The application of a strategic management model to the ...

The Application of a Strategic Management Model to the Internationalization of HigherEducation InstitutionsAuthor(s): Romuald E. J. RudzkiSource: Higher Education, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Jun., 1995), pp. 421-441Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3447627 .

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Higher Education 29: 421-441, 1995. ? 1995 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

The application of a strategic management model to the internationalization of higher education institutions

ROMUALD E.J. RUDZKI Department of Education, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Abstract. The growth of international activities within higher education institutions takes place in a number of different ways ranging from the ad hoc (reactive) to the strategic (proactive). This paper draws on an earlier (1993) empirical study by the author of UK Business Schools in order to identify the

key elements within any process of internationalization and to provide a framework for assessing levels of international activity within institutions. It concludes with an introductory model of internationalization which is to form the basis for future work. The paper is written from a UK

perspective but can be adapted for the analysis of educational institutions in other countries and other

subject areas.

Introduction

Internationalization of higher education can be understood as:

a long-term strategic policy for the establishment of overseas links for the purposes of student mobility, staff development and curriculum innovation. (Rudzki, 1991)

Over the past three I have had cause to refine this working definition to one which makes more explicit the purpose and direction of internationalization as:

a defining feature of all universities, encompassing organizational change, curriculum innovation, staff

development and student mobility, for the purposes of achieving excellence in teaching and research.

This roots the process of internationalization firmly in the historical continuum by stating its a priori nature within what is understood by the university as universitas - 'the whole (world)'. Within such an understanding, the provincial or even national university becomes a contradiction, since all universities must be international if they are to claim legitimacy for the knowledge they convey as being truly at the forefront of thinking. (Readers should note that 'university' is to be understood as any institution of higher education - a definition that is in keeping with the European Commission's Erasmus programme).

Such a definition brings together the various elements of the process into a coherent whole, and avoids the mistake of treating the areas in isolation. This shift from disintegration to integration of activities is a prerequisite for the effective use of a strategic management model. Such a combination of internationalization as a phenomenon with a conceptual model with which to analyse the process, is further enhanced by the identification of activities in each of the four dimensions of the process, namely organizational change, curriculum innovation, staff development



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and student mobility. (This ordering is deliberate in that it addresses the elements in terms of their permanence, starting with the organization which outlives those who work within it, and ending with those transient beings known as the students.)

This is not, however, to suggest that the strategic management model is the only one that can be used. This paper considers it, in that it is one with which the author has most familiarity and which can be applied in a way which is readily accessible to the general reader. It is also transferable as a tool for analysing the process in the various systems of higher education.

There are other approaches which can contribute equally well, both within management theories - such as those on change and decision-making - and outside of management. This latter group could well include an historical study of patterns of internationalization from the foundation of institutions to the present day, a particularly rich field since a number of institutional histories have been written since that time and contemporaneous records are available in some cases.

Similarly, a sociological investigation of what constitutes the 'global community of scholars' (a concept frequently used but never defined) could also yield useful insights into the process, the reason for its existence and future directions. As can be seen from earlier comments about the nature of the universitas, the philosophical perspective could help to define the way in which the concept of the university as an institution presupposes certain attributes and purposes, of which interationalization is one.

To return, however, to the method adopted, that of strategic management, the

application of such an approach to higher education has been discussed by Easterby-Smith (1987), and Kelly & Shaw (1987). Easterby-Smith differentiates between the normative approach (using such tools as SWOT, STEP and the Boston Consulting Group Matrix) and descriptive approaches of strategic management as described by Leontiades (1979).

The descriptive approach has been championed by Mintzberg (1978), who has defined strategy as a 'pattern of decisions', which either lead directly from an intended strategy to a released strategy (where for example the objective is clear), or are diverted from the intended to an unrealised then emergent to a released strategy (where discussion has to take place not only about tactics but about the destination). This latter indirect route is often found in Universities as described by Clark (1983) due to the particular organizational culture considerations of academic life for 'critical detachment' as outlined by Rutherford et al. (1985). Such an academic culture is based on the intellectual independence of staff with any allegiance being primarily to their subject, Departmental colleagues or profession such as Law, Medicine or Foreign Languages, and not to the institution as a whole. Such an organizational arrangement is exacerbated by funding arrangements which will favour one area of study above another, whether such discrimination is shown at the institutional level, or in the case of the UK, at the Governmental level. Within such a culture therefore, it is inevitable that management inspired initiatives will be tempered by the experience of the 'chalk-face' staff who see such initiatives as being externally driven and not something that is a useful contribution to their work.



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Holdaway and Meekison (1990) provide an example of the application of the strategic planning approach to the activities of the University of Alberta in Canada.

They conclude that 'successful University planning requires appropriate procedures, wide involvement, trust, recognition of the political realities of universities, emphasis on the process, and proper timing.'

In his later works (1994a, b, c), Mintzberg re-examines the nature of strategic planning and concludes that its failure can be seen as a result of two factors. Firstly, the absence of commitment from top management to planning, and secondly, a non-congenial climate where the need for strategic thinking is not seen as important. The reasons for these failures are that strategic planning seeks to restrict the power of senior managers to make decisions over direction and the improper use of planning as a means of extending the past rather than redefining the future in a creative way.

Johnson and Scholes (1989) have argued that strategic management is to be understood in three interdependent stages: strategic analysis, strategic choice and strategic implementation. The model constructed from this provides a useful analytical tool in understanding the process of internationalization within higher education institutions, since it addresses the key issues as developed below.

Strategic analysis

(A) the environment

Questions that can be asked cover both the internal and external environment of the organization, such as: What is the university's plan for the future - it's 'mission'? What activities are being undertaken at present? What is the capacity of the staff and the institution to undertake any activities? (constraints might include linguistic ability, finances or government policy). What are the opportunities for, and threats to, the institution? (the former might include increasing overseas student numbers, while the latter could be factors such as the low pay of academic staff due to inflation, shortage of staff willing to travel or to undertake the increased workload associated with internationalization). Who are the stakeholders - students, staff, parents, employers, government bodies or other persons? Who are the competitors - for example, other providers in the same country, foreign providers or other ways of gaining knowledge or qualifications? What are the internal and external opportunities and threats?

A PEST analysis (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) can identify the external trends in more detail and an example of this is given in Table 1.

Williams (1984) provides the example of the UK Government's decision to introduce a policy of charging 'full fees' to foreign students, thereby ensuring a severe drop in the number of such students coming to the UK, especially from Malaysia. This resulted in a loss to the UK of all the advantages the presence of foreign students had, such as long-term trade and knowledge of the UK overseas. Such restriction of access to UK higher education can usefully be compared to the



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Table 1. An example of a PEST analysis of internationalization of higher education

Political Economic

UK Government policy on HE National ?50 billion budget deficit

Possible introduction of fees Financial constraints on capital expenditure of Universities

Decreasing value of student grants Low inflation

EC policy on human capital Need to recruit 'full-fee' students

Social Technological

High unemployment level Increasing level of skills required

Excess of demand over supply for Increasing availability of Information Technology University places

English as the common international Ease of travel and communications language - 'lingua franca'

ERASMUS programme, whereby students from the European Union are exchanged on a no-fee (to the student) basis.

To this can be added the effect of UK Government funding of the British Council and Overseas Development Administration, which both provide opportunities for students - particularly from the Commonwealth - to study in the UK. Other Governments also impact on the global environment, for example, China's 'open- door' policy, where students gaining places at Universities overseas are allowed to travel. The development of the US 'Study Abroad Programmes' is another example of how national policies affect foreign institutions - in this case, the educational, social and financial impact of American students on host institutions. The effects of 'brain drain' on national higher education systems are also apparent, with the most recent examples being found in the migration of scientists from Russia to the West from the late 1980's onwards.

Collection of data

An analysis of the institutional environment should aim to provide accurate information related firstly to the current state of activity, and secondly to the staff's ability and willingness to engage in the process of internationalization. Without such information, no meaningful policy and plan can be developed since it will not be based on current realities such as the capacity of staff to undertake work.

Such an information gathering exercise or audit should include:

* the corporate plan and mission statement * the institution's international policy papers (where these exist) and the following

statistical information:

(i)the International Audit (undertaken by management)



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(ii)the Staff Audit (undertaken by individual members of staff)

(I) The international audit Such an audit is an information-gathering exercise undertaken by management and should include the following as a basis for future decision-making:

* Total number of students (both full- and part-time) * Number of overseas students and percentage of total above * Total number of staff- academic, administrative, technical * Total number of full- and part-time courses including Dual or Joint Qualification

Courses and Franchised courses * Courses with a complete international approach (at both undergraduate and

postgraduate levels) * Courses with a partial international approach, such as units on international

business or optional electives * Courses unsuitable for internationalization and reasons for this e.g. UK

Accountancy courses although these may contain perspectives on other

accountancy systems outside of the Anglo-Saxon domain. (Such cases would be classified under the previous category)

* Institutional links by name of institution, country, type of activity (student mobility whether exchange and/or work placement, student recruitment, staff

exchange, research etc.) and contact person within one's own institution

*Consultancy contracts such as Know How Fund or Overseas Development Administration projects

* Other activities such as overseas recruitment

(1I) The Staff Audit The staff audit applies not only to academic members of staff but also to the administrative and technical staff, as these latter groups are often found to contain hidden talents especially in their language fluency. Each member of staff should be asked to complete a confidential questionnaire containing the following information.

(It should be noted that considerable resistance is encountered when staff are asked to disclose their international contacts, this can be partially overcome by giving assurances that no institution will be contacted without the permission of the member of staff concerned, or better still, that all contacts will be through the member of staff who has the link. The audit findings should also be made freely available to all staff).

* Language ability with level of fluency (mother tongue, advanced/ability to teach in the language, intermediate, social/conversation, beginner, would like to study)

* Experience of working and teaching abroad (dates, location) * Membership of international professional bodies * Research (general description of any international research) * Publications (general description)



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* Consultancy (general description) * International Conference attendance * Staff willingness to engage in international activities such as overseas visits,

teaching abroad, language acquisition, and so forth. Staff should express the duration of visits from: (a) less than one week, (b) one to two weeks, (c) two to four weeks, and (d) more than four weeks.

* Other relevant information such as positions of external examiner held overseas.

Such an approach can be compared to that of the CNAA (1992) which covered similar ground but in less detail.

Data collation

The collation of data about the current state of the institution seen in the various documents and audits listed above, is to be supplemented with an assessment of future goals and obstacles to their fulfilment.

Opportunities

The current situation of UK higher education has presented a number of opportunities to institutions such as staff attitudes favourable to travel abroad and an increasing demand for business courses from students and employers. Alongside this has been the UK Government's desire to increase student numbers in higher education against a background of reduced funding - the 'unit of resource' - per student. At time of writing (December 1993) this growth has been halted after having met its target of 1 in 3 from a previous level of 1 in 5 school-leavers. Benefits have also been felt from the introduction of the EC's educational

programmes such as ERASMUS and LINGUA. To these should be added TEMPUS which arose after the opening up of Central and Eastern Europe in 1989. Further EC programmes are also being developed in order to promote Europe's external relations with the US, South America and other areas.

Threats

Threats can be defined in terms of several variables. Financial difficulties whether these arise out of cuts in Government funding, hyper inflation or simply under- resourcing of institutions, all have a negative effect on progress.

Human problems can be seen in the demographic profile of staff, with a dramatic

shortage of lecturers expected within the UK over the next twenty years as the majority retire. This has been seen as a blessing by some managers within institutions who are seeking ways to reduce costs by cutting staff numbers.

Technological advances clearly pose a major problem for those institutions who



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are unable to gain access to the information superhighway or who have not the required finance to purchase the Information Technology necessary to allow students to become computer literate or have access to modem methods of information storage and retrieval.

Material shortages, whether they be in limited library stock or in teaching materials, cause unacceptable problems for staff in their ability to provide a quality education for students. Such shortages extend to the professional development of the staff, who find themselves isolated from the sources of knowledge with which they can improve their teaching or research.

The concept of 'plant' in the business sense within the context of universities, can be understood to mean the buildings and lands used including the student halls of accommodation, sports facilities and other amenities that are necessary for a university to become a community of scholars. Where such provision is lacking or in decline, the fabric of this community falls (in some cases quite literally) apart. It is difficult to reach one's destination through such ruins.

The importance of information and links is central to rapid progress, otherwise time is wasted in 'reinventing the wheel', while those institutions at the forefront extend their unassailable lead. Such bodies as UKCOSA in Britain, NUFFIC in the Netherlands, the DAAD in Germany, the European Association of International Education (EAIE) with its headquarters in Amsterdam, and the British Council globally, are all examples of bodies which can provide assistance with finding partners, information on good practice and networks of support for staff. Without such help, it is easy to become dispirited with the undoubted difficulties that exist when trying to make progress in a new area.

It is useful to provide an example of the threats facing a national system of higher education. In the case of the UK, there are a considerable number of such threats including the increasing number of institutions overseas that are teaching business courses in English such as those in the Netherlands and Scandinavia. In addition, cutbacks in the level of funding the 'unit of resource' - for Universities from Government have been coupled with cuts in the level of Government grants made available to students, with the difference being met by an increasing reliance on loans. Such a situation can only become worse with the possible introduction of tuition fees for undergraduate courses (these alheady exist for postgraduate courses) and increases further Britain's decline compared to other countries.

Such changes inevitably lead towards a system of financially-based entry to higher education as opposed to entry based upon ability. Such a backward leap reinforces social divisions and the self-perpetuating elites with all the injustices that this produces, providing evidence for the view that history indeed repeats itself firstly as tragedy and then as farce.

(B) resources - internal strengths and weaknesses

The UK system has a number of internal strengths such as the reputation and quality of UK degrees, the added-value of a UK degree for overseas students; the



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activity of the British Council overseas in promoting British culture and establishing links; access to information and training from UKCOSA and the availability of external funds from the EC and US through such schemes as Erasmus and Fulbright.

Weaknesses in the same system can be seen to be the comparative shortage of foreign language skills amongst staff and students; the demoralisation of staff caused by rapid growth; new contracts of employment and levels of pay which cannot attract or keep the best young staff; shortage of funds internally for development and cutbacks in Government funding via the diminishing 'unit of resource' (amount of money available to teach each student) that this translates into.

(C) objectives - power, expectations, organizational culture

The objective of any process of internationalization should be the development of the university. As higher education is an expanding market, consideration of

competitors and market share are not generally considered to be of

primary concern, although the recruitment of overseas students by UK institutions is affected by the attraction of other countries such as the United States and Australia. This is seen especially when the cost of the tuition fees, accommodation and other subsistence costs are taken into account. Dutch institutions are particularly active in teaching all or part of some courses in English (EAIE, 1993).

Power

Within higher education, there are groups of staff whose power by virtue of their

position and expertise is key to internationalization. The growth in the types and numbers of these 'gatekeepers' indicates a development within international education as can be seen in the specialist sections of the EAIE, which are currently:

(a) ACE - Admissions Officers and Credential Evaluators (b) EBS - Economics and Business Studies (c) EEPC - European Educational Programme Co-ordinators (d) IRM - International Relations Managers (e) LTT - Language Teachers and Testers (f) RILO - Research and Industrial Liaison Officers (g) SAFSA - Study Abroad and Foreign Student Advisers

Such a taxonomy of functions indicates the way in which the whole field of internationalization is gaining in importance and becoming more complex in the implementation of activities.



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Expectations

Expectations should ideally be congruent between management, staff and students. Students are increasingly demanding courses that will allow them to compete on an international basis, particularly within Europe but also further afield. Staff on the other hand feel a need primarily for job security within a framework of good pay, social status and career development. However, both groups recognise internationalization as a self-evidently 'good thing'. Such a favourable initial attitude is an excellent basis for further progress, particularly when management support is forthcoming. However, if the process is mismanaged, this goodwill can very easily be reversed into outright hostility particularly from local residents.

Organizational culture

Organizational cultures implicitly and explicitly modify behaviour by rewarding some activities, for example, unitisation of courses, while discouraging others, for example, personal tutorials. Within the informal staff structures, international activity can be regarded as a 'perk' for the few - usually the most senior staff. This is the precise opposite of what is desirable, namely an accessibility to a range of opportunities for all staff who wish to engage in them, and particularly those young staff who can benefit the most from such contacts.

However, the way interationalization is dealt with within an institution will carry very clear and powerful messages about its importance. Such messages may well range from active discouragement of staff activities, through benign neglect to whole-hearted support and redirection of resources to place internationalization as a central dimension of the university's activities.

Questions that can be asked include: Where does the power reside within and outside of the organization and in which direction does the university wish to go? What are the expectations of the Government, staff and students? Does the organizational culture encourage or discourage excellence and innovation?

Strategic choice

(A)generation of options

The question of what is possible and what is desirable leads to a number of choices having to be made. Strategic options will inevitably vary according to the aims of the organization, such as:

* Teaching or research? - this split may well define the levels of activity at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

* Elite or mass education? - recruitment of the best students or the best provision for the mass of students? The CNAA (1992) report states that 'the elite group



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must always be small' and cites the London Business School, Cranfield and Ashridge as examples of institutions with an international reputation. Arkin adds Henley to this list, as well as INSEAD in France and IMD in Switzerland.

* International or local Business School? - this of course begs the question, 'what constitutes an international Business School?' If the answer is an international student body, is there a critical mass of overseas (that is, non-UK) students which must be reached before such claims can be realistically be made and what percentage of the total body would this be? Useful comparisons may be made with intemationalization in other countries such as Bechem (1991) and Dineen (1992).

* Specialist or generalist? - should a Business School specialise on teaching and research in a select number of subjects and thereby gain a reputation as a centre of excellence in those subjects, or offer a wide range without particular distinction? Paliwoda (1992) raises this argument concerning the generalist MBA versus specialist postgraduate courses in for example, Marketing or Business Information Technology. The argument is developed by the CNAA (1992) observation that 'Within the segment comprising the top few and the aspiring claimants, there will be room for specialisation; individual schools will be known for a particular type of programme or sectoral specialisation, for example. Only the largest institution can afford to define its product-market scope broadly.

The other options, which are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary, can be understood to fall into one of four dimensions as identified in the introduction (Figure 1):

The conceptualisation can be illustrated by giving examples of activities across the dimensions as follows (Table 2):

When considering the following listing of possible activities, it is useful to assess both current and future levels of activity as the most straightforward way of setting performance indicators and targets for the operational plan.

Figure 1. The Four Dimensions of Interationalization

1. Organizational change (OC) 2. Curriculum innovation (Cl)

t X

Intenationalization

3. Staff development (SD) 4. Student mobility (SM)

__



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Table 2. Examples of activities across dimensions of interationalization

Primary activity - 4, Secondary activity

SM SD CI OC

SM ERASMUS Teaching visits New courses for Provision of Halls of foreign students Residence places

SD Production of Research Opportuities to Secondment of staff student report on develop specialist to an International host institution expertise Office

CI Preparation of Development of Short courses for Franchising of courses cultural briefings teaching methods overseas experts overseas by students for appropriate to other students overseas students

OC Need for recognition Resource allocation Creation of Increasing recruitment of study abroad for the language administrative of overseas students and

training of staff systems for staff with overseas exchange students expertise

Organizational development

In a world that is changing ever more rapidly, universities need to adapt if they are to avoid stagnation, decline and eventual extinction. In such circumstances, the necessity to internationalize becomes an imperative with the consequent need for strategic planning to achieve this, as identified in the EC Memorandum. For this to become a reality, the following issues need to be addressed:

(a) allocation of resources such as the creation of specialist posts and an International Office that undertakes those activities best done centrally (such as publicity and residential accommodation), whilst facilitating those activities which are best devolved to Faculties, Departments or individual members of staff (such as provision of course information).

(b) the establishment of high-quality links with partner institutions overseas through, for example, ERASMUS and TEMPUS programmes

(c) structural change, for example incorporating the acquisition of a moder language into the curriculum of all students

(d) co-ordination and support of development at the most senior level of the institution

(e) the development of admissions and access policies with the requirement of competent evaluation of foreign qualifications including foreign language ability

(f) recognition of the increasing importance of information technology for teaching and learning, whether this be library computer databases, pre-recorded videos or distance learning methods using television and radio

(g) extension of links with commerce and industry in order to provide placements for students, access to first-hand knowledge for staff, and an understanding of



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how the curriculum needs to be changed in order to prepare students in the best way for the world they will graduate into

(h) the development of courses for groups outside of higher education such as the retired or unemployed

Curriculum innovation

Curriculum innovation can be understood as the incorporation of the leading knowledge and methods into the subjects taught. It has a number of aspects both internal and external to the institution.

Internally, this includes the creation of new courses - either full courses or modules within existing programmes; the extension of language acquisition as a compulsory or optional element in the programme of all students; changes in the way the subject is taught or studied such as the use of case studies or project work; new ways of assessing what is learnt, for example through continuous assessment; and the use of internships (work experience) whether this be within the country or abroad. There is also a need to examine the way in which courses need to be adapted to meet the special needs of foreign students both in content and in teaching methods.

Externally, there is an increasing move towards portability of qualifications with credit accumulation and transfer schemes (CATS) and the EC equivalent the European Credit Transfer Scheme (ECTS). In addition Joint or Dual Qualifications such as the French 'Maitrise' or the German 'Diplom', are becoming common as features of partnership agreements with the UK award of a BA degree. Where such equality is not present in an agreement between institutions, some universities are franchising courses abroad, with the final award gained being that of the UK institution leading to a situation where a student may gain a British degree without ever having set foot in the UK.

It is interesting to note the CNAA (1992) view that: 'The typical undergraduate [UK international business] programme can be summarised as:

? of four years duration; ? with around 30 students per year; * from three nationalities; ? offering compulsory French or German, or perhaps Spanish; ? the language taught from outside the business school; * for about four hours a week; * a year spent abroad either studying or working.'

Staff development

Brown and Atkins (1985) have highlighted the shortage of funding in UK



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universities for staff development activities. Within the field of internationalization, their findings can be extended to the following categories:

(a) the availability of facilities for staff to learn foreign languages (b) financial support for conference attendance (c) opportunities for research - Arkin (1991) states popular areas as being 'aspects

of cross-cultural management, Japanese management practice, the emergence of market economies in eastern Europe and the impact of the single European market'. In addition she identifies London and Warwick as being the two institutions which gained the Universities Funding Council's five-star rating for work deemed to be of international excellence

(d) the amount of time staff are allowed to work on publications (e) opportmmunities for staff exchanges (f) programmes and facilities to encourage guest speakers and lectures (g) support for foreign scholars attending a host institution (h) the secondment of staff to other posts (i) the availability of training in special skills such as teaching overseas students,

setting up links or obtaining external funding (j) the encouragement of a teaching specialism (k) the recruitment of staff with overseas teaching and business experience (1) opportunities for undertaking consultancy and the way in which this adds value

to what is taught

Student mobility

Student mobility should be understood as not only the physical mobility of the minority of students, but the intellectual mobility of the majority, in the sense that the majority will derive benefit from the other dimensions of internationalization, and most especially from curriculum innovation and staff development.

Other aspects of student mobility to be considered include:

(a) the recruitment of overseas students - (defined as non-EC students as EC students are now regarded as being 'home students') - who are permanent members of a course

(b) the existence of exchange programmes, where students spend time abroad (c) the availability of overseas work placements (d) the way in which transnational student gatherings are encouraged (e) field trips as a learning method and the way in which institutions can assist

visiting staff and students who are on field trips (f) the way in which the acquisition of cross-cultural skills and cultural awareness

is made explicit in being able to understand other cultures and the desirability of this as a part of education

(g) the desirability of learning a foreign language either as a compulsory or optional part of study



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(h) access to foreign materials in the home institution, for example books, journals, case studies, computer networks

(i) improved career prospects from working or studying abroad

(B) evaluation of options -financial implications and SWOT analysis

It is a mistaken belief that international activities necessarily demand additional resources. Some activities can be undertaken on a no-cost basis such as curriculum content changes. Other activities can save money, such as rationalisation of staff visits overseas, where visits to students, conferences or for research purposes can be combined.

Some activities can actually generate income in order to fund other resource- hungry initiatives, 'cash-cow' activities of this type usually include the provision of short courses for overseas students or managers and the running of Summer Schools.

Finally, there is the whole issue of applying for external funding, whether this be for example, the British Council's support for costs of visits or large-scale EC

funding for research contracts. Sims & Stelcner (1981) have provided a

methodology for cost-benefit analysis within a Canadian University, which can be

applied to this area. In terms of a SWOT analysis, the elements of this have been dealt with above

under strategic analysis, and can be understood to include the following (Table 3) (although these will vary across institutions and countries):

(c) Selection of strategy - the 'strategic fit' of a strategy is based on suitability, feasibility and acceptability given an institution's overall 'mission' (David, 1989). The range of interational activities adopted by an institution will in some sense reflect that institution's perceived needs and its direction. This paper argues that

Table 3. An example of a SWOT analysis of internationalization

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Quality of existing provision Lack of staff time Commitment of senior management Lack of funds Interest and activities of some staff No appreciable benefits Value of UK degree overseas Shortage of student accommodation

Spare capacity Poor state of repair of buildings

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Long-term strategic position Staff resistance - overload

Organizational development UK competitors Increased income from fees Fragmented approach by university Curriculum development Other priorities e.g. Quality Staff development - languages, links etc. Staff resentment of overseas travel Developed power to staff - subsidiary Sectoral decline



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internationalization can range from being the complete mission of the institution embracing all other aspects, to a selection of a number of options concerned with students, staff, courses and organizational development.

Strategy implementation

(a) Resource planning - once a strategy has been decided, it is necessary to allocate the resources which have been calculated as being necessary for success. Such resources will include finance, staff, offices, student accommodation and manual or computerised records of, for example, student programmes of study with dates and courses taken.

(b) Organizational structure - ensuring that the most effective methods are used, for example, centralised functions such as marketing and student accommodation, with decentralised decision-making such as the power of Course Leaders to decide on the suitability of applicants and the overall mix of students taking their course. Such issues are especially apparent now that all EC students are regarded as being 'home' students, and 'overseas' students are understood as being non-EC.

Within the organization, it is imperative that interationalization is discussed and its progress observed at the highest level, for example, the Board of Governors. This should be supplemented by a working party of practitioners who can inform policy through their experiences. Such a grouping might well be known as an 'International Committee'.

(C) people and systems -faculty staff

Questions that can be usefully asked here are: what staff need to be appointed or moved from other duties? What new administrative procedures need to be designed and implemented? Can the strategy be readily adapted to cope with operational difficulties? Are staff and students able to improve the strategy given their direct experience of its applications?

Handy (1986) provides a useful guide for the psychological progression in any organizational change as being:

1. Create an awareness of the need for change (preferably not by argument or rationale but by exposure to objective fact).

2. Select an appropriate initiating person or group ('appropriate' in this context refers to sources of power as perceived by the recipients of the strategy).

3. Be prepared to allow the recipients to adapt the final strategy. (that which one adapts can more easily call one's own. Ownership equals intemalisation, i.e. self-maintaining).

4. Accept the fact that, like the good psychoanalyst, the successful doctor gets no credit but must let the patient boast of his sound condition. Good managers live vicariously.

5. Be prepared to accept a less than optimum strategy in the interest of achieving something rather than nothing. Compromise has its own morality.

Such a guide can be a starting point for any member of staff seeking to promote



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the cause of intemationalization within their institution and summarises the stages in their approach. It can also be usefully compared in its approach for similarities with the descriptive approach to strategic management of Mintzberg (1978) as mentioned earlier in this paper.

Models of internationalization

One of the difficulties with reaching an understanding of internationalization, is the absence of both a common definition and a conceptual framework within which to locate the different approaches. Clearly, the nature of the process varies according to the purposes to which it is put - the 'Grand Tour' is one historical example whose purpose was to produce a well-educated rounded individual capable of holding their own in the social circles of their patrons.

This variety of concepts can be seen in the current approaches such as the US use of 'Study Abroad Programmes' and the EC's Erasmus programme model, with its dependence on one- or two-semester based student mobility, and the inclusion of staff mobility, intensive programmes or complementary measures to a much lesser extent.

Lupton (1991) has suggested an alternative model based on a series of steps commencing with 'international visibility, for example by:

* acting as host to visiting management 'gurus' from abroad; * organising international conferences and workshops; * joining international networks such as the European Foundation for Management

Development (EFMD) as an institution and encouraging staff to join specialist networks such as the European Accountancy Association or the European Marketing Academy;

* taking part in international comparative research projects; * facilitating visits by foreign students and managers.'

This initial step is followed by faculty exchanges or sabbatical periods abroad, together with student projects in other countries, introduction of international teaching materials, and joint programmes. The CNAA (1992) also notes the 'Middlesex model', 'with large student exchanges, large numbers of students

moving around Europe and substantial language learning.' To these can be added the proactive and reactive models. The reactive is given first as it is, in the author's experience, far more commonly found within institutions (Figure 2):

It is clear from the above, that the failure of management to manage the initiative inevitably leads to conflict, missed opportunities and confusion about direction.

The University hierarchy should however ensure the dissemination of internationalization to every level of the institution, devolving power - on the basis of the concept of subsidiarity - to those levels where the work is actually undertaken. In addition, central policies on quality and continual improvement can



437

Stage 1 CONTACT

Academic staffengage in making contacts with colleagues in other

countries, curriculum development, limited mobility, links lack clear

formulation of purpose and duration

Stage 2 FORMALISATION

Some links arc formalised with institutional agreements being made.

Resources may or may not be made available

Stage 3 CENTRAL CONTROL

Growth in activity and response by management who seek to gain

control of activities

Stage 4 CONFLICT

Organizational conflict betwee staff and management leads to

witbdrawing of good will by staff. Possible decline in activty and

disenchantment

Stage 5 MATURITY OR DECLINE

Possible move to a more coherent, that is, proactive approach

Figure 2. The reactive model of internatonalization

be progressed through supporting staff initiatives and enthusiasm. Such a reactive process can be compared with the proactive approach that follows (Figure 3).

A previous study (Rudzki, 1993) has identified the factors critical to successful intemationsli7ation (in order of priority) as:

1. Favourable staff attitudes 2. Having the active support of senior management 3. Having staff with a specific international brief 4. Having staff who are fluent in foreign languages 5. Availability of additional funds internally 6. Having good partner institutions 7. Having staff development focused on intemationalization 8. Access to information on good practice 9. Having staff experienced in teaching overseas

10. Remission from teaching

I -



438

Figure 3. The proactive model of internationalization

To these can be added the top four obstacles as identified in the same study:

1. Lack of funding 2.Lack of time and need for prioritization of academic staff time e.g. teaching,

research, consultancy, publications 3. Lack of students with language ability 4. Staff attitude

It is interesting to compare the factors for success with the obstacles, and to speculate as to the differences. Undoubtedly, some of these are due to institutions being at different stages of development, with the presence of reactive or proactive models.

The future

Looking beyond these shores to continental Europe, one can see the shape of future developments in internationalization in the European Commission's 1991 Memorandum on Higher Education. This might more accurately be called 'Europeanization' since it relates to the member states.

Stage 1 ANALYSIS Awareness of what 'intemationalization' is and what it entails. Strategic analysis of short-, mid- and long-term organizational objectives - answering the question 'Should we internationalize? 'Why bother?. Staff training and discussions - understanding of options and what types of international activities are available. International audit of existing activities and staff audit SWOT analysis Cost-benefit analysis

0

Stage 2 CHOICE Strategic plan and policy drawn up in conjunction with staff and explicit use made of mutual interest of staff and organization. Performance measures defined. Resources allocated. Networking with internal and external organizations

Stage 3' IMPLEMENTATION Measure performance

Stage 4 REVIEW Assessment of performance against policy and plan

Stage 5 REDEFINITION OF OBJECTIVES/PLAN/POLICY Process of continual improvement and the issues of quality this entails. Return to Stage I in cycle of growth and development



439

Within the Memorandum, the contours of the Higher Educational landscape have been defined in terms of:

* Student Mobility within the Community ? Co-operation between Institutions at European level * Europe in the Curriculum * The Central Importance of Language * The Training of Teachers * Recognition of Qualifications and Periods of Study * The International Role of Higher Education * Information and Policy Analysis * Dialogue with the Higher Education Sector

Such an approach goes beyond the narrow perspective of national governments and recognises the 'strategic importance...vital for the future of Europe' of higher education in ensuring long-term economic and social success. It is to be hoped that the internationaliTation of European education will include these issues and form the basis for the strategic decisions which will become the legacy of the 21st century.

Conclusion

The application of strategic management techniques to the question of the internationalization of higher education provides a theoretical framework which can be informed by data collected in the field. Such an approach presents staff with a method for analysing their own institution, together with an awareness of the options available, as well as a structure for making informed choices. It is in sympathy with the current EC position on future approaches to higher education.

The increasing importance of intemationalization is to be welcomed, as is the work of various researchers who are attempting to reach a clearer understanding of the process and its elements. It is to be wished that as we approach the millennium, the next century will bring the 'global community of scholars' ever closer together as a vehicle for both the beneficial advances in knowledge and the raising of consciousness that the world so desperately needs.

In this spirit, I look forward to hearing from colleagues who wish to progress internationalization within their own institutions, and who would like to discuss this paper further.

Abbreviations

CATS Credit Accumulation and Transfer Schemes CNAA Council for National Academic Awards EAIE European Association of International Education



440

EC European Commission ECTS European Credit Transfer Scheme EFMD European Foundation for Management Development ERASMUS European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University

Students (EC programme) HE Higher Education MBA Master of Business Administration TEMPUS Trans-European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (EC

programme) UK United Kingdom UKCOSA United Kingdom Council for Overseas Student Affairs

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