Group, Ltd., 2009). QVC, one of the
largest home shopping networks, had a clear mission to position itself in front of a
younger demographic via social media to increase awareness and shift the brand’s
perception (Rokkan, 2013). The combination of celebrities and social media is a
powerful relationship for home shopping channels.
Home shopping channels and their affiliated celebrities are beginning to
understand the promotional power of social media, especially Twitter. Mark Pasetsky, a
contributor to Forbes Magazine, writes that Kirstie Alley’s Organic Liaison Weight Loss
System appeared on QVC and sold out the weight loss product in less than fifteen
minutes. Alley, a well-known movie actress and savvy social marketer, demonstrated the
right way to use Twitter to make sure her 800,000+ followers tuned in to the shopping
network (Pasetsky, 2011). She understands that her Twitter followers are most likely the
3
individuals that will buy her products (Pasetsky, 2011). A well-crafted tweet can grab a
reader’s attention instantly.
The content analysis portion of this thesis, as outlined in Chapter 3, explores the
concept of celebrity endorsement in home shopping television and the ways in which a
home shopping channel utilizes its social media account to endorse affiliated celebrities’
product lines. This original research will break down a home shopping channel’s Twitter
account and uncover the ways a home shopping channel constructs its Tweets.
1.3 Background and Need
The concept of celebrity endorsement has transformed and evolved since its
inception and it is a noteworthy subject for academic professors and students in the media
and television industry to better understand the phenomenon of celebrity endorsement
and its fluctuations over the decades. The increasing trend of celebrity endorsement on
home shopping television specifically mixed with society’s growing obsession of
celebrity culture creates an interesting demand to examine the connections and
interactions between home shopping channels, their celebrities and customers.
The relationship between the home shopping channel selected, their affiliated
celebrities and customers will be examined through the most popular celebrity-driven
social media platform to date, Twitter. While the majority of previously recorded
academic research has focused on examining how commercial celebrity endorsements
affect performance measures such as advertising attitudes, brand recall, and purchase
intent, no research is known particularly about the exanimation of a home shopping
channel’s Twitter usage and the classifying of specific Tweet type categories.
4
1.4 Research Questions
1. How has the concept of celebrity endorsement transformed and evolved since
its inception?
2. How do home shopping channels endorse their celebrities and celebrity
product lines through social media, specifically Twitter?
1.5 Significance of the Problem
Home shopping channels are constantly searching for new ways to elevate their
brand. Signing new celebrities and producing product lines to present on home shopping
television helped to create more entertainment based programming for the viewer. Home
shopping channels are beginning to embrace social media more and to encourage their
affiliated celebrities and customers to interact with one another via the home shopping
channel’s Twitter page.
Home shopping channels are first and foremost in the business of selling products
to their viewers and while home shopping channels could be thought of as a well-oiled
machine, external and competitive factors can pose threats on the growing success of the
channels. External factors like the recent Great Recession the country faced hindered the
industry with a decline in sales. “Consumer credit problems and falling sales in 2008 and
early 2009 forced QVC to lay off staff, close a call center, and cut inventories” (McArdle,
2010). The home shopping industry faces steep competition from Internet retailing and
has been losing sales to the more dynamic vehicle in the last few years. Home shopping
channels themselves battle with direct competition of other home shopping channels.
Competition from an ever-growing television cable lineup offers more channels available
for the viewer’s attention.
5
Celebrity influence and social media is now a part of the home shopping
television landscape. Home shopping television incorporates social media throughout its
promotional spots and live programming. Better understanding the phenomenon of
celebrity endorsement on home shopping channels and ways these channels have
incorporated social media platforms to their advantage are not only fascinating, but also
important to evaluate for continued growth of an industry.
1.6 Definitions
Celebrity – For the purposes of this study, a celebrity figure is defined as a person who is
easily recognized and well known by society and portrays a degree of public fascination
and influence in everyday media was included in the study (Merriam-Webster, 2013).
Persons used in this study are all famous or celebrated figures and therefore celebrities in
their own right, whether it is as famous comedians, reality stars, or super models.
Affiliated Celebrity – A celebrity in connection to the associated home shopping channel.
A celebrity who offers a product line on an associated home shopping channel.
Celebrity Endorsement – An endorsement associated with an individual who enjoys
public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by
appearing with it in an advertisement (Erdogan, 1999).
Home Shopping Channel (i.e. Network) – Television specialty channels targeted towards
in-home consumers by broadcasting product demonstrations.
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In-Home Shopping – The act of making purchases in-home via the home shopping
channel.
Social Media – “A group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and
technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-
generated content” (Haenlein & Kaplan, 2010).
Twitter – A web-based real-time information network that connects you to the latest
stories, ideas, opinions and news about what you find interesting (Twitter Help Center,
2012).
Tweet(s) – “A message posted via Twitter containing 140 charters or fewer” (Twitter
Help Center, 2012).
Twitter Handle – Represents a Twitter username. “When a username is preceded by the
@ sign, it becomes a link to a Twitter profile” (Twitter Help Center, 2012).
Retweet(s) – “Someone else's Tweet that you chose to share with all of your followers”
(Twitter Help Center, 2012).
Hashtag(s) – “The # symbol, called a hashtag, is used to mark keywords or topics in a
Tweet. It was created organically by Twitter users as a way to categorize messages”
(Twitter Help Center (2012).
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Today’s Special Value (TSV) – “Today's Special Value®. Every day since 1987, we've
offered one item at an exceptionally low price good for that day until 11:59 p.m. ET.
That's Today's Special Value®” (QVC, 2013).
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter examines and discusses the origins and history of celebrity
endorsement in the earliest forms of direct response television. Secondly, this section
introduces the concept of celebrity endorsement in infomercials. Furthermore, it also
discusses the introduction of celebrity endorsement on televised home shopping channels,
highlighting the two most popular home shopping television channels, HSN and QVC.
Finally, this chapter examines the idea of celebrity endorsement turned celebrity branding
and its connection between the home shopping channels themselves, their affiliated
celebrities, customers, and social medium, Twitter.
2.2 Celebrity Endorsement: Not a Recent Phenomenon
Celebrity endorsement, also known as celebrity involvement, is not a recent
phenomenon. What were known as celebrities then have been endorsing products since
the late nineteenth century (Erdogan, 1999). One of the earliest examples of celebrity
endorsement involves Queen Victoria in a “Drink Cadbury’s Cocoa” advertisement
printed in 1854 (The Virtual Victorian, 2010). Queen Victoria, a prominent figure at the
time, was shown sipping the milk chocolate drink in an advertisement (see Appendix A:
Image A1). Soon thereafter, the Cadbury brothers received a royal warrant as the official
manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate to Queen Victoria. Through the Queen’s
endorsement, the sales of Cadbury’s Cocoa skyrocketed. Queen Victoria’s approval of
the cocoa drink was significant because it ultimately encouraged people to purchase the
product.
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Celebrities have long been used to sell products, dating back to the second half of
the nineteenth century, when public figures such as Thomas Edison and Pope Leo XIII
endorsed Vin Mariani, a potent mix of Bordeaux wine and cocaine (Keel & Nataraajan,
2012). It is stated that the creators of Vin Mariani would send cases of free wine to the
celebrities, who would write thank you notes or even endorsements that Mariani collected
and published (Karch, 2006). This, undeniably, was a strategic marketing tactic by the
creator of Vin Mariani, Angelo Mariani. One of the most recognizable faces of the
beverage was that of Pope Leo. “In the 1800s, the image of Pope Leo XIII appeared on
posters for Vin Mariani, to heighten awareness of the product (see Appendix A: Image
A2). “The pope honored the drink with a medal to show his appreciation for its
effervescence” (Cave, 2005). Thomas Edison was known to be a big fan of the wine and
endorsed Vin Mariani as well.
Alice Roosevelt Longworth, daughter of the late Theodore Roosevelt, was
featured in a 1920s print advertisement as she subtlety endorsed Pond’s Cold Cream (see
Appendix A: Image A3). She believed in guarding her beauty and keeping up
appearances, and that all women should partake in this practice. Women were able to
send in the coupon attached at the bottom of the ad and mail it in for a free sample of the
cream. Ponds knew that once the women tried the blend that kept Mrs. Longworth’s skin
so beautiful and radiant, they would be convinced to purchase the beauty product. These
and many other early celebrities of the time used print advertising to endorse products
that became very successful. It was not until a decade later that the birth of radio and
television proved to be another creative outlet for celebrity endorsement to flourish and
carry on this phenomenon.
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2.2.1 “And now…A Word from Our Sponsors.” Radio and Television: The Golden
Era
“Three of humankind’s greatest inventions, radio, cinema, and television, have
extended the scope of endorsement as an advertising technique” (Taleja, 2010, p. 2). In
its earliest stages, both radio and television used their stars to endorse products on the air.
In an article entitled Remembering Radio’s Golden Age, Johnson (2010) expressed that
the life span of radio was rather brief lasting roughly from the early 1930s until the early
1950s, reaching its’ peak in the 1940s. In retrospect, it might have ended much sooner
had World War II not stalled the development of television for a decade (Johnson, 2010).
Radio was the first mainstream communications medium to incorporate celebrity in
endorsement.
In 1920, the emergence of the first radio station, Pittsburgh’s KDKA, laid the
fundamental groundwork to the concept of using radio stars to endorse products over the
airwaves. In the beginning, commercial radio was used as an entertainment tool for mass
communication of news and music, which subsequently attracted advertisers to market
their products to a large and growing audience. KDKA was the first local radio station to
introduce and present the on air commercial. When KDKA mentioned that the records
they had been playing were purchased at a near-by department store, the store was
swamped with customers (Johnson, 2010). “Radio, although perceived and enjoyed as
entertainment, was first and foremost in the business of selling things” (Johnson, 2010, p.
32). This proposition of celebrities endorsing products over the radio proved to be an
instant success.
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By 1923, roughly three million Americans owned radios (Oracle Education
Foundation, 2010). Radio quickly became a popular recreational activity and brought
families together as they all gathered around and listened to the programs. Radio
provided a means of distraction to the harsh realities of that time. The medium was seen
as an improvement to print advertising providing the ability to reach a larger audience
faster. A single broadcast could attract thousands of listeners at one time and radio soon
became a powerful tool for influencing the ideas, opinions and buying habits of the
public. Recognition of the celebrity’s voice attracted the listener and made the product
they were promoting instantly more attractive and desirable. Johnson (2010) stated that:
To appeal to almost every possible segment of the buying public, radio offered
something for almost every possible taste. Many programs became inseparable
from their identifying products. "Soap operas," for instance, earned the name
because nearly all were sponsored by soap manufacturers. (p. 32)
The Golden Age of Radio was the first communication medium that considered the idea
of combining information, entertainment, and the use of celebrity endorsement to earn
profit and attract countless listeners. These first endorsements proved to be a lucrative
business plan for both the celebrities and the radio stations.
In radio’s golden years, there were many celebrity personalities endorsing
products on the air. Jack Benny, a well-known radio personality later turned television
star, would recite his famous Jell-O endorsement lines over the radio, “J-E-L-L-O again,
this is Jack Benny.” Benny’s radio program always incorporated his enthusiasm for the
product throughout the radio broadcast. Program announcer, Don Wilson, would often
12
read testimonial letters over the air of women who enjoyed making the Jell-O dessert for
their families (Bolen, 1939).
Radio was the primary media outlet for many notable brands during the golden
age. Throughout the 1930s, widely known sport celebrities presented product
endorsements over the radio. Legendary athletes such as Joe DiMaggio and Babe Ruth
gave testimonials over the airwaves for the popular cereal, Wheaties (Doyle, 2013).
These celebrity recommendations were a key part of the “Breakfast of Champions” radio
broadcast package (Doyle, 2013). Through radio, famed athletes were able to effectively
endorse the cereal brand. Radio once again proved that celebrity endorsed products are
irresistible to consumers.
By the late 1940s, the glint was beginning to fade on the Golden Age of Radio
and television was quickly becoming the new communications craze (Johnson, 2010).
Many radio stars and advertisers made their way over to television, and the endorsements
deals followed suit. “Consumer emigration from radio to TV was fast; by 1949 TV had
taken 41% of the radio audience and by 1951 nearly eight million TV sets were in use”
(Bradley & Bartlett, 2006, p. 26). Television was beginning to make the transition as the
next big media communications outlet.
The 1950s were an exciting time period in history for the growth of celebrity
endorsement, with the first real broadcasts of black and white television shows beginning
to play across the country. Mid-decade, color television sets and remote controls were
launched and television exploded onto the scene as a mass audience must-have in the
home. Just prior to that, in 1939, marked the official birth of commercial television at an
RCA exhibit at the New York World’s Fair, which showcased the first Presidential
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speech on television (Bradley & Bartlett, 2006). No other innovation before or since,
including newspaper, telephone, computer or radio has achieved such tremendous
popularity in such a short span. Television rapidly became the most proficient
communications medium to present celebrity endorsed merchandise.
Widely popular television shows like Lucy & Ricky built strong relationships with
their sponsors. Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz often endorsed their long-time sponsor,
Phillip Morris Cigarettes, both during and after the show. Lucy and Desi shot many
commercials for the cigarette brand, with slogans like “Light one up for Lucy.” In the
commercial, Ricky would describe the king size cigarette as “precious, smooth, mild and
mellow.” He would end the spot by saying “You’re gonna love ‘em, and were gonna
love you” (Audio Productions, Inc., 1950s). Celebrity endorsement as a marketing
communications tool increased significantly since the birth of commercial radio and
broadcast television. Over the years, television has evolved in many aspects but the
fundamental marketing tactics have remained. For the past 30 years, infomercials have
become one of the guiding principles to televised home shopping’s ultimate and
continued success.
2.3 Celebrity Endorsement: Infomercials
Prior to the start of televised home shopping channels, these new “entertainment
programs” otherwise known as infomercials took on such euphemisms as “long-form
marketing programs,” “call to action” and “direct response television.” Infomercials
became one of the most popular, effective, and persuasive ways in which celebrities
endorsed and sold their products to consumers. Direct response television is almost as
old as television itself but the true introduction of the infomercial concept originated in
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1984 with the deregulation of the television industry. At that time, deregulation in the
United States freed up stations and cable networks to sell their unprofitable, late night
slots at half-hour blocks of air time for advertising (Jefferson & King, 1992). The “free
market rule” provided the industry with a new structure for doing business. Inexpensive
air space, often during late night off peak broadcast times, was now available for
purchase. Low-cost commercials were repositioned to look like entertainment programs.
“Usually 30 minutes long, infomercials are out to sell viewers products that you probably
never heard about, often featuring a personality or celebrity you have heard about”
(Infomercials-Television's newest success, 1994, p.3). Incredibly enough, infomercials
are the only television programs in history formatted as one long commercial that
periodically breaks for shorter commercials for the very same product. These 30-minute
commercials usually have an unknowledgeable guest who asks all of the questions and an
expert who answers each question with great enthusiasm in front of a live audience. The
uninformed guest is amazed by the expert’s mastery of the product and is thrilled at how
extraordinary the product is and the unbelievable low price. “The minute you get into the
infomercial, it's hard to turn it off, and even harder to resist the sales pitch” (Infomercials-
Television's newest success, 1994). The now informed guest is convinced and feels
compelled to purchase the item.
Celebrity infomercials are organized and developed in order to attract many
viewers. In 1994, Infomercials-Television's newest success published an article in USA
Today, describing infomercials as seductive and friendly, very well produced, touching
key emotional buttons, using a familiar personality with built-in trust and reliability by
offering the bargain of a lifetime. These bargains can be paid in several easy installments.
15
To confirm it all is a supportive group of average viewers, the in-studio audience, and
those who swear by the product. If you think you're being had, there's always a money-
back guarantee. The infomercial is the high-tech version of the door-to-door salesperson
and the old-time tent-show hawker (Infomercials-Television's newest success, 1994).
Strategic maneuvers like these contributed to the overall success of celebrity driven
infomercials.
Initially, infomercials were not accepted within the celebrity circuit as a serious
business venture. In the entertainment industry, infomercials were looked down upon
and insinuated the ending of a celebrity’s career. However, well-known Hollywood
names helped to lift infomercials to a new height of visibility. Significantly enough,
celebrities changed the way consumers viewed infomercials. All throughout the 1980s
and 1990s, infomercials had become popular programming hybrids for many Hollywood
names. Infomercials featured a wide variety of recognizable celebrities who had
endorsed products anywhere from weight reduction methods to exercise machines to
cleaning gadgets to cooking appliances to skincare to anything that made the viewer
believe their life would be better with the product. Cher, a Hollywood marquee singer
and actress, sold a line of popular hair care products through a 30-minute infomercial.
Suzanne Somers, a network television star, became the national spokesperson for Thigh
Master, and later became known as one of the first stars responsible to launch the
infomercial concept. During the 1980s and 1990s, a mass celebrity following was the
latest addition to this direct marketing phenomenon that had clearly taken off. New
infomercial endeavors were aided largely by cable programmers and independent
16
television station operators who saw the infomercials as filling up airtime along with the
added bonus of generating revenue (Yu, 1992). In 1992, Deborah Yu expressed,
Infomercials have grown from nothing in 1984 to $500 million worth of product
revenues in 1990, according to the National Infomercial Marketing Association.
The 1991 estimates run about $800 million. The industry realized that "to be a
long term, viable, mainstream marketing and advertising tool, they needed to gain
acceptance by the top advertisers," said Rader Hayes, a visiting professor of
marketing at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, N.J., who specializes in
infomercials (Yu, 1992).
Another key to the infomercial’s success is its time placement and lack of competition in
surrounding programming. Long-form ads generally run late at night and often give
viewers a fresh programming alternative (Dietrich, 1995). Dan Kennedy, head
infomercial consultant and producer at Kennedy & Associates says, “In some time slots,
like two in the morning, competition's not real tough. Often if you're channel surfing, the
most entertaining thing on is an infomercial” (Dietrich, 1995, p. 19). Infomercials have
become another form of entertainment for the viewer to enjoy.
In 2002, Mctavish revealed that infomercials were a $125 billion dollar industry,
as reported by Leisure Trends Group of Boulder Colorado. The market company also
estimated 10 years earlier that nearly two-thirds of Americans 16 and older would have
seen a direct-response television advertisement, which translates to 136.2 million
viewers. The research company discovered that one in four American viewers disclosed
that they have purchased an infomercial product, primarily by calling a toll-free 800-
telephone number. Leisure Trends Group also exposed that viewers were more likely to
17
trust infomercials than Congress, used car salesmen and corporate executives (Mctavish,
2002). It was previously announced that in 1995 by Infomercial Monitoring Service Inc.,
a suburban Philadelphia business that tracks the industry, there were 275 infomercials
airing in the U.S., filling 2,000 time slots every week (Dietrich, 1995).
Celebrities seem to be a part of infomercials for many different reasons. Rick
Bradley, an agent at the William Morris Agency of Beverly Hills, said, “With more
studios watching the bottom line, actors find infomercials a welcome source of income.
With fewer and fewer pilots being shot, studios are careful about how much money they
spend. It's a new avenue for celebrities to generate income and get exposure” (Yu, 1992).
Some celebrities attach their name to a product simply for a fee but other celebrities
endorse products because it is their original creation. In recent years, an increasing
number of celebrities have been creating and branding their own lines of products, as
opposed to merely endorsing other companies’ merchandise. Former heavyweight
champion George Foreman created and branded his own successful line of cookware,
known as Foreman Grills. This was one of the first examples of a celebrity branding his
own product from conception to execution.
The infomercial's mass public appeal does not surprise most individuals within
the television industry. "We live in a society where the borders between what is
entertainment and what is advertising, between what is news and what is advertising,
have become very blurred” says Media Scholar Stuart Ewen, teacher at City University of
New York (Mctavish, 2002). Marty Kaplan, associate dean of the University of Southern
California's Annenberg School and director of the Center for Entertainment Studies,
agrees that the barriers are breaking down between advertising and entertainment, but it
18
has been happening for a while (Mctavish, 2002). "Infomercials may coarsen the culture,
but we live in a system in which the market determines everything. And as long as
people watch these things and order from them, they'll continue,” he said (Mctavish,
2002). Kaplan goes on to say, "These infomercials have hosts who tap into a kind of
epidemic of loneliness in our country. They're as much our imaginary friends as the
people who are on soap operas. You get to know who they are” (Mctavish, 2002). The
viewer develops a fascination and becomes emotionally attached to the celebrity.
Celebrity involvement in these infomercials increases both viewership and appeal.
The involvement of famous Hollywood celebrities in an infomercial creates a link
between the celebrity endorser and the consumer perception and attitude towards the
product (Dash & Sabat, 2012). Dash and Sabat (2012) agreed,
Specific image, high profile and familiarly of a celebrity endorser make the
advertisement distinctive and thus improve the communicative ability (as cited in
Atkin and Block, 1983; Sherman, 1985). The use of celebrity spokespersons
helps advertisers to stand out from the crowd and gain attention (as cited in
Kaikati, 1987). Research has shown that in general celebrity endorsement
influences the feelings of consumers and can also influence the attitude the
consumers have towards the advertisement and attitudes towards the brand, which
can increase the purchase intentions and, consequently, increase sales. Academic
findings and company reports safely argue that celebrity endorsers are more
effective than non-celebrity endorsers when it comes to generating all desirable
outcomes e.g. attitude towards advertising and endorsed brand, intensions to
purchase and actual sales. (as cited in Erogan, 1999) (Dash & Sabat, 2012)
19
Celebrities provide the endorsed brand with a “face” in the infomercial. Viewers react to
the celebrities’ personality, status within society, and perceived expertise of the product.
In most cases, the use of a celebrity will create a positive image and appeal to the viewer,
particularly if the viewer already happens to be a fan of the celebrity. In recent years,
celebrity endorsement in infomercials has escalated to a higher status level. In 2012,
Keel and Nataraajan conveyed,
Indeed, it has been noted that the media frenzy surrounding celebrities is reflected
in the advertising arena, where 25% of all advertising features a celebrity (as cited
in Shimp, 2003), which is an increase from the late 1970s, when 17% of
advertisements featured celebrities (as cited in Howard, 1979). One of the reasons
provided for the increase in celebrity endorsements is that celebrities can help
advertisements stand out (as cited in Erdogan, 1999) and enter new markets. (as
cited in Blecken, 2009; Sherman, 1985) (Keel & Nataraajan, 2012)
Celebrities provide the ultimate appeal for the products advertised. It is the celebrity’s
attributes that are behind the success of the infomercial. Celebrities are often physically
attractive, convey a sense of trustworthiness, relatability and similarity towards the
viewer, a level of respect, and an expertise and knowledge about the product.
The infomercial industry was in many ways the precursor to the Home Shopping
Network (HSN) and QVC, which are essentially 24 hour, 7 days a week mini
infomercials. “Infomercials have come to resemble mainstream programming so much
that they have created stars and now rely heavily on celebrities to market products”
(Cooper, 1994). Much like infomercials have evolved, televised home shopping channels
are also product driven, price driven and celebrity driven.
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2.4 Celebrity Endorsement: Televised Home Shopping Channels
Purchasing products through the television has virtually changed the way people
shop forever. Televised home shopping channels are designed to grab the viewer’s
immediate attention and create the need for an impulse purchase. “From their modest
beginning in the mid 1980s, home shopping channels have grown to encompass
audiences of millions on several continents” (McDonald, 1995). Today, the two most
successful television home shopping channels, QVC and HSN, generate an approximate
combined total of 11 billion dollars in yearly revenue (Zakarin, 2012). William
McDonald (1995), an assistant professor of marketing and international business at
Hofstra University believes,
Although originally a vehicle for the sale of merchandise at discount prices, these
channels have broadened their range of items and offered more entertaining
programming. The current schedule includes celebrities, sophisticated
promotional techniques, and theme oriented merchandise events designed to make
this shopping experience a major leisure time activity (McDonald, 1995).
Celebrities are able to attract viewers directly to these home-shopping channels.
“Furthermore, because of their fame, celebrities serve not only to create and maintain
attention, but to also achieve high recall rates for marketing communication messages in
today’s highly cluttered environments” (Erdogan, 1999). These famous faces provide an
allure and draw the viewer in to watch the home shopping program and subsequently,
purchase the product.
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2.4.1 HSN – Home Shopping Network, Inc.
HSN, formerly known as Home Shopping Network, Inc., was the very first
televised home shopping channel. “HSN is an interactive multi-channel retailer offering
experiences through various platforms including television, online, mobile, in catalogs
and in retail and outlet stores through its two operating segments, HSN and Cornerstone”
(HSN, Inc., 2012). The idea for the Home Shopping Network originated in 1977 when a
man named Lowell W. Paxton, owner of a small AM radio station in Clearwater, Florida,
began to lose his listeners to FM alternatives (International Directory of Company
History, 2004). Soon after that, Paxton began to lose advertisers. He decided to sell
merchandise including electric can openers over the radio, which turned his previous
easy-listening music format into an in-home radio shopping service, known to listeners as
the “Suncoast Bargaineers” (HSN Company History, 2013). Paxton soon realized the
enormous opportunity in this new concept and asked his friend Roy M. Speer to help
finance his new endeavor. Almost immediately after the switch in Paxton’s radio format,
the station's revenues swelled so much that Paxson and Speer were eager to try out their
home shopping idea on television (International Directory of Company History, 2004).
The two men called their new local television program, the Home Shopping Club,
otherwise known as HSC.
HSC was turning a profit within the first three months. In 1985, HSC was so
successful that it went national and broadcast 24 hours a day on cable and local TV,
calling itself the Home Shopping Network (HSN Company History, 2013). The rest of
the story is history. Currently, HSN stands in as the second-largest shop-at-home
television network in the United States, just behind QVC (International Directory of
22
Company History, 2004). “The company continued to broaden its national distribution
network through a combination of cable, satellite and broadcast systems and, as of
December 31, 2012, the HSN television networks reached approximately 95.0 million
residential homes in the United States” (HSN, Inc., 2012). Even more customers can
watch and purchase online, available through its HSN.com website. The Home Shopping
Network began conducting business online in 1994 and formally launched HSN.com, the
online shopping portal for the HSN television network, in 1999 (HSN, Inc., 2012). New
applications now allow users to watch and shop on the iPhone and other mobile hand-
held devices.
HSN offers a more traditional retail operation under its Cornerstone division.
That department of HSN sells home and lifestyle products under seven different brands
through catalogues and 23 retail stores (International Directory of Company History,
2004). HSN has millions of devout followers, with a loyal customer base of 4.6 million
active shoppers to be exact (Moss, 2011). Most of HSN’s customer base is female,
ranging from 25 years old to over 65 years old. The majority of HSN customers are
homeowners, with a typical household income of $65,000 a year or more (Moss, 2011).
“HSN strives to transform the shopping experience by incorporating experts,
entertainment, inspiration, solutions, tips and ideas in connection with the sale of
products” (HSN, Inc., 2012).
2.4.2 QVC, Inc.
QVC is currently the nation's largest televised home shopping network. “QVC,
Inc. markets and sells a wide variety of consumer products primarily through live
televised shopping programs distributed to approximately 214 million worldwide
23
households each day and via our websites and other interactive media, including
QVC.com” (QVC, Inc., 2012, p. I-1).
Joseph M. Segel, founder of the Franklin Mint Corporation, founded QVC
Network in July 1986. “He named the company QVC to represent its three guiding
principles: Quality, Value, and Convenience. These values were created to build trust
with consumers, creating lifetime, avid fans” (QVC: About QVC, 2013). Segel, perhaps
best known originally as a mail-order marketer of commemorative coins, was an
established entrepreneur who saw an opportunity to create a new and engaging shopping
experience through television broadcasts (International Directory of Company History,
2004).
QVC began broadcasting in November of 1986 and full-time programming began
in January of 1987, which were transmitted from the company's then modest headquarters
in West Chester, Pennsylvania (International Directory of Company History, 2004). The
QVC headquarters still remains in West Chester, Pennsylvania today. Soon after the
programs went on the air, QVC gained a steady following with enormous room for
potential growth and opportunity. According to the International Directory of Company
History of QVC (2004):
“As QVC gained financial strength, the company also garnered new respectability
for its industry, which tended to have a reputation for marketing cheap
merchandise. In contrast to the older networks' "fast-paced, hard-sell route, with
heavy emphasis on price-cutting and savings," according to Women’s Wear Daily,
QVC took “an intimate, soft-sell approach by using a talk-show format with hosts,
placing emphasis on product information more than on price. This approach was
24
enhanced by the network's growing cast of celebrity regulars, who sold their name
brand products and took viewer calls” (International Directory of Company
History, 2004).
QVC broadcasts live 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and continues to hold an impressive
television presence in all of its markets in the United States and Worldwide. QVC
distributes its television programs via satellite or optical fiber, to television distributors
for retransmission to subscribers that receive the programming signals (QVC, Inc., 2012).
QVC, the nation’s largest electronic retailer, receives a call from viewers every 2.5
seconds (Rouvalispost, 1997). QVC is the televised shopping leader after building a
track record of outstanding quality and customer service, establishing favorable channel
positioning and generating repeat business from its core customer base (QVC, Inc.,
2012). In 2012, QVC reported that its work force of approximately 17,000 employees
handled approximately 171 million customer calls, shipped over 166 million units
globally and served approximately 11.5 million customers (QVC, Inc., 2012). According
to QVC’s: About QVC section of their website (2013):
Today, QVC is the world's leading video and ecommerce retailer, offering a
curated collection of desirable brands to millions of customers around the globe
each day through broadcast, Internet, and mobile sales outlets. QVC is available
in over 200 million homes worldwide through its broadcast programming in the
U.S., U.K., Germany, Japan, and Italy (QVC: About QVC, 2013).
One of the key variables to QVC’s ultimate success is the influence of celebrity on its
company brand. QVC’s 2012 10-K Annual Report states that QVC maintains
agreements with celebrities, entrepreneurs and designers that enable it to provide
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entertaining and engaging programming in addition to developing a lifestyle bond with its
customers. These celebrity personalities and product representatives often provide pre-
appearance publicity for their QVC products on other television shows, enhancing
demand during their QVC appearances (QVC, Inc., 2012). In addition, these celebrity
personalities make use of their social media accounts as a form of publicity as well.
2.5 Celebrity Endorsement turned Celebrity-Branding: Connecting Home Shopping
Channels, Their Celebrities, and Customers
Throughout history, the concept of celebrity endorsement has evolved and
continued to develop through the decades by employing different communications media.
Today, premier celebrity brands make up the majority of products sold on home shopping
channels. Now more than ever, in-home shopping networks such as HSN and QVC are
the go-to place for celebrity clothing and accessory lines. “Parts talk show, reality TV
and mega-money enterprise, the shopping network has an obsessive fan base, major
celebrity pull and a round-the-clock pace” (Zakarin, 2012). This “explosion” of celebrity
endorsed home shopping network shows and celebrity branded product lines continues to
multiply and expand. More and more celebrities are jumping on the “home-shopping
channel band-wagon” and collaborating with outside sources to create their brand for in-
home television.
“Celebrity endorsement has gained great importance since last decade. Today,
the use of celebrity advertising for companies has become a trend and a perceived
winning formula of corporate image building and product marketing” (Dash & Sabat,
2012, p. 192). Televised home shopping networks address the need for convenient
shopping and quality products available at affordable prices and it certainly doesn’t hurt
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the image of home shopping networks when trendy celebrities get in on the action
(Wilson, 2008). Nowadays, more celebrities are searching for the right home shopping
platform and are collaborating with reputable outside sources to create their own brand
for in-home television.
QVC’s hefty audience is attracting buzz worthy types, booking celebrity
endorsers with major youth appeal (Grover, 2006). Some of QVC’s highest profile stars
include Jennifer Hudson, Heidi Klum, Nicole Richie, the Kardashian’s, Rachel Zoe, Lisa
Rinna and Joan Rivers. Not to be outdone, QVC’s archrival, HSN, has been linked to a
slew of famous faces for partnerships in fashion, beauty, and accessories, including
Mariah Carey, Mary J. Blige, Iman, Serena Williams, Tori Spelling, Susan Lucci and
Twiggy (Tran, 2012). These and many other celebrities have taken advantage of their
star power to create and endorse brands on home shopping channels.
Influential celebrities are taking full advantage of home shopping channels. Heidi
Klum, a German television personality, model and entrepreneur launched her costume
jewelry line called Wildlife by Heidi Klum in fall of 2011 (Lipke, 2011). The collection
is comprised of statement pieces, including cocktail rings, necklaces, earrings and
bracelets with all of her items retailing from 30 to 200 dollars (Lipke, 2011). Doug
Howe, executive vice president of merchandising, planning, and sales at QVC, said “On
her debut show, all our product sold out in 36 minutes” (Lipke, 2011). Home shopping
stars like Klum are very engaged in their styles and with their customers.
Another popular celebrity, Nicole Richie, is also benefiting from home shopping
channels. “QVC is a well-oiled machine and to be in business with them is so exciting
because it gives me an opportunity to design for a much broader range of women,” said
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Nicole Richie, celebrity daughter of Lionel Richie (Medina, 2012). Richie goes on to
say, “I want to connect with the women watching by letting them know that we are
similar in many ways; I’m a mother of two and I work. We all want to feel relaxed on
the inside but stylish on the outside. And that’s what I’m trying to provide” (Medina,
2012). Richie offers a bohemian-chic clothing line on QVC. She is able to endorse her
clothing line to a much wider audience through the home shopping channel. “Nicole
represents a unique combination of designer and celebrity,” executive vice president of
merchandising, planning, and sales Doug Howe mentions (Medina, 2012). Nicole
Richie’s line has been a hit, and is in talks with QVC to roll out an expanded line that is
slated to include blouses, dresses, skirts and additional handbags (Morris, 2012).
Reality television superstars such as the Kardashian sisters debuted their exclusive
line on QVC in September of 2010 (Tran, 2010). The line, K-Dash, is a combination of
apparel and accessories. In collaboration with Ginny Hilfiger, sister of Tommy Hilfiger,
the Kardashian’s approve every fabric and piece in the collection (Tran, 2010). When
Kourtney, Kim, and Khloe appear on the home shopping network, they always interact
with their fans right before, during, and after their live show through their Twitter
accounts. Most celebrities with unique product lines on home shopping channels utilize
their Twitter accounts to engage and interact with their fans and customers. This social
networking relationship is another component contributing to the outstanding success of
celebrity driven products on home shopping channels.
2.5.1 Connecting Through Twitter
Modern social media technology have helped to bridge the gap between home
shopping networks, celebrities and their in-home shopping customers. Twitter, currently
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the most popular celebrity driven social medium, enables celebrities affiliated with home
shopping channels to connect and interact with their customers and fans by creating and
sharing content. Celebrities use their personal Twitter accounts to endorse and brand
their home shopping product lines by sharing personal information with their followers.
Many celebrities who have jewelry or fashion lines with home shopping channels also
have personal Twitter accounts. The home shopping networks also have Twitter
accounts.
It is significant to explore the connections between the growing trend of shopping
in-home, the fascination with celebrity culture and the enormous impact social media has
on society. Marwick & Boyd (2011) declared that:
The site launched in 2006 and broke into the mainstream in 2008–2009, when
user accounts and media attention exponentially increased. Twitter had
approximately 18.2 million users in May 2009 (as cited in Nielsen Company,
2009), increasing to 27.2 million by January 2010 (as cited in Quantcast
Corporation, 2010). As of 2010, the most-followed Twitter users are well-known
organizations like CNN and Whole Foods, very famous people and public figures,
from President Barack Obama to actor Ashton Kutcher and pop star Britney
Spears. While Twitter can be used as a broadcast medium, the dialogic nature of
Twitter and its ability to facilitate conversation has contributed substantially to its
popularity. (Marwick & Boyd, 2011)
The micro-blogging social media site, Twitter, offers an enormous platform for both
home shopping channels and affiliated celebrities to connect with their customers and
fans to endorse their product lines. According to Marwick & Boyd (2011), celebrities use
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their Twitter accounts to develop and maintain an audience, as well as ongoing
maintenance of that said fan base. A study by Marwick & Boyd (2011) involved a
thorough analysis of celebrity Twitter users and found that celebrity practice involves
presenting a seemingly authentic, intimate image of self while meeting fan expectations
and maintaining important relationships. This celebrity practice involves ongoing
maintenance of a fan base, performed intimacy, authenticity and access, and construction
of a consumable persona (Marwick & Boyd, 2011). Celebrities invest in this social
media platform as it allows them to create a sustainable bond with their fans.
“Twitter allows celebrity practitioners to create a sense of closeness and
familiarity between themselves and their followers” (Marwick & Boyd, 2011 p. 147).
Both the home shopping network and attached celebrity utilize Twitter in developing and
maintaining strong relationships with their customers and fans. Celebrities often tweet
information about an upcoming appearance on air, provide a link to a product they are
currently selling, or a personal photo taken backstage as they are about to go live on
television. These Twitter practices are ways in which home shopping networks and
attached celebrities provide a first-person glimpse into their lives. Following a famous
person’s Tweets over a period of time may create an equally valid feeling of ‘knowing’
them. Twitter creates a new standard of intimacy between the home shopping channel,
celebrity and consumer.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This case study consists of a qualitative content analysis of QVC’s Twitter
account, representing the home shopping channel’s social media presence in relation to
its celebrity endorsements. All tweets relating to or mention of a celebrity or celebrity’s
product line were recorded and coded. Data were gathered with the intention of exposing
how this home shopping channel in particular utilizes its celebrities and Twitter, as a way
to interact with its customers and a way to endorse its celebrity affiliated brands.
3.2 Criteria for Content Analysis
In order to better identify and explore the relationships between a home shopping
channel and its affiliated celebrities and customers, the researcher chose to study the
leading US home shopping channel, QVC. This well established home shopping channel
is one of the largest multi-media retailers in the world. QVC has a current US customer
base of 7.3 million active customers, of which 64% are women between 35 and 64 years
old (Armstrong, 2013). One in-home shopping network was chosen for this study
because the network selected represented an all-encompassing variety of celebrity
endorsed product lines to be examined. QVC sells about 1,150 different items a week,
with a majority of those products being celebrity endorsed (Zakarin, 2012). These
impressive numbers have provided a solid basis to move forward with this qualitative
content analysis study.
Another criteria point, for the chosen home shopping channel to be analyzed, was
that the network itself must have a verified Twitter account. A verified Twitter account
could be determined by indentifying a check mark inside a blue circle next to the account
31
holders’ name. In order for the study to be conducted, the home shopping channel
selected must have a verified Twitter account as well as consistent updates made by the
home shopping channel’s “behind the scenes” staff. The home shopping channel’s
established and frequently used Twitter account was necessary in order to proceed with
the content analysis, as it was the very foundation for this comprehensive study. Twitter
is the most preferred celebrity driven social media platform today and therefore Twitter
was an indisputable choice when determining which social media to examine in
conjunction to the home shopping channel selected.
In addition to determining if the home shopping channel QVC had a active
Twitter account, it was important to confirm that most, if not all, the celebrities with
product lines at QVC had verified and active Twitter accounts as well. Verified celebrity
Twitter accounts would prove necessary in order to accurately answer the second
research question established in Chapter One. Both QVC and its affiliated celebrities’
Twitter feeds would play a vital part in observing and interpreting how QVC’s Twitter
account represents its celebrities and their product endorsements.
A final criteria point to be determined before conducting this content analysis was
that only specific celebrity affiliated Tweets that were in any way related to a celebrity
were chosen as part of the research sample. Tweets were only observed and collected if
they had an affiliation to one of QVC’s celebrity endorsed product lines. For the
purposes of this study, a celebrity figure was defined as a person who is easily recognized
and well known by society and portrays a degree of public fascination and influence in
everyday media (Merriam-Webster, 2013). Persons used in this study are all famous or
32
celebrated figures and therefore celebrities in their own right, whether it is as famous
comedians, reality stars, or super models.
The researcher wanted to explore QVC’s Twitter relationship with an assembly of
its affiliated celebrities and customers over a specified time period. The researcher
determined QVC’s programming lineup during the specified time period in which the
study was to be conducted and when several celebrities, in particular, had on-air
appearances. Celebrities with on-air appearances during the time period allotted for the
study were directly reflected on QVC’s Twitter feed. The combined quantity and variety
of celebrities with on-air appearances during this collection time period made for a
thorough assortment of Tweets to be recorded and later coded. A total of 12 celebrities
were chosen in this way to eliminate any bias.
Celebrities in this study included Joan Rivers, an entertainment legend and
internationally renowned comedian; Rachel Zoe, a famous fashion stylist, designer, and
star of Bravo’s reality show, The Rachel Zoe Project; Nicole Richie, celebrity host of
NBC’s Fashion Star and daughter to music legend Lionel Richie; Bethany Frankel,
break-out reality star of Bravo’s Real Housewives of New York, best selling author, and
creator of Skinnygirl Cocktails; Melania Trump, a former model and wife of millionaire
mogul Donald Trump; Josie Maran, a previous Maybelline model and movie actress; Kris
Jenner, the famous “Momager” to the Kardashian empire; Vanessa Williams, the first
African American woman crowned Miss America, singer and actress; Lisa Rinna, a prior
soap actress on Days of Our Lives and reality TV star; Tabatha Coffey, a famous
hairstylist and host of her own Bravo show, Tabatha Takes Over; Jennifer Hudson, a
33
finalist on American Idol and Grammy Award winning singer; and Heidi Klum, world-
renowned Super Model and host of the Lifetime channel’s Project Runway.
3.3 Data Collection and Procedure
In order to better understand this phenomenon and successfully answer the
research questions for this content analysis study, the most well-known home shopping
television network, QVC, was chosen to represent this study. QVC works with a variety
of popular celebrities who endorse their product lines on the home shopping channel,
therefore providing a plethora of information for the study.
3.3.1 QVC’s Twitter Account
The home shopping network, QVC, has its own verified Twitter handle, which is
@QVC. A verified Twitter account was determined by identifying a check mark inside a
blue circle next to the home shopping channel’s name. Its Twitter tagline reads, “The
scoop on everything Q, one hashtag at a time” (QVC Tweets, 2013). QVC’s Twitter
account also provides a link for direct access to its website, http://www.qvc.com (QVC
Tweets, 2013). QVC’s Twitter account currently has 85,561 followers and continues to
grow daily (QVC Tweets, 2013). Among its 30,689 actual Tweets generated, most are in
connection with their affiliated celebrities (QVC Tweets, 2013).
3.3.2 Affiliated Celebrities’ Twitter Accounts
For the purposes of this study, in addition to QVC’s verified Twitter
account, its affiliated celebrities must also have verified Twitter accounts. All 12 of the
celebrity’s used in this study have verified Twitter accounts. A verified Twitter account
was determined by identifying a check mark inside a blue circle next to the celebrity’s
34
name. All 12 of the celebrities used in this study generate Tweets through their personal
Twitter accounts. These Twitter accounts are denoted as follows:
• Joan River’s Twitter handle is @Joan_Rivers. She has approximately
1,710,739 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/Joan_Rivers). Rivers
also provides a direct link to her Joan Rivers Classics Collection QVC page
on her Twitter page.
• Rachel Zoe’s Twitter handle is @RachelZoe. Zoe has approximately
1,582,521 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/RachelZoe).
• Nicole Richie’s Twitter handle is @nicolerichie. Richie has approximately
4,065,468 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/nicolerichie).
• Bethenny Frankel’s Twitter handle is @Bethenny. Frankel has
approximately 1,199,355 Twitter followers
(http://www.twitter.com/Bethenny).
• Melania Trump’s Twitter handle is @MELANIATRUMP. Trump has
approximately 19,137 Twitter followers
(http://www.twitter.com/MELANIATRUMP).
• Josie Maran’s Twitter handle is @josie_maran. Maran has approximately
28,599 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/josie_maran).
• Kris Jenner’s Twitter handle is @KrisJenner. Jenner has approximately
2,971,305 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/KrisJenner).
• Vanessa Williams’s Twitter handle is @VMOfficial. Williams has
approximately 231,013 Twitter followers
(http://www.twitter.com/VWOfficial).
35
• Lisa Rinna’s Twitter handle is @lisarinna. Rinna has approximately 211,923
Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/lisarinna).
• Tabatha Coffey’s Twitter handle is @tabathacoffey. Coffey has
approximately 190,882 Twitter followers
(http://www.twitter.com/tabathacoffey).
• Jennifer Hudson’s Twitter handle is @IAMJHUD. Hudson has
approximately 2,086,648 Twitter followers
(http://www.twitter.com/IAMJHUD).
• Heidi Klum’s Twitter handle is @heidiklum. Klum has approximately
1,489,600 Twitter followers (http://www.twitter.com/heidiklum).
3.3.3 Collection of Tweets
The collection of Tweets chosen for the study was based solely on the criteria
point as stated above that any and all Tweets related to or affiliated with a celebrity or
celebrity's product and/or product line were chosen as part of the research sample.
Tweets were only observed and collected if they had any connection to one of QVC’s
celebrity endorsed product or product lines. These Tweets were related to the celebrity
and/or the celebrity’s home shopping channel product line. These specific Tweets were
recorded in order to discover the ways in which QVC and their affiliated celebrities use
Twitter to endorse their product(s), interact with QVC and interact with their customers.
The researcher created a Twitter account to observe QVC’s Twitter feed. The
researcher created the Twitter handle @JessicaThesis1 to track and record all celebrity
related Tweets on the researcher’s personal Twitter page. In addition to
@JessicaThesis1’s personal Twitter page, a word document table was kept to organize,
36
log and track all related Tweets. Prior to creating the coding instructions and determining
the types of Tweets and their respective categories, the researcher examined several
Tweets made by QVC before Sunday, January 6th, 2013. This exploration of Tweets
provided the researcher with possible ideas for Tweet types and categories for future
coding.
The content analysis for QVC’s Twitter account was collected beginning Sunday,
January 6th, 2013, and ended Wednesday, February 6th, 2013. The Tweets were all
recorded in Eastern Standard Time. All relative data were collected over a 32-day time
span. The researcher wanted to track QVC’s Twitter account for a sufficient amount of
time, in order to determine any trends or patterns within the data.
During the time period in which the data for the content analysis were collected,
each Tweet was recorded on a word document table for data organizational purposes, as
well as time efficient purposes for the later coding process. QVC’s Twitter account was
checked once per day to record any new Tweets made the previous day. For example, on
Friday, February 1st, 2013, the researcher logged onto Twitter and checked QVC’s page
to record any related Tweets made at any time on Thursday, January 31st, 2013. This
made for a simple and efficient way to gather the necessary data. When QVC Tweeted,
the exact time of that Tweet was recorded as well. The exact time of a Tweet made could
be found by placing the cursor in the upper right-hand corner of the Tweet, hovering over
the date, and revealing the time it was generated. The time and date, including the actual
Tweet generated, were recorded into the table (see Appendix B: Collection of @QVC
Tweets). At the end of the 32nd day, a total of 65 celebrity related @QVC Tweets were
recorded and compiled in an organized table (see Appendix B: Collection of @QVC
37
Tweets). The Collection of @QVC Tweets table included the number of the Tweet, date
Tweet was generated, exact time Tweet was generated, and actual Tweet generated in
140 characters or less. All 65 of these Tweets would be analyzed and coded for further
exploration.
3.3.4 Coding the Tweets
The researcher created a set of Coding Instructions for the types of Tweets the
researcher and volunteers would be looking for when analyzing the Collection of @QVC
Tweets table. The researcher developed 13 separate categories with a detailed description
of the category to further determine what type of category the Tweet belonged. Detailed
descriptions of Tweet types provided a more accurate placement of Tweets during
coding.
The researcher wanted to explore 13 types of classifications between QVC’s
Twitter and its affiliated celebrities and their customers. These classifications, also
known as the Tweet Categories, were created in an attempt to explore and understand
connections in regards to the use of celebrity pictures included in Tweets, direct product
links included in Tweets, and Retweets made by the QVC hosts, affiliated celebrities or
the customers and fans themselves. The researcher also wanted to explore the connection
with celebrity and customer/fan conversations on Twitter. Furthermore, the researcher
wanted to explore the use of QVC’s Twitter account in regards to how it promotes a
celebrity’s upcoming television appearance.
3.4 Data Analysis
Once all of the affiliated Tweets are gathered, the researcher and two volunteers
coded the information to verify if any of the Tweets met any of the 13 Tweet Categories
38
(see Appendix B: Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets). To establish reliability and
absolutely no bias in the coding of the Tweets, the researcher sought after two volunteers,
referred to as Coder A and Coder B to appropriately code the material. After the 32-day’s
worth of data was collected in the Collection of @QVC Tweets table, Coder A and Coder
B began coding the material in categories following the coding instructions. The
researcher provided the volunteer coders with the official coding instructions sheet (see
Appendix B: Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets). The volunteer coders
independently coded the Tweets into the appropriate categories, following the specified
guidelines within the coding instructions.
All of the chosen QVC Tweets, 65 in total, were categorized into 13 original
Tweet categories that the researcher created and coined phrases to. These Tweet
Categories included Shout-out Tweet, Mention Tweet, Hashtag Tweet, Picture Tweet,
Product Link Tweet, Host Retweet, Celebrity Retweet, Customer/Fan Retweet, Celebrity
Conversation Tweet, Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet, Upcoming Airing Tweet, Tune
In Now Tweet and Live Show Streaming Tweet.
A Shout-out Tweet is any @QVC Tweet, which directly referenced or included a
celebrity within a Tweet. A Shout-out Tweet could be signified by the @ symbol as part
of a celebrity's Twitter handle, therefore displaying a celebrity's direct association within
a @QVC Tweet. A Shout-out Tweet could include a reference to a celebrity’s product or
product line as well. By including a celebrity’s Twitter handle, a celebrity receives a
notification of the generated Tweet. An example of a Shout-out Tweet within the
research sample was a Tweet generated January 30th, 2013 at 1:39 p.m. EST, as shown in
Figure 1:
39
A Mention Tweet is any @QVC Tweet, which simply stated or included a
celebrity or a celebrity’s product or product line within a Tweet. A Mention Tweet could
be determined by a simple mention of a celebrity and no direct reference of a celebrity,
therefore no @ symbol or inclusion of a celebrity’s Twitter handle. A celebrity does not
receive any notification for a Mention Tweet. An example of a Mention Tweet within the
research sample was a Tweet generated January 30th, 2013 at 2:58 p.m. EST, as reflected
in Figure 2.
A Hashtag Tweet is any @QVC Tweet signified by the # symbol. As stated by
Twitter, the # symbol, also known as a hashtag, is used to mark keywords or topics in a
Tweet. Twitter users created it organically as a way to categorize messages. Hashtagged
words that become very popular are often Trending Topics (Twitter Help Center, 2012).
Trending Topics can allow both QVC and the affiliated celebrity to reach a higher
Figure 1. Screenshot of Shout-out Tweet
Figure 2. Screenshot of Mention Tweet
40
recognition and a Trending Topic could serve as an additional advertising tool. An
example of a Hashtag Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet generated January
25th, 2013 at 1:00 a.m. EST, as seen in Figure 3.
A Picture Tweet is any @QVC Tweet with a photograph included in a Tweet. A
Picture Tweet could include a photo of the celebrity promoting or endorsing their product
and/or product line or a “behind the scenes” photo taken on the QVC set backstage. An
example of a Picture Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet generated January
25th, 2013 at 12:25 p.m. EST, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Screenshot of Hashtag Tweet
41
A Product Link Tweet is any @QVC Tweet distinguished by a celebrity's product
and/or product line direct link included in a Tweet. A Product Link Tweet includes a
hyperlinked direct link within a Tweet in which a customer could click on and be
redirected to a celebrity's product line QVC webpage. An example of a Product Link
Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet generated February 2nd, 2013 at 7:00 p.m.
EST, as reflected in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Screenshot of Picture Tweet
Figure 5. Screenshot of Product Link Tweet
42
A Host Retweet is any @QVC Tweet originally generated by a QVC host and
“Retweeted” by the home shopping channel. The hosts at QVC participate in Retweeting
frequently as it is another method of endorsement and promotion of their upcoming airing
with an affiliated celebrity. The hosts at QVC Retweet when they notice a celebrity's
Tweet about an upcoming on-air appearance they have with a host or about a product
they are going to sell together in the future. An example of a Host Retweet within the
research sample was a Tweet generated January 14th, 2013 at 4:08 p.m. EST, as seen in
Figure 6.
A Celebrity Retweet is any @QVC Tweet originally generated by an affiliated
celebrity and was “Retweeted” by the home shopping channel. Anytime QVC Retweeted
any affiliated celebrity’s original Tweet, that Tweet was recorded and logged as a
Celebrity Retweet. An example of a Celebrity Retweet within the research sample was a
Tweet generated February 5th, 2013 at 12:20 p.m. EST, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Screenshot of Host Retweet
43
A Customer/Fan Retweet is any @QVC Tweet originally generated by a customer
and/or fan of an affiliated celebrity and was “Retweeted” by the home shopping channel.
Anytime QVC Retweeted any customer or fan’s original Tweet, that Tweet was recorded
and logged as a Customer/Fan Retweet. An example of a Customer/Fan Retweet within
the research sample was a Tweet generated January 14th, 2013 at 12:14 p.m. EST, as
reflected in Figure 8.
A Celebrity Conversation Tweet is any @QVC Tweet that was part of a Twitter
conversation between a celebrity and the home shopping channel. A Celebrity
Conversation Tweet was signified by a minimum two Tweet dialogue between the
affiliated celebrity and QVC. Anytime the researcher observed a conversation between a
celebrity and QVC, that Tweet was recorded and logged as a Celebrity Conversation
Tweet. An example of a Celebrity Conversation Tweet within the research sample was a
Tweet generated January 24th, 2013 at 1:39 p.m. EST, as seen in Figure 9.
Figure 7. Screenshot of Celebrity Retweet
Figure 8. Screenshot of Customer/Fan Retweet
44
A Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet is any @QVC Tweet that was part of a
Twitter conversation between a customer and/or fan of an affiliated celebrity and the
home shopping channel. A Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet was signified by a
minimum two Tweet dialogue between the customer/fan, an affiliated celebrity and the
home shopping channel. Anytime the researcher observed a conversation between a
customer/fan, celebrity, and the home shopping channel, that Tweet was recorded and
logged as a Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet. An example of a Customer/Fan
Conversation Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet generated February 2nd,
2013 at 6:20 p.m. EST, as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 9. Screenshot of Celebrity Conversation Tweet
45
An Upcoming Airing Tweet is any @QVC Tweet specifically mentioning a
celebrity upcoming on air appearance with a specific time and/or date included in the
Tweet. A specific time and/or date must be included within the Tweet in order for it to
be deemed an Upcoming Airing Tweet. Anytime the researcher observed a Tweet
incorporating a future appearance that provided a day and time to watch live on
television, that Tweet was recorded and logged as an Upcoming Airing Tweet. An
example of an Upcoming Airing Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet
generated January 24th, 2013 at 10:02 p.m. EST, as reflected in Figure 11.
A Tune In Now Tweet was any @QVC Tweet that indirectly asked the customer
or fan to “tune in now” to QVC’s live television broadcast. A Tune In Now Tweet was
Figure 10. Screenshot of Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet
Figure 11. Screenshot of Upcoming Airing Tweet
46
determined by its correspondence with the live broadcast in real time. A Tune In Now
Tweet suggested a subtle urgency to watch the affiliated celebrity on the home shopping
channel immediately. Anytime the researcher observed a Tweet that involved an
affiliated celebrity and/or the home shopping channel asking the viewer to “tune in” in
the near future, that Tweet was recorded and logged as a Tune In Now Tweet. An
example of a Tune In Now Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet generated
February 2nd, 2013 at 6:00 p.m. EST, as seen in Figure 12.
A Live Show Streaming Tweet was any @QVC Tweet that specifically
mentioned the streaming of social media posts including Tweets on television during the
live broadcast. A Live Show Streaming Tweet was determined by its direct connection to
the act of streaming Tweets on air during a QVC celebrity affiliated airing. Anytime the
researcher observed a Tweet that involved an affiliated celebrity and/or the home
shopping channel reaching out to its viewers for potential Tweets to air during an
appearance, that Tweet was recorded and logged as a Live Show Streaming Tweet. An
example of a Live Show Streaming Tweet within the research sample was a Tweet
generated February 2nd, 2013 at 3:55 p.m. EST, as shown in Figure 13.
Figure 12. Screenshot of Tune In Now Tweet
47
Once the volunteer coders individually coded the Tweets into the categories they
deemed appropriate, the researcher reviewed their decisions in order to determine any
errors in coding (see Appendix B: Comparison of Coder A and Coder B Results). A total
of eight Tweets were revised after analyzing the different results found between Coder A
and Coder B. The researcher then constructed a color-coded results table in order to
visually begin analyzing trends and patterns in the Tweets (see Appendix B: Coding
Results).
Once the two volunteers coded the data and the researcher created a final version
of color-coded coding results (see Appendix B: Coding Results), the researcher compiled
the information into several charts and graphs. These eight charts and graphs first
included a graph, which provided the coding results for all 13 Tweet categories. Other
charts and graphs visually displayed the Tweet categories generated in relation to
celebrity airings, celebrity and customer interaction and promotional tactics. Two pie
charts were created to view the comparisons between customer/fan conversations and
celebrity conversations, as well as Retweets made by customers, celebrities, and QVC
hosts. In addition, the researcher created two bar graphs in order to determine the
number of Tweets generated by days of the week and television day parts.
Inter-coder reliability of content analysis is used as a measure of research quality.
A high percentage of agreement suggests a strong research method, whereas a high
Figure 13. Screenshot of Live Show Streaming Tweet
48
percentage of disagreement suggests a weak research method. In this content analysis,
the percent agreement was used to determine the inter-coder reliability of the two
volunteer coders. Percent agreement is the percentage of all coding decisions made by
pairs of coders on which the coders agree (Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002).
The content analysis contained 65 Tweets, in which Coder A and Coder B were in
disagreement eight out of 65 times. They revealed a 12.3% coder disagreement and
therefore had an 87.7% coder agreement. According to the coding instructions, Coder A
and Coder B categorized Tweets one through 65 in an acceptable and reliable method.
The researcher determined that Coder A placed the Tweets more frequently within the
proper Tweet categories than Coder B, according to the coding instructions. The inter-
coder reliability results suggest that this content analysis study is valid and has the ability
to be duplicated in the future.
49
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The data analysis for the content of both QVC’s and its affiliated celebrities’
Twitter accounts brought forth answers to the research questions earlier mentioned in
Chapter One. To effectively answer the first Research Question, the researcher used the
literature available, which included scholarly works and articles written by reputable
individuals within the industry. The researcher compiled a case study on what is already
known on the concept of celebrity endorsement. To effectively answer the second
research question, the researcher conducted an original content analysis study on
specifically how one home shopping channels’ social media account, Twitter, was
utilized to effectively promote and endorse its affiliated celebrities and their home
shopping product lines. The researcher analyzed the data collected to observe what types
of Tweets specifically are used to endorse the home shopping channel and their affiliated
celebrities’ product lines.
4.2 How Has the Concept of Celebrity Endorsement Transformed and Evolved
Since its Inception?
The first research question asked how the concept of celebrity endorsement has
transformed and evolved since its inception. The researcher’s case study has proven that
the concept of celebrity endorsement has transformed and evolved throughout the eras.
Celebrity endorsement is not a recent phenomenon and celebrities have been endorsing
products since the late nineteenth century (Erdogan, 1999). With each medium and time
period throughout history, transformation and evolvement of the concept of celebrity
endorsement took place. The great inventions of newspaper and print adverting, radio,
50
television, and the birth of infomercials all led the concept of celebrity endorsement to its
most substantial form as the in-home shopping channel. The literature review provides a
historical timeline of celebrity endorsements’ earliest forms to today’s incorporation of
social media for home shopping channels celebrity driven product lines. The concept of
celebrity endorsement has transformed and evolved throughout the centuries.
4.3 How Do Home Shopping Channels Endorse Their Celebrities and Celebrity
Product Lines Through Social Media, Specifically Twitter?
The second research question asked how home shopping channels endorse its
celebrities and celebrity product lines through the social medium, Twitter. Home
shopping channels use social media platforms, specifically Twitter, to entertain, inform,
and interact with their customers. These home shopping networks also use their Twitter
accounts to converse, support and endorse their affiliated celebrities and their attached
product lines. Celebrities use their personal Twitter accounts to endorse and brand their
home shopping product lines by sharing intimate information with their followers.
Through Twitter, the home shopping channels, celebrities, and customers have all formed
ongoing and significant relationships with one another.
4.3.1 Totals of QVC Tweet Categories
According to QVC’s Twitter feed, a total of 65 of the @QVC Tweets that were
collected Sunday, January 6th, 2013 through Wednesday, February 6th, 2013, have
provided sufficient information for the results analysis. All 65 Tweets originally
generated on QVC’s Twitter feed are reflected in the graph, which demonstrates how
many times the 13 Tweet categories created were accounted for.
51
The Shout-out Tweet category was utilized the most with a total of 49 instances as
displayed in the Total QVC Tweet Categories Generated graph (Figure 14). Of the total
65 Tweets represented in the study, this represents a 75.38% usage of the Shout-out
Tweet. These 13 Tweet Categories had a total of 199 occurrences and according to
Figure 15, the Shout-out Tweet took place 24.62% of the total occurrences.
The Hashtag Tweet category, according to Figure 14, was used on 29 separate
occasions which designated the Hashtag Tweet the second most popular category. This
illustrated a 44.61% usage of the Hashtag Tweet. Of the 199 total occurrences, the
Hashtag Tweet had a 14.57% occurrence rate (Figure 15).
The Upcoming Airing Tweet category, as seen in Figure 14, was used a total of
26 instances which made the Upcoming Airing the third most popular form of Tweet.
This demonstrated a 40% total usage of the Upcoming Airing Tweet. In regards to
occurrences, the Upcoming Airing Tweet had a 13.07% occurrence rate (Figure 15).
The Picture Tweet category, represented in Figure 14, came in forth place with a
total of 21 instances. This represented a 32.31% usage of the Picture Tweet. According
to Figure 15, the Picture Tweet took place 10.55% of the total occurrences.
Next, the Product Link Tweet category had a total of 17 instances. This number
made the Product Link the fifth most popular Tweet category. This demonstrated a
26.15% total usage of the Product Link Tweet as seen in Figure 14. Figure 15 exhibits a
total occurrence rate of 8.54% for the Product Link Tweet.
Figure 14 revealed that the Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet category was used
on a total of 11 separate occasions, which made this Tweet the sixth most frequently used
52
category. This translates to a 16.92% total usage and a 5.53% occurrence percentage of
the Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet.
All other Tweet categories, Celebrity Retweet, Customer/Fan Retweet, Celebrity
Conversation, Mention, Host Retweet, Live Show Streaming, and Tune In Now followed
respectively. These remaining seven categories reflect a total of 9 or less instances. The
Customer/Fan Retweet Tweet and Celebrity Conversation Tweet categories both revealed
eight instances. In addition, the Mention and Host Retweet categories shared the same
total of six instances.
49
6
29 21 17
6 9 8 8 11
26
4 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Num
ber o
f tim
es T
wee
t Cat
egor
y w
as u
sed
Tweet Categories
Total QVC Tweet Categories Generated
Figure 14. Total QVC Tweet Categories Generated
53
4.3.2 Relationships between Tweet Categories
The researcher chose to observe the relationships between Tweet Categories in
three major subdivisions. These subdivisions included a graph, which displayed the
Tweets generated in relation to celebrity airings, a graph which displayed the Tweets
generated in relation to celebrity and customer interaction and a graph, which displayed
the Tweets generated in relation to promotional tactics.
The first graph created by the researcher, Tweets Generated in Relation to
Celebrity Airings (Figure 16), provided a visual analysis of three Tweet categories.
These Tweet categories included Upcoming Airing, Tune In Now and Live Show
Streaming and are the three categories that fall under the celebrity airings subdivision.
Shout-out 25%
Mention 3%
Hashtag 15%
Picture 11%
Product Link 9% Host Retweet
3%
Celebrity Retweet
4%
Customer/Fan Retweet
4%
Celebrity Conversation
4%
Customer/Fan Conversation
5%
Upcoming Airing 13%
Tune In Now 2%
Live Show Streaming 2%
Percent Occurrences of Tweet Categories
Figure 15. Percent Occurrences of Tweet Categories
54
The celebrity airings subdivision illustrates the Tweets generated in direct relation to the
live show. Tweets generated in regards to a celebrity’s upcoming on air appearance,
referred to as an Upcoming Airing Tweet, had a total of 26 instances (Figure 16). This
demonstrated a 74.29% of the total Tweets generated in relation to celebrity airings
(Figure 17).
Tweets generated in regards to a celebrity and/or the home shopping channel
asking the customer/fan to tune in to the live show instantly, known as a Tune In Now
Tweet, was recorded four times as seen in Figure 16. This proved to be 11.43% of the
total Tweets generated in relation to celebrity airings (Figure 17).
26
4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Upcoming Airing Tune In Now Live Show Streaming
Num
ber o
f Tw
eets
Gen
erat
ed
Tweet Categories
Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity Airings
Figure 16. Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity Airings
55
The Live Show Streaming Tweet was revealed five times when a celebrity and/or
the home shopping channel asked the customer to participate in the live show by
Tweeting during the show and displaying the selected Tweets live on-air (Figure 16).
This accounts for 14.29% of the total Tweets generated in relation to the celebrity airings
subdivision (Figure 17).
In the next subdivision, the researcher created a graph to analyze the Tweets
generated in relation to celebrity and customer interaction. The Tweets Generated in
Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction graph (Figure 18) demonstrates an
analysis between five Tweet categories. These five Tweet categories all directly relate to
the celebrity and customer Tweet interaction and communication. The Tweet categories
Upcoming Airing 74%
Tune In Now 12%
Live Show Streaming
14%
Percent Occurence of Tweets Generated in Relation to
Celebrity Airings
Figure 17. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity Airings
56
included Customer/Fan Conversation with 11 instances, Celebrity Conversation with
eight instances, Customer/Fan Retweet with eight instances, Celebrity Retweet with 9
instances and Host Retweet with six instances (Figure 18). This translates to a percent
occurrence of Tweets generated in relation to celebrity and customer interaction of
26.19%, 19.05%, 19.05%, 21.43% and 14.29% respectively (Figure 19).
6
9 8 8
11
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Host Retweet Celebrity Retweet Customer/Fan Retweet
Celebrity Conversation
Customer/Fan Conversation
Num
ber o
f Tw
eets
Gen
erat
ed
Tweet Categories
Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction
Figure 18. Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction
57
The final subdivision in exploring the relationships between Tweet categories was
illustrated by the researcher using a graph entitled, Tweets Generated in Relation to
Promotional Tactics (Figure 20). The promotional tactics used by a celebrity and/or the
home shopping channel included the Shout-out Tweet, Mention Tweet, Hashtag Tweet,
Picture Tweet and Product Link Tweet. All five promotional tactics were integrated
when a celebrity and/or the home shopping channel generated a Tweet. Figure 20
provides the amount of actual Tweets generated that used a form of promotion included
as part of the Tweet. The Shout-out Tweet took place the most often with a total of 49
instances followed by Hashtag with 29 instances, Picture with 21 instances, Product Link
with 17 instances and Mention with six instances respectively (Figure 20). The
researcher produced a graph, Percent Occurrences of Tweets Generated in Relation to
Promotional Tactics (Figure 21) that demonstrated 122 total Tweet instances among
Customer/Fan Conversation
26%
Celebrity Conversation
19%
Customer/Fan Retweet
19%
Celebrity Retweet
22%
Host Retweet 14%
Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer
Interaction
Figure 19. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Celebrity and Customer Interaction
58
these five promotional tactics. The Shout-out Tweet illustrated 40.16%, the Hashtag
Tweet illustrated 23.77%, the Picture Tweet illustrated 17.21%, and the Product Link
Tweet illustrated 13.93% and the Mention Tweet 4.92% correspondingly.
49
6
29
21 17
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Shout-out Mention Hashtag Picture Product Link
Num
ber o
f Tw
eets
Gen
erat
ed
Tweet Categories
Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics
Figure 20. Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics
59
4.3.3 Agenda for Tweets Generated
The researcher wanted to explore the trends and patterns between the Tweets
generated in accordance to the days of the week and television day parts. The Tweets
Generated in Accordance to Days of the Week (Figure 22) graph provides a visual
illustration to the amount of Tweets used in the study according to the days of the week.
Of the total 65 Tweets used in the study, the majority of Tweets were generated on
Fridays at a total of 18 Tweets made over the 32-day span. Thursday and Saturday came
in as the second and third most Tweet generated days at 12 and 13 Tweets respectively.
Sundays marked the day of the week with the least amount of Tweets generated at just
two times over the entire course of the study time period.
Shout-out 40%
Mention 5%
Hashtag 24%
Picture 17%
Product Link 14%
Percent Occurrences of Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics
Figure 21. Percent Occurrence of Tweets Generated in Relation to Promotional Tactics
60
The researcher also wanted to examine the trends and patterns between the
Tweets generated in accordance to television dayparts. According to Eastman and
Ferguson’s (2009) Media Programming Strategies and Practices, television time periods
and dayparts are broken up into 9 segments. These 9 television dayparts include Early
Morning (6 to 9 a.m.), Morning (9 a.m. to 12 noon), Afternoon (12 noon to 4 p.m.), Early
Fringe (4 to 7 p.m.), Prime Access (7 to 8 p.m.), Prime Time (8 to 11 p.m.), Late Fringe
(11 to 11:35 p.m.), Late Night (11:35 p.m. to 2 a.m.), and Overnight (2 to 6 a.m.). These
dayparts are standard for the Eastern and Pacific Time zones, which are established by
the Nielsen Media Research Company (Eastman & Ferguson, 2009). The researcher
understands that the home shopping industry does not use the Nielsen Media Research
company to compute its ratings or sell commercial time, but wanted to provide a visual
analysis of when QVC and their affiliated celebrities utilize their Twitter accounts in
2 4
9 7
12
18
13
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Num
ber o
f Tw
eets
Gen
erat
ed
Days of the Week
Tweets Generated in Accordance to Days of the Week
Figure 22. Tweets Generated in Accordance to Days of the Week
61
regards to what part of the day Tweets are being generated to promote and endorse their
product lines.
The Tweets Generated in Accordance to Television Dayparts (Figure 23) graph
provides a visual illustration of the amount of Tweets used in the study according to
television dayparts in Eastern Standard Time. Of the total 65 Tweets used in the study,
the majority of Tweets generated occurred in the Early fringe daypart between 4 to 7 p.m.
EST. This daypart included 18 separate Tweets. The Afternoon daypart came in as the
second largest segment used with 16 Tweets generated between 12 noon to 4 p.m. EST.
The Morning daypart was the third largest segment used with 15 Tweets generated
between 9 a.m. through 12 noon. The Overnight and Late fringe dayparts had the least
amount of Tweets generated with one and zero Tweets respectively.
2
15 16 18
2
7
0
4 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Num
ber o
f Tw
eets
Gen
erat
ed
Dayparts
Tweets Generated in Accordance to Television Dayparts
Figure 23. Tweets Generated in Accordance to Television Dayparts
62
The researcher wanted to observe the direct correlation between two separate
Tweet Categories, the Retweets segment and Conversation segment. The first pie graph
provides a closer look in comparing three separate Retweet Tweet categories – the
Celebrity Retweet, Customer/Fan Retweet and Host Retweet. This pie graph shows that
among the Retweet type Tweets collected for the study, the majority of Retweets were in
association with the affiliated celebrities (see Figure 24: QVC Retweets Generated).
Bethenny Frankel, Melania Trump, Joan Rivers, Kris Jenner, Lisa Rinna, and Heidi Klum
were the celebrities who interacted directly with the home shopping network via their
Twitter accounts. QVC would receive notification of their Tweet and would repost or
Retweet the message on the QVC Twitter page.
The Customer/Fan Retweet was the second most generated type of Retweet. On
eight separate occasions, a QVC customer and/or fan generated a Tweet regarding the
home shopping channel and affiliated celebrity. Customers and fans often posted Tweets
mentioning the celebrities and their favorite products within the celebrity’s product line.
Sometimes the customer/fan would generate a Tweet to let the celebrity know how much
they enjoy watching them live on-air. QVC would receive notification of their Tweet and
would repost or Retweet the message on the QVC Twitter page.
Lastly, the Host Retweet was the least utilized of the three Retweet categories. Of
the 65 total Tweets observed within this study, six Tweets were Host Retweets. QVC
Hosts would generate Tweets about their upcoming airings with the affiliated celebrities
and often incorporate the celebrities in the Tweets. QVC received notification of their
Tweet and would repost or Retweet the message on the QVC Twitter page.
63
In addition, the researcher wanted to observe the direct correlation between the
Conversation segments (see Figure 25). The second pie graph provides a closer look in
comparing two separate Conversation Tweet categories – Customer/Fan Conversation
Tweet and Celebrity Conversation Tweet. Of the 65 total Tweets observed within this
study, 11 Tweets generated were categorized as Customer/Fan Conversation Tweets.
This translates to a 57.9% usage of the Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet. On 11
separate occasions, customers and fans had mini conversations with the home shopping
channel and affiliated celebrities about their favorite products within the celebrity’s
product line.
The Celebrity Conversation Tweet was observed on eight separate occasions,
represented as 42.1%, when the affiliated celebrities themselves initiated the Twitter
conversations with the home shopping channel and the customers/fans. When comparing
Host Retweet 26%
Celebrity Retweet 39%
Customer/Fan Retweet
35%
QVC Retweets Generated
Figure 24. QVC Retweets Generated
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the two Conversation type Tweets, more often the conversations were initiated by the
customer or fan. Both conversation Tweet categories results show direct interaction
among the home shopping channel and its customers/fans and celebrities and therefore
generate greater interest in the celebrity product lines.
Celebrity Conversation
42% Customer/Fan Conversation
58%
QVC Conversation Tweets Generated
Figure 25. QVC Conversation Tweets Generated
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
The use of celebrity endorsement on home shopping channels is ever changing
and continues to evolve daily. Home shopping channels face serious competition with
today’s growing cable television lineup and other e-commerce retailers. Competitors
include other home shopping networks, the rapid expansion of cable television and on-
demand services. These provide viewers, otherwise customers, with an excess of
alternative television. In recent years, the home shopping industry has made tremendous
strides with the rapid expansion of the Internet. Home shopping channels, QVC in
particular, have leveraged a relatively new and popular social medium (Twitter) to its
advantage, but continue to find new ways to endorse and connect with their online
audience. This study was designed to shed light on how one home shopping channel and
their affiliated celebrities endorse and promote their home shopping product lines via
Twitter.
5.2 Discussion
How do home shopping channels endorse their celebrities and celebrity product lines
through social media, specifically Twitter?
QVC utilized the most popular celebrity driven social media to endorse its
affiliated celebrities and their home shopping product lines. The main objective of this
study was to explore QVC’s Twitter feed and its celebrity related Tweets. The researcher
observed celebrity related Tweets and categorized these Tweets into 13 original Tweet
Categories that the researcher created. These classifications, also known as Tweet
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Categories, were created in an attempt to enlighten the reader of the ways in which QVC
promotes and interacts with both its affiliated celebrities and their home shopping product
lines, as well as QVC customers.
5.2.1 QVC’s Twitter Feed and its Celebrity Related Tweets
The use of Shout-out, Hashtag, and Upcoming Airing Tweets represented the
three highest types of Tweets displayed on QVC’s Twitter feed. QVC utilized Shout-out
Tweets the most, with a total of 49 out of 65 Tweets observed in the study. A Shout-out
was signified by the @ symbol as part of a celebrity’s Twitter handle included in the
Tweet. QVC often gave recognition and acknowledged its affiliated celebrities and their
attached product lines through its Twitter page. On several occasions, QVC’s “behind
the scenes” staff would generate Tweets asking trivia questions to allow customers and
fans to answer by Tweeting. If a customer was correct, QVC would generate a Tweet
with an acknowledgement of the customer and celebrity involved Twitter handles. The
home shopping channel would acknowledge its celebrities often with a “shout-out” to
them on Twitter. Shout-out Tweets provided QVC a way to endorse and incorporate its
celebrities on their Twitter pages.
QVC’s Twitter feed utilized Hashtag Tweets second most, with a total of 29
Tweets out of 65 Tweets used in the study (see Table 1: Hashtags Used On QVC Twitter
Feed). Of the 29 Hashtag Tweets, there were 24 different words or phrases recorded.
The 24 words or phrases were denoted by the # symbol. QVC, its affiliated celebrities,
and customers all use hashtags, the symbol #, before a relevant keyword or phrase (no
spaces) in their Tweet to categorize those Tweets to easily appear in a Twitter Search
(Twitter Help Center, 2012). The majority of Twitter hashtags used typically promoted
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celebrity products and entire celebrity product lines. Key words linked to a celebrity’s
products were often nouns and adjectives. Hashtags used to describe celebrity’s products
included #TSV, #TrenchCoat, #Emerald, #boho, #DoubleTake, #spring, #tiedye and
#leather. Other hashtags observed helped to promote what happened behind the scenes
inside the studio. Behind the scenes phrases #StudioScoop, #stylechallenge and
#backtoyou share insight with the customers and fans. Hashtags endorsed actual names
of two QVC shows #InspiredStyle and #AMStyle with 9 occurrences total. One of
QVC’s most noteworthy celebrities, Joan Rivers, was referenced as a hashtag within a
couple Tweets as #JoanRivers and #JoanRangers. One QVC programming event was
highlighted in a QVC generated Tweet as the #HelloSpringStyle event. Two hashtags
were created by actual customers and fans and were later Retweeted by QVC,
#beautynerd and #iheartjosie.
QVC’s Twitter feed utilized Upcoming Airing Tweets third most, with a total of
26 Tweets out of 65 Tweets recorded as part of the study. An Upcoming Airing Tweet
was a popular strategy for QVC to endorse its affiliated celebrities and promote their next
on-air appearance. It provided an opportunity to get the customers and fans excited about
a future celebrity on-air appearance. Several of the celebrities themselves would generate
Tweets on their personal Twitter pages and QVC would Retweet them for further
promotion. Melania Trump, Joan Rivers, Kris Jenner, and Heidi Klum were especially
good at this particular technique (see Table 2: Celebrity Tweets As Seen Via @QVC
Twitter Feed). The text prior to RT denotes the Retweet message from QVC. The text
after the celebrity’s Twitter handle denotes the message from the celebrity via their
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personal Twitter page. In other instances, QVC would generate original Tweets, which
endorsed its celebrities’ brands and their upcoming studio appearances.
Table 1 Hashtags Used on QVC Twitter Feed
Number of Hashtag Actual Hashtag How many times
Hashtag was used Type of Hashtag
1 #InspiredStyle 8 Name of Show 2 #JoanRivers 1 Celebrity Reference 3 #JoanRangers 1 Celebrity Reference 4 #StudioScoop 9 Behind The Scenes 5 #SkinnyGirl 1 Product Line Reference 6 #backtoyou 1 Behind The Scenes 7 #TSV 2 Product Reference 8 #qvcbeauty 4 Show Reference 9 #beautynerd 1 Customer Created 10 #iheartjosie 1 Customer Created 11 #QVCBeauty 1 Show Reference 12 #TrenchCoat 1 Product Reference 13 #AMStyle 1 Name of Show 14 #fashion 1 Show Reference 15 #Emerald 1 Product Reference 16 #boho 1 Product Reference 17 #DoubleTake 1 Product Reference 18 #spring 2 Product Reference 19 #tiedye 1 Product Reference 20 #leather 1 Product Reference 21 #BelleGray 1 Product Line Reference 22 #bellegray 1 Product Line Reference 23 #stylechallenge 1 Behind the Scenes 24 #HelloSpringStyle 1 Upcoming Event
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Table 2 Celebrity Tweets as Seen Via @QVC Twitter Feed
Celebrity Tweet as seen via @QVC Twitter Feed
Melania Trump See you then! RT @melaniatrump: @jencoffey @QVC See you @ 6AM ET!
Joan Rivers Good! We need a dose of Joan in our day :) RT @joan_rivers: Just got to @QVC! I'm on the air throughout the day, starting at 11am EST.
Kris Jenner Fun times! RT @krisjenner: I’m on @QVC for #InspiredStyle at 10pm PT with new pieces from my line! Hope you’ll join me! http://qvc.co/Shop-IS
Heidi Klum "@heidiklum Going on @qvc again - last show for today! Tune in 6-7pm EST! http://twitpic.com/c17fcx" Hi, Heidi! Watching now! *The text outside of the quotation marks denotes the message from QVC.
The Picture Tweet occurred in 21 separate Tweets. The researcher observed each
of the Picture Tweets to discover how the practice of uploading photographs is used to
endorse the celebrity’s product and/or product line (see Table 3: Pictures on @QVC
Twitter Feed). The majority of photographs were taken by QVC’s behind the scenes staff
while on set. Affiliated celebrities themselves, Joan Rivers and Heidi Klum, personally
uploaded two pictures. Rivers uploaded a photo of herself and her daughter wearing a
houndstooth jacket she would later present that night on the air. Rivers’ Picture Tweet
also included the name of the show she would present the jacket in, mention of an
additional product of hers, the time of the show and a direct link where the customer
could purchase the jacket online. Heidi Klum uploaded a picture of herself in the QVC
greenroom wearing a set of rose gold watches she was about to present live on air. Klum
also provided her Twitter followers with a hyperlink to the QVC Twitter page and the
time of the show. Eight Picture Tweets included a QVC Host in the photo standing
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alongside the celebrity with their product(s) or the host alone with the celebrity’s
product(s).
Table 3 Pictures on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of picture
Corresponding Tweet number Description of picture Tweet
1 3 Twitpic of Rachel Zoe Statement Necklace
2 7 Twitpic of Bethenny Frankel and Host David Venable on set
3 8 Twitpic of Melania Trump originally uploaded by fan
4 25 Twitpic of Joan Rivers and Host Kerstin Lindquist wearing River’s trench coat product
5 28 Twitpic of Kris Jenner’s Blazer product on set
6 32 Twitpic of Kris Jenner and Host Amy Stran live on set discussing Jenner’s blazer product
7 33 Twitpic of Vanessa William’s skincare products on set
8 36 Pinterest link to Jennifer Hudson’s top product
9 37 Twitpic of Lisa Rinna’s caftan top product on set
10 38 Twitpic of Lisa Rinna’s boho top product behind the scenes
11 42 Twitpic of Lisa Rinna’s tiedye top product behind the scenes
12 44 Twitpic of Lisa Rinna’s spring dress product on set
13 46 Host Sharon Faetsch holding Lisa Rinna’s leather jacket products on set
14 47 Tabatha Coffey and Host Courtney Cason in greenroom behind the scenes
15 49 Host Sharon Faetsch getting ready and prepping for show in salon behind the scenes
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Table 3 (continued) Number of
picture Corresponding Tweet number Description of picture Tweet
16 51 Host Sharon Faetsch wearing her pick of the show (Rinna top product) on set before show
17 58 Twitpic of Joan Rivers and Melissa Rivers wearing her houndstooth jacket product uploaded by Rivers
18 61 Twitpic of Heidi Klum in greenroom wearing all of her rose gold watches right before show uploaded by Klum
19 62 Twitpic of Heidi Klum, Host Sandra Bennett and backstage crew members preparing for show on set
20 63 Repeat Twitpic of Heidi Klum in greenroom wearing all of her rose gold watches right before show now uploaded by QVC
21 65 Twitpic of Lisa Rinna seen wearing another QVC designer’s dress inside a In Touch Weekly Magazine article
The Product Link Tweet occurred in 17 different Tweets (see Table 4: Product
Links On @QVC Twitter Feed). All but one of the Product Link Tweets included a
direct link to QVC’s product page. Twelve of the Tweets referenced a celebrity’s
specific product in the form of an online link. QVC customers were also invited to shop
the celebrity’s entire collection with a click of the provided link. Five Tweets provided a
direct link to shop an entire QVC show, with association of an affiliated celebrity. One
Product Link Tweet provided QVC customers’ with a direct link to read a Beauty 411
article about a review of an upcoming Josie Maran Today’s Special Value (TSV)
(Beauty411, 2013).
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Table 4 Product Links on @ QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of Tweet
Corresponding Tweet number Description of product link
1 5 Direct link to Bethenny Frankel’s QVC product line page
2 6 Direct link to Joan River’s QVC product line page
3 13 Direct link to Melania Trump’s QVC product line page
4 17 Direct link to Josie Maran’s QVC product line page
5 18 Direct link to Josie Maran’s QVC product line page
6 20 Direct link to Blogger Beauty 411 Josie Maran TSV review article
7 25 Direct link to QVC show AM Style product line page (referenced Joan Rivers)
8 27 Direct link to QVC show Inspired Style product line page (referenced Kris Jenner)
9 30 Direct link to QVC show Inspired Style product line page (referenced Kris Jenner)
10 31 Direct link to QVC show Inspired Style product line page (referenced Kris Jenner)
11 32 Direct link to QVC show Inspired Style product line page (referenced Kris Jenner)
12 38 Direct link to Lisa Rinna’s QVC product line page
13 42 Direct link to Lisa Rinna’s QVC product line page
14 46 Direct link to Lisa Rinna’s QVC product line page
15 54 Direct link to Lisa Rinna’s QVC product line page
16 57 Direct link to Lisa Rinna’s QVC product line page
17 58 Direct link to Joan River’s QVC product line page
QVC’s Twitter feed incorporated the use of the Customer/Fan Conversation
Tweet, with a total of 11 Tweets (see Table 5: Customer/Fan Conversations On @QVC
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Twitter Feed). QVC positioned their Twitter account to serve as a vital tool in
communicating with their customers. QVC also helps their affiliated celebrities interact
with fans. In the 11 Customer/Fan Conversation Tweets observed, QVC responded to
several customers and fans on opinions and positive feedback of celebrity endorsed
products. QVC occasionally thanked a customer/fan for watching and purchasing the
celebrity endorsed products. The home shopping channel responded to customers and
fans often in excitement over a celebrity’s upcoming on-air appearance.
Table 5 Customer/Fan Conversations on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of conversation
Corresponding Tweet number Description of customer/fan conversation tweets
1 2 QVC announced customer/fan winner of a Inspired Style trivia question
2 3 QVC responded to a customer/fan Tweet about a Rachel Zoe necklace
3 4 QVC responded to a QVC wardrobe and product stylist about her excitement over working with Nicole Richie for an upcoming spring designer show
4 16 QVC responded to customer/fan complimenting Joan River’s fashion and style sense
5 23 QVC responded to customer/fan thanking the customer/fan for tuning in to watch Josie Maran and for letting QVC know by Tweeting
6 45 QVC responded to customer/fan about their excitement over Tabatha Coffey’s debut on air appearance
7 52 QVC responded to customer/fan’s excitement over a Lisa Rinna product and her upcoming show
8 53 QVC responded to customer/fan agreeing that Lisa Rinna is one stylish lady
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Table 5 (continued)
Number of conversation
Corresponding Tweet number Description of customer/fan conversation Tweets
9 55 QVC responded to customer/fan about always wanting to visit the Belle Gray Store but can now shop for Lisa Rinna products at QVC
10 56 QVC responded to customer/fan about customer/fan’s recent purchase of a Lisa Rinna jacket
11 65 QVC responded to customer/fan’s excitement over Lisa Rinna and QVC brand being featured in popular In Touch Weekly Magazine
The Celebrity Retweet was observed a total of 9 times (see Table 6: Celebrity
Retweets On @QVC Twitter Feed). QVC Retweeted original generated Tweets from
their affiliated celebrities and including Bethenny Frankel, Melania Trump, Joan Rivers,
Kris Jenner, and Heidi Klum. Most of these celebrities made several Tweets and QVC
would Retweet these Tweets throughout the course of the collection period.
QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweets from customers and fans of its
affiliated celebrities on eight separate occasions (see Table 7: Customer/Fan Retweets On
@QVC Twitter Feed). Everyday customers and fans of the Rachel Zoe, Melania Trump,
and Josie Maran product lines offered at QVC generated four of the Customer/Fan
Retweets. Beauty and Fashion Bloggers along with a Public Relations Firm generated
three of the Tweets. One Tweet was generated by a customer/fan who also appears on
the air as a QVC clothing and cosmetics model.
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Table 6 Celebrity Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of celebrity Retweet
Corresponding Tweet number Description of celebrity Retweet
1 5 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Bethenny Frankel
2 10 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Melania Trump
3 11 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Melania Trump
4 15 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Joan Rivers
5 27 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Kris Jenner
6 30 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Kris Jenner
7 58 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Joan Rivers
8 61 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Heidi Klum
9 62 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Heidi Klum Table 7 Customer/Fan Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of customer/fan
Retweet Corresponding Tweet number Description of customer/fan Retweet
1 3 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @luxe_elle about Rachel Zoe
2 8 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @melaniatrumpfan about Melania Trump
3 14 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @susannethomson about Joan Rivers
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Table 7 (continued)
Number of Customer/Fan
Retweet Corresponding Tweet Number Description of Customer/Fan Retweet
4 21 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @gpelz about Josie Maran
5 22 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @MissWhoeverUR about Josie Maran
6 24 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @Beauty411 about Josie Maran
7 40 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @domainmsa about Jennifer Hudson
8 65 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by customer/fan @fashion_rules about Lisa Rinna
QVC’s Twitter feed showed eight occasions of a Celebrity Conversation Tweet
(see Table 8: Celebrity Conversations On @QVC Twitter Feed). Six of the Celebrity
Conversation Tweets observed were mini dialogues between QVC’s behind the scenes
staff and the celebrity. The celebrities that partook in conversations were Joan Rivers,
Kris Jenner and Heidi Klum. On one occasion, a QVC Host had a conversation with
Melania Trump over an upcoming airing together. Another Celebrity Conversation
Tweet was a conversation between Melania Trump and fellow QVC designer, Dennis
Basso. Celebrity Conversation Tweets allow for positive interaction between the home
shopping channel and its affiliated celebrities, which elevate the channels’ overall image
and brand.
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Table 8 Celebrity Conversations on @QVC Twitter Feed
Number of celebrity
conversation Corresponding Tweet number Description of celebrity conversation
1 10 Conversation between Melania Trump and Host Jennifer Coffey
2 11 Conversation between Melania Trump and Dennis Basso
3 15 Conversation between Joan Rivers and QVC
4 26 Conversation between Joan Rivers and QVC
5 27 Conversation between Kris Jenner and QVC
6 30 Conversation between Kris Jenner and QVC
7 61 Conversation between Heidi Klum and QVC
8 62 Conversation between Heidi Klum and QVC
The researcher observed a Mention Tweet on six separate occasions (see Table 9:
Mentions On @QVC Twitter Feed). A Mention Tweet provides a simple reference of the
affiliated celebrity without including their Twitter handle. A Mention Tweet of Melania
Trump’s upcoming on air appearance, two Mention Tweets regarding Josie Maran’s
TSV, two Mention Tweets regarding Jennifer Hudson’s products, and Tabatha Coffey
arriving at QVC were all reflected as Mention Tweets.
The Host Retweet was demonstrated six times (see Table 10: Host Retweets On
@QVC Twitter Feed). QVC Hosts, Jennifer Coffey, Courtney Cason, and Sharon
Faetsch, all generated Tweets on their personal Host accounts and QVC Retweeted the
information. These three QVC Hosts partook in Host Retweets each on multiple
occasions with Melania Trump, Tabatha Coffey, Lisa Rinna and Josie Maran.
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Table 9 Mentions on @QVC Twitter Feed
Number of mentions
Corresponding Tweet number Description of mention
1 8 Mention of Melania Trump and upcoming on-air appearance
2 22 Mention of Josie Maran and TSV
3 24 Mention of Josie Maran and TSV
4 36 Mention of Jennifer Hudson and product
5 40 Mention of Jennifer Hudson and product
6 47 Mention of Tabatha Coffey and arrival at QVC Table 10 Host Retweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of host
Retweets Corresponding Tweet number Description of host Retweet
1 9 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Jennifer Coffey about Melania Trump
2 12 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Jennifer Coffey about Melania Trump
3 47 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Courtney Cason about Tabatha Coffey
4 49 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Sharon Faetsch about Lisa Rinna
5 51 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Sharon Faetsch about Lisa Rinna
6 59 QVC Retweeted originally generated Tweet by Host Courtney Cason about Josie Maran
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The Live Show Streaming Tweet was witnessed five times during the collection
period (see Table 11: Live Show Streaming Tweets On @QVC Twitter Feed). All of the
Live Show Streaming Tweets involved QVC affiliated celebrity, Lisa Rinna. One Live
Show Streaming Tweet informed Lisa Rinna’s personal fans and QVC’s fans that the
home shopping channel would be streaming Facebook posts and Tweets live during an
upcoming show. That same Tweet concluded with a “spotlight for your fab followers!”
The other Live Show Streaming Tweets all asked followers if they wanted to see their
Tweets live on air? The Live Show Streaming Tweets demonstrate the instantaneous
response the home shopping channel can receive by customers and fans.
Table 11 Live Show Streaming Tweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of live show streaming
Tweets Corresponding Tweet number Live show streaming portion of Tweet
1 35 QVC Tweets, “We’ll be streaming Facebook posts + tweets live during the show. Spotlight for your (Lisa Rinna’s) fab followers!”
2 43 QVC Tweets, “What to see your tweets on-air? Tweet @QVC during Belle Gray by @LisaRinna at 6pm ET on Sat & you just might!”
3 48 QVC Tweets, “Love @LisaRinna & her #BelleGray Collection? Tweet @QVC during her 6pm show tonight & you just might see it on-air!”
4 50 QVC Tweets, “Tweet @QVC during the show and you might see your tweet on-air starting at 6pm ET.”
5 54 QVC Tweets, “Tweet @QVC & you might see your tweet on-air during the next hour with @LisaRinna.”
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The Tune In Now Tweet was the least amount of Tweet type observed in the
study with a total of four occasions (see Table 12: Tune In Now Tweets On @QVC
Twitter Feed). The Tune In Now Tweet was utilized twice during the kickoff of a Josie
Maran TSV at midnight. Keywords like “and it’s on with Josie Maran,” and “you have to
see this next” let the follower know that Josie Maran was coming on-air right away.
Another Tune In Now Tweet was generated as an Inspired Style show began right at 1
a.m. EST. This was denoted by key words, “#InspiredStyle is live!” The forth Tune in
Tweet was represented during a Lisa Rinna one hour show with the words, “It’s time!”
The Tune In Now Tweet was a good indicator of when the home shopping channel
reminded customers and fans that a particular celebrity would be endorsing their product
on-air in real time.
Table 12 Tune In Now Tweets on @QVC Twitter Feed (In Study)
Number of Tune In Now Tweets
Corresponding Tweet Number
Tune In Now Portion of Tweet
1 18 QVC Tweets, “and its on w/ Josie Maran!”
2 19 QVC Tweets, “you have to see this up next”
3 29 QVC Tweets, “#InspiredStyle is live!”
4 54 QVC Tweets, “It’s time!”
5.3 Limitations
While the research brought to light the numerous ways in which one home
shopping channel in particular utilizes their Twitter account and its affiliated celebrities
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to endorse their celebrity brands, there were still limitations to the study. Upon deciding
the initial layout and guidelines of the study, originally the researcher wanted to explore
an additional component. The researcher wanted to explore QVC’s television presence
through three celebrity driven shows and analyze how the home shopping channel and its
affiliated celebrity incorporate and endorse their celebrity product line and connect with
customers through the most popular celebrity driven social medium to date, Twitter. This
component of the study would uncover ways in which celebrities utilize their Twitter
accounts while on television to interact with their customers and endorse their brand.
The study would record how often the celebrity Tweets on-air during the show and what
the celebrity Tweets about during their television appearance. The researcher observed
all three one to two hour QVC shows with no Twitter references or social media
references. The use of social media, especially Twitter, is evident when a viewer watches
the QVC television channel; however, it was not reflected in the three QVC shows
chosen within the time frame for observation.
Another limitation to this component of the study was the lack of television
programming on the Home Shopping Network (HSN) channel. The researcher wanted to
compare two home shopping channels for more comprehensive data and results. This
was an unfortunate finding, as the celebrity driven programming on HSN during the
designated timeframe of the study was nonapparent. During the assigned collection
period in which the study was to be conducted, the following are programming and show
times the researcher had to choose from QVC and HSN:
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• Joan Rivers Classics Collection (QVC):
Monday, February 4th 2013 10 a.m. - 12 noon, 6 p.m. - 7 p.m. EST - 11 p.m.
to 12 midnight EST and Saturday, February 9th 2013 2 a.m. – 3 a.m. EST.
• Wildlife by Heidi Klum (QVC):
Tuesday, February 5th 2013 1 a.m. – 2 a.m. EST, 6 p.m. – 7 p.m. EST
• Jennifer Hudson Collection - Fashion & Accessories (QVC):
Friday, February 8th, 2013 2 a.m. – 3 a.m. EST
This was a disappointing realization for the researcher and is viewed as the two greatest
limitations within the study. The study of one home shopping channel is not meant to
represent the entire home shopping industry as a whole, rather provide a micro analysis
into the specific ways in which one well-known home shopping channel utilizes one type
of social media to endorse their celebrities and their products.
Another limitation of the study that could be considered is the researcher’s
creation of the Tweet Categories used in the study. These 13 Tweet Categories (see
Appendix B: Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets) are all original terms coined by the
researcher. Both the volunteer coders and the reader might find it slightly confusing to
fully understand the Tweet Categories and their respective descriptions if they are
unfamiliar with Twitter. Nonetheless, the terms (category names) were created as part of
an original study and provide new information for the field. After carefully reading the
basis and context of the study, the description of the Tweet Categories enables the reader
to easily understand why the specific Tweet Categories were named that way.
The forth limitation or potential drawback of the study is that one of the volunteer
coders who participated in the study was not completely familiar with Twitter. The
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volunteer coder was provided with full detailed instructions and the researcher was able
to answer all of the questions the volunteer coder had prior to the process of coding. The
coding instructions (see Appendix B: Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets) provided
enough information for any volunteer, familiar or not with Twitter, to be able to
understand the coding process. The other volunteer coder was very familiar with the
social medium, Twitter, so much so the volunteer coder has her own personal Twitter
account. With one volunteer coder unfamiliar with Twitter and the other volunteer coder
quite familiar with Twitter, proves the researcher’s official coding instructions to be
easily understandable and precise in its categories and descriptions. The volunteer coders
did code the Tweets to the best of their abilities and effectively as the inter-coder
reliability outcome did meet above standards for accuracy. The researcher had the final
decision in determining which of the two coder’s responses were more accurate. The
researchers’ criteria for what constituted an accurate response was created and
determined by the researcher. This could be viewed as limiting or bias, however both
coders did code accurately enough for an acceptable and reliable 87.7% coder agreement
outcome.
5.4 Recommendations for Future Research
This qualitative content analysis study intended to offer new information
regarding how one home shopping channel utilizes Twitter in endorsing its affiliated
celebrity product lines and connecting with its online audience. As stated earlier, this
content analysis study was limited in observing just one home shopping channel, QVC.
The incorporation of another home shopping network for contrast purposes could have
provided the researcher with more comparative data for the study. In the future, perhaps
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further research of an additional home shopping channel could provide more insight of
how other networks within the home shopping industry utilize their Twitter accounts and
affiliated celebrities.
Another recommendation for future extended research of this topic could be the
involvement of another social media account. In addition to Twitter, other well-known
social media sites that both home shopping channels and celebrities use, could serve as
valuable components to the study. For instance, the social media site Facebook may be
observed alongside Twitter to compare and contrast the variations of endorsement and
interaction via different social media platforms. QVC does have an active Facebook
account with daily updates and approximately 1,194,680 Facebook user likes (Facebook
QVC, 2013). HSN also has a strong Facebook presence with 815,955 Facebook user
likes and could be considered for comparison within a future study (Facebook HSN,
2013).
Future researchers could further explore the content of the Tweets to determine if
certain Tweets about a celebrity endorsed product encourages the actual sales of the
product. Perhaps future researchers could find ways to compute the data and provide
actual sales numbers in dollars by each individual Tweet and celebrity-endorsed product.
For example, future researchers could expand this study by exploring if an Upcoming
Airing Tweet does in fact increase viewership on the television channel. Does the home
shopping channels’ social media involvements truly generate a larger television audience
presence? Do celebrity related Tweets seen by Twitter followers create new viewers to
the home shopping television channel? These are all exciting and important questions to
be answered for the home shopping industry. In such a complex and competitive
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television and media landscape, it is a crucial time in the industry to explore ways in
which to build viewership.
5.5 Conclusion
The home shopping channel, QVC, utilizes its Twitter account to endorse and
promote its affiliated celebrities and their attached product lines successfully. Through
the research gathered, the Tweets generated on QVC’s Twitter page show that the home
shopping channel constantly involves and incorporates its affiliated celebrities in an
effort to endorse their celebrity product lines consistently and effectively. QVC
leverages its Twitter page to promote its celebrity airings on television and enhance the
relationship between the celebrities and customers. QVC’s Twitter page provides the
home shopping channel with an enormous platform for implementing strategic and
promotional tactics. QVC recognizes its affiliated celebrities by involving them directly
within the Tweets to better position themselves and their celebrities for greater social
media reach among their Twitter followers. The researcher discovered through analyzing
the Tweets that QVC promotes the involvement of its affiliated celebrities with their
customer base. The home shopping channel sticks to its core values and principles –
striving for a deeper and more intimate connection with its customers through Twitter.
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Appendix A: Celebrity Endorsement Advertisements
• Drink Cadbury’s Coco Print Advertisement • Mariani Wine Poster • Mrs. Nicholas Longworth “Keeping one’s appearance up to the mark” Pond’s
advertisement (1925)
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Appendix A: Celebrity Endorsement Advertisements
Image A1: Drink Cadbury’s Coco Print Advertisement
Source: The Virtual Victorian, January 2010
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Image A2: Mariani Wine Poster
Source: Karch, 2006
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Image A3: Mrs. Nicholas Longworth “Keeping one’s appearance up to the mark” Pond’s advertisement (1925)
Source: Vintage Ad Browser, 2010
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Appendix B: Collection of QVC Tweets and Coding
• Collection of QVC Tweets Table • Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets • Comparison of Coder A and Coder B Results • Coding Results
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Appendix B: Collection of QVC Tweets and Coding
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Coding Instructions for Type of Tweets
Directions: Please choose as many categories, which, according to the outlines given below, best represent the type of Tweets provided. Key: • = Category
o = Description of Category ~ Tweet must fit these requirements Tweet Categories:
• Shout-out Tweet
o Signified by the @ symbol in a celebrity's Twitter handle o Celebrities’ Twitter handle included in Tweet o Possible reference to product/product line as well
• Mention Tweet
o Simple Tweet o Mention of celebrity or celebrity’s product/product line o No @ symbol
• Hashtag Tweet
o Signified by the # symbol
• Picture Tweet
o A picture included in Tweet
• Product Link Tweet
o A celebrities product/product line direct link included in Tweet
• Host Retweet
o A Tweet originally made by a host is retweeted by QVC
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• Celebrity Retweet
o A Tweet originally made by a celebrity is retweeted by QVC
• Customer/Fan Retweet
o A Tweet originally made by a customer/fan is retweeted by QVC
• Celebrity Conversation Tweet
o A Tweet in part of a conversation with a celebrity
• Customer/Fan Conversation Tweet
o A Tweet is part of a conversation with a customer/fan
• Upcoming Airing Tweet
o A Tweet specifically mentioning a celebrities upcoming appearance o Time and/or Date included in Tweet
• Tune In Now Tweet
o A Tweet indirectly asking the customer to tune in now to QVC o A Tweet corresponding with the live show in real time
• Live Show Streaming Tweet
o A Tweet specifically mentioning streaming of social media posts
including Tweets on television during the live show
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Comparison of Coder A and Coder B Results
# Coder A Coder B Agree or Disagree 1 SO, HT SO, HT Agree 2 CFC, SO, HT CFC, SO, HT Agree 3 CFC, CFR, SO, P CFC, CFR, SO, P Agree 4 CFC, SO, UA CFC, SO, UA Agree 5 CR, SO, UA, PL CR, SO, UA, PL Agree 6 SO, HT, PL SO, HT, PL Agree 7 SO, HT, P SO, HT, P Agree 8 CFR, M, P, UA CFR, M, P, UA Agree 9 HR, SO, UA HR, SO, UA Agree 10 CR, CC, UA CR, CC, UA Agree 11 CR, CC CC, SO, CR Disagree 12 HR, SO, UA HR, SO, UA Agree 13 SO, UA, PL SO, UA, PL Agree 14 CFR, SO, UA CFR, SO, UA Agree 15 CR, CC, UA CFC, CR, UA, SO Disagree 16 CFC, SO CFC, SO Agree 17 SO, HT, PL SO, HT, PL Agree 18 SO, HT, PL, TIN SO, HT, PL, TIN Agree 19 TIN, SO, HT TIN, SO, HT Agree 20 SO, PL SO, PL Agree 21 SO, HT, CFR SO, HT, CFR Agree 22 CFR, HT, M CFR, HT, M Agree 23 CFC, SO CFC, SO Agree 24 HT, M, CFR HT, M, CFR Agree 25 SO, HT, PL, P SO, HT, PL, P Agree 26 CC, SO SO, CC Agree 27 CC, CR, HT, UA, PL CC, CR, HT, UA, PL Agree 28 SO, HT, UA, P SO, HT, P, TIN Disagree 29 SO, HT, TIN SO, HT, TIN Agree 30 CC, CR, HT, PL CC, CR, HT, PL Agree 31 SO, PL, HT SO, HT, PL Agree 32 SO, HT, PL, P SO, HT, PL, P Agree 33 SO, HT, UA, P SO, HT, UA, P Agree 34 SO SO Agree 35 SO, LSS, UA SO, LSS, UA Agree 36 M, HT, P M, HT, P Agree 37 SO, UA, HT, P SO, HT, P, UA Agree 38 HT, SO, UA, PL, P SO, HT, UA, PL, P Agree 39 SO, UA SO, UA Agree 40 CFR, HT, M SO, CFR, HT Disagree
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# Coder A Coder B Agree or Disagree 41 SO SO Agree 42 HT, SO, PL, P SO, HT, PL, P Agree 43 LSS, SO, UA SO, UA Disagree 44 HT, SO, UA, P SO, HT, UA, P Agree 45 CFC, SO SO, CFC Agree 46 SO, HT, PL, P SO, HT, PL, P Agree 47 M, P M, P, HR Disagree 48 SO, LSS, HT, UA SO, LSS, HT, UA Agree 49 HR, UA, P HR, UA, P Agree 50 SO, LSS, UA SO, LSS, UA Agree 51 HR, UA, SO, P HR, UA, SO, P Agree 52 SO, CFC SO, CFC Agree 53 CFC, SO CFC, SO Agree 54 LSS, TIN, SO, PL LSS, TIN, SO, PL Agree 55 CFC, SO, HT CFC, SO, HT Agree 56 CFC, SO CFC, SO Agree 57 SO, PL SO, PL Agree 58 CR, UA, P, PL UA, P, M, CR, PL Disagree 59 HR, SO, HT HR, SO, HT Agree 60 SO, UA SO, UA Agree 61 CR, CC, P, UA CR, CC, P, UA Agree 62 CR, CC, UA, P CR, CC, UA, P Agree 63 SO, P SO, P Agree 64 SO, HT SO, HT Agree 65 CFC, P SO, P, CFR, M, CFC Disagree
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Coding Results
# Tweet Categories 1
Shout-out Hashtag
2
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out Hashtag
3
Customer/Fan Conversation Customer/Fan Retweet Shout-out Picture
4
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out Upcoming Airing
5
Celebrity Retweet Shout-out Upcoming Airing Product Link
6
Shout-out Hashtag Product Link
7
Shout-out Hashtag Picture
8
Customer/Fan Retweet Mention Picture Upcoming Airing
9
Host Retweet Shout-out Upcoming Airing
10
Celebrity Retweet Celebrity Conversation Upcoming Airing
11
Celebrity Retweet Celebrity Conversation
12
Host Retweet Shout-out Upcoming Airing
13
Shout-out Upcoming Airing Product Link
14
Customer/Fan Retweet Shout-out Upcoming Airing
15
Celebrity Retweet Celebrity Conversation Upcoming Airing
16
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out
17
Shout-out Hashtag Product Link
18
Tune-In-Now Hashtag Product Link Shout-out
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# Tweet Categories 19
Tune-In-Now Shout-out Hashtag
20
Shout-out Product Link
21
Shout-out Customer/Fan Retweet Hashtag
22
Customer/Fan Retweet Hashtag Mention
23
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out
24
Mention Hashtag Customer/Fan Retweet
25
Shout-out Hashtag Product Link Picture
26
Celebrity Conversation Shout-out
27
Celebrity Conversation Celebrity Retweet Hashtag Upcoming Airing Product Link
28
Shout-out Hashtag Upcoming Airing Picture
29
Tune-In-Now Shout-out Hashtag
30
Celebrity Conversation Celebrity Retweet Hashtag Product Link
31
Shout-out Product Link Hashtag
32
Shout-out Hashtag Product Link Picture
33
Shout-out Hashtag Upcoming Airing Picture
34
Shout-out
35
Shout-out Live Show Streaming Upcoming Airing
36
Mention Hashtag Picture
37
Shout-out Upcoming Airing Hashtag Picture
38
Hashtag Shout-out Upcoming Airing Product Link Picture
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# Tweet Categories 39
Shout-out Upcoming Airing
40
Customer/Fan Retweet Hashtag Mention
41
Shout-out
42
Hashtag Shout-out Product Link Picture
43
Live Show Streaming Shout-out Upcoming Airing
44
Hashtag, Shout-out Upcoming Airing Picture
45
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out
46
Shout-out Hashtag Product Link Picture
47
Mention Picture Host Retweet
48
Shout-out Live Show Streaming Upcoming Airing
49
Host Retweet Upcoming Airing Picture
50
Shout-out Live Show Streaming Upcoming Airing
51
Host Retweet Upcoming Airing Shout-out Picture
52
Shout-out Customer/Fan Conversation
53
Shout-out Customer/Fan Conversation
54
Live Show Streaming Tune-In-Now Shout-out Product Link
55
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out Hashtag
56
Customer/Fan Conversation Shout-out
57
Shout-out Product Link
58
Celebrity Retweet Upcoming Airing Product Link Picture
105
# Tweet Categories 59
Host Retweet Shout-out Hashtag
60
Shout-out Upcoming Airing
61
Celebrity Retweet Celebrity Conversation Picture Upcoming Airing
62
Celebrity Retweet Celebrity Conversation Upcoming Airing Picture
63
Shout-out Picture
64
Shout-out Hashtag
65
Customer/Fan Conversation Customer/Fan Retweet Picture
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Code Results – Colors: Shout-out Mention Hashtag Picture Product Link Host Retweet Celebrity Retweet Customer/Fan Retweet Celebrity Conversation Customer/Fan Conversation Upcoming Airing Tune In Now Live Show Streaming
![Retweets|but Not Just Retweets: Quantifying and Predicting ... · in every day [5], and as of August 2011, Twitter had surpassed 200 million messages sent daily. Activity continues](https://static.documents.pub/doc/80x56/5f42f53bb064022df97b1e75/retweetsbut-not-just-retweets-quantifying-and-predicting-in-every-day-5.jpg)
