IItIItI

THE ART OF WOODWORKING

HOMEWORI$HOP

Stationary machines

o Wear appropriate safety gear: safetyglasses or a face shie ld, and hear ingprotectors or ear plugs. lf there is nodust co l lect ion system, wear a dustmask. For exotic woods like ebony, use arespirator; the sawdust may cause anallergic reaction. Wear work gloves whenhandl ing rough lumber.

. Make sure that workshop lighting andventilation are adequate and that worksurfaces are large and sturdy.

. Read your owner's manual beforeoperat ing any machine.

. Keep children, onlookers and pets awayfrom the work area.

. Unplug a machine before per formingset up or insta l la t ion operat ions.

. Keep blades and cutterhead knives sharp.

SAFETY TIPSo Turn the machine of f i f i t producesan unfami l iar v ibrat ion or noise; havethe machine serv iced before resum-ing operations.

. Do not use a machine i f any par t of i tis worn or damaged.

. Roll up long sleeves and remove ringsand other jewelry that can catch inmoving parts.

. Keep your hands wel l awaY f rom aturning blade or cutterhead

r F ind a comfor table stance; avoidover-reach i ng.

. Concentrate on the job; do not rush.Never work when you are tired, stressedor have been drinking alcohol or usingmedications that induce drowsiness.

. Keep your work area c lean and t idY;c lut ter can lead to accidents, and

sawdust and wood scraps can be afire hazard.

Chain saws

. Wear safety goggles, hearing protection,work boots and a hard hat. Make sureyour c lothes are c lose- f i t t ing and longhair is t ied back.

. Operate a chain saw only outdoors ona dry, clear day.

. Mix fuel and add i t to the fuel tank atleast 10 feet away from your work area.

o To start up the saw, carry it to the workarea and set in on the ground; makesure the chain is not contacting anything.Brace the tool wi th your foot and onehand , and use you r o the r hand to Pu l lthe starter cord.

. Whi le operat ing the saw, hold i t f i rmlywi th both hands.

IIWORKSHOP GUIDE

FELLING A TREEMaking the undercut and the backcutTo fell a tree to make your own lumber(page 36), begin with an undercut one-third the way through the trunk on the sidefacing the direction in which the tree shouldfal l . Cut the wedge angl ing up from thebase of the tree. Known as the Humboltundercut, this method saves lumber fromthe most valuable part of a tree-the lowerpart of the trunk-a chunk of whichwi l l be lost with the tradi t ional techniqueof undercutting. Then make a backcuta couDle of inches above the undercut fromthe opposite side to fel l the tree. Thebackcut should stop an inch or two fromthe undercut to leave a hinge that wi l lcontrol the direct ion of the fal l and helpprevent blade kickback.

ItIItIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIItIIIIIII

ANATOMY OF A BOARD

Direction of fall <--

THEART OF WOODWORKING

ENCYCLOPEDIAOFWOOD

ItIIIIIITIIItIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIaI

ENCYCTOPEDIAOFWOOD

TIME-LIFE BOOKSALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA

THE ART OF WOODWORKING

ItItIIttIIIII

ST. REMY PRESSMONTREAL. NEW YORK

THE ART OF WOODWORKING was produced byST. REMYPRESS

PUBLISHERPR.ESIDENT

Series EditorSeries Art Director

Senior Editors

Art DirectorsDesigner

Research EditorPicture Editor

Writers

C o nt r ib ut in g lllu st r at o r s

AdministratorProduction ManagerSystem Coordinator

Photographer

Kenneth WinchesterPierre L6veill€

Pierre Home-DouglasFrancine LemieuxMarc Cassini (Text)Heather Mills (Research)Normand Boudreault, Solange LabergeLuc Germain, Michel GigudreJim McRaeChristopher JacksonThmsin M. Douglas, Andrew fones,Rob LutesRonald Durepos, Jean-PierreBourgeois, Michel Blais, JacquesPerrault, Alain Longpr€, JocelynVeillette, Robert PaquetNatalie WatanabeMichelle TurbideJean-Luc RoyRobert Chartier

THECONSUTTANTS

John Arno is a consultant, cabinetmaker andfreelance writer who lives in Troy Michigan.He also conducts seminars on wood identifica-tion and early American furniture design.

Giles Miller-Mead taught advanced cabinet-making at Montreal technical schools for morethan ten years. A native ofNew Zealand, he hasworked as a restorer of antique furniture.

Andrew Poynter is President of A&M WoodSpecialty Inc., of Cambridge, Ontario, Canada,merchants offine hardwoods and veneers. Hebegan his career in the wood industry in theearly'70s making custom furniture. He is nowa director of the Woodworkers Alliance forRainforest Protection and an interim directorofthe Forest Stewardship Council.

Joseph Truini is Senior Editor of HozeMechankmagazine. A former Shop and ToolsEditor of Popular Mechanics, he has worked asa cabinetmaker, home improvement contractorand carpenter.

Enryclopedia ofWoodp. cm.-(The Art of Woodworking)

Includes index.ISBN 0-8094-9916-9. (trade)ISBN 0-8094-9917 -7 (Ltb)l. Woodwork--Enryclopedias.2. Wood--Encyclopedias.I. Time- Life Books. IL SeriesTTl80.E6l3 1992684' .08-dc20 92-37293

CIP

For information about any Time-Life book,please call l-800-621-7026, or write:Reader InformationTime-Life Customer ServiceP.O. Box C-32068Richmond, Virginia23261-2068

@ 1993 Time-Life Books Inc.AII rights reserved.No part of this book may be reproduced inany form or by any electronic or mechanicalmeans, including information storage andretrieval devices or systems, without priorwritten permission from the publisher, exceptthat brief passages may be quoted for reviews.First printing. Printed in U.S.A.Published simultaneously in Canada.

TIME-LIFE is a trademark of Time WarnerInc. U.S.A.

R 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 r

IIIIIIIIIITIItIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIII

Time-Life Books is a division of Time-Life Inc.,a wholly owned subsidiary of

THE TIME INC. BOOK COMPANY

TIME-LIFBBOOKS

PresidentPublisher

ManagingEditorDirector of Editorial Resources

Associate PublisherMarketing Director

Editorial DirectorConsuhing Editor

Production Manager

Mary N. DavisRobert H. SmithThomas H. FlahertyElise D. Ritter-Clough

Tievor LunnRegina HallDonia Ann SteeleBob Doyle, John SullivanMarlene Zack

CONTENTS

tIIIIIrtIItIIItIItIIIItrIIIItttI

6 INTRODUCTION

12 UNDERSTANDINGWOOD14 Anatomv of a tree16 Softwoobs and hardwoods18 From log to lumber24 Lumber cutting methods26 Properties of wood30 Identifting wood34 Wood identification keys36 Portable lumber mills

40 SELECTING TUMBER42 Ordering lumber45 Grading lumber46 Hardwood grades48 Softwood grades50 Lumber defects53 Preparing lumber

56 VENEERS ANDMANUFACTURED BOARDS

58 Veneers60 From log to veneer63 Veneering69 Decorative matching70 Plvwood72 Pliwood grading74 Concealing plywood edges76 Particleboard77 Fiberboard

DRYINGANDSTORINGWOODWater and woodEstimating wood movementAir-drying woodStoring wood

WOOD DIRECTORY

GLOSSARY

INDEX

ACKNO\ArLEDGMENTS

78

80868789

98

138

L42

IM

INTRODUCTION

Iohn Sharp talks about

WOODIDENTIFICATION

f *ur exposed to wood identification at an early age while working at our familyI sawmill in Union County, Tennessee, during the summers. I felt a great deal ofcuriosity about the vast differences I could see between the logs ofvarious species asthey were "opened up" and the lumber moved from the saw deck.

Oak, poplar and other common hardwood logs made up the majority of logs deliv-ered to the mill, but there was the occasional odd species, such as persimmon or sas-safras. My job was to separate the lumber by species. If a poplar board was found ina stack of oak, that was my fault, so I quickiy learned my woods.

At that time I only knew the common names of the different species. Not untilI encountered wood anatomy courses in forestry school did I realize the importanceof scientific names, for common names were variable from region to region.

Wood identification has come a long way since the turn of the century, when Yalewas the gnly school teaching forestry studies. Now there are 25 to 30 places where woodidentificltion is offered as part of the curriculum. When I was in forestry school inNorth Carolina, just after World War II, an integral part of our work involved iden-tifring wood samples. When we came across an unfamiliar species, say sourwood,which wasn't a commercial wood, our task became more difficult. I can still remembera classmate of mine, a war veteran who survived Guadalcanal, remarking that he sworehe'd never worry about another thing in his life, but there he was worrying, as we alldid, because he couldn't tell the difference between ash and hickory.

At the time, wood identification tools consisted of a hand lens and textbooks fea-turing small black-and-white photos of species samples. With a view to reducing theanxiety associated with identifring wood, I have worked very closely over the yearswith a photography lab at the University of Tennessee to get better photos. Wood loverscan now refer to good quality S-by-lO-inch photos of wood types in all sorts ofplaces-from woodworking publications to bookstores in our national parks.

lohn Sharp is a retired University of Tennesseeprofessor of forestry and a member of the Inter-nationalWood Collectors Society. He woilesfrom his home near Knowille, Tennessee.

INTRODUCTION

Andrew Poynter talks about

BITYINGANDSELLINGWOOD

I r.r rupplier of hardwoods and fine veneers for the last 20 years, I have been priv-,{, \ ileged to get to know some of the finest woodworkers in North America. I'vealso learned a lot about wood and its qualities, not only the good qualities, but thebafling ones as well.

. .looking bach I suppose my own interest in wood began manyyears before I estab-lished my company. In fact, I can vividly recall my firsi hands-on experience with apiece of Brazilian rosewood-completely captivating!

That was in the mid-'60s, and in those days woodiurners, luthiers and furniture-makers had little to choose from in the way of different woods. Although they couldread wonderful {esgriptiygp.assages about Macassar ebony, satinwood, kingwood, andso on, trying to find a reliable source for all those fine woods was next to impossible.The need to inventory a selection ofwood for the furniture that I pictured mfermak-ing was one of the reasons I started my wood dealership n 19j3.

My furnituqemafing gradgally tapued off, and by 1975 I was putting all my efforuinto ttre task of marketing and selling fine hardwoods and veneers. At that time, every-one said the rain forests would go on forever, and that there was so much wood inthe Amazon that we would never run out. However, the passage of time and thedemand for wood have done two things to the timber trade: First, a proliferation ofwood dealers and wood varieties have entered the marketplace-a plus for those ofus who love wood. Second, we became complacent abouf the true value of variousspecies and the sustainability of their supply. We are now only too aware that the rainforests may not go on forever.

A+howh qe proble-rns causing deforestation are very comple6 there are steps thatwoodworkers should take to help improve the situation. "Measure twice and cuf oncd'may seem almost too basic, but it can make a difference in reducing our consumption.Using veneer whenever possible is another step in the right direition.

I've become an active member of the woodworkeis Alliance for RainforestProtection. wr\RP was founded in 1989 by a concerned group ofwoodworkers, woodturners,luthiers, wood merchants, tool dealers and lovers of wood. Central to manvofirprograms, Wz\RP encg,urages $e use ofwoodfrom susainable orwell-managedsources. It is now evident that much has to change in global forestrypractices olverth; next fewyears ifwoodworkers in the future are to enjoythe remarliable selectionof wood that is available to all of us today.

Andrew Poynter holds a piece of redwood burl at hisstore, A dt M Wood Specialty Inc., in Cambridge,

Ontario. The company sells more than 100 types ofwood to woodworkers throughout North America.

INTRODUCTION

Ion Arno talks about some

FA/ORITEWOODS

Q in.. I grew up in a family that owned a lumber business, working with wood hast. l been a lifelong interest of mine. While many fellow woodworkers tend to con-centrate on tools and methods ofconstruction, I find that the real essence ofthe craftlies in the medium we use-the wood itself. The world provides a great many finetimbers and some of them, such as walnut, mahogany and rosewood, lend a certainprestige to the finished project. For me, the joyofwoodworking comes from discov-ering the special properties of various species and learning how to choose the mostfunctionalwood for the intended purpose, regardless of its notoriety or reputation.Everywoodhas an application forwhich it is unsurpassed. The goal of good crafts-manship is to discover just what that application is.

There are literally hundreds of woods, some of them reasonably plentifirl domesticspecies, that seldom find their way into lumberyards. Neveflheless, they are still out-standing woods for certain applications. A few of my favorites are catalpa, balsampoplar and black ash. Recently, I have added another one to my list-sassafras.

A member of the Laurel family-along with cinnamon, camphor and bay-sas-safras is well known for its sweet-scented oil used in cosmetics and soaps. Its buoyantdecay-resistant wood has also gained some popularity with boat builders.Cabinetmakers, however, have long dismissed sassafras as being too soft and brittle.Basically, these assesments are accurate; the challenge for me has been to find an appli-cation where this wood excels. Oddly enough, the answer has come from what manyperceive as one of its negative qualities.

Sassafras is brittle, but its resistance to flexing gives it outstanding resonance whenused as the soundboard in dulcimers. The bright, bell-like tone it yields is as pleasantas the spicy aroma of the wood when it is being cut, shaped and sanded. And whatrole could be more fitting for this uniquelyAmerican species than in helping to providethe voice for an American musical instrument?

I started making dulcimers only a couple of years ago, when my daughte6 a musiclover, chose to build one for a high school project. We bought a kit, but when I openedthe box I realized that there wasn't anything inside that I couldn't make in my ownshop, so I started to experiment. My only regret, so far as being a luthier, is I don'tpossess a sense of music to go along with it.

lon Arno displays a home-made dulcimer, fashioned ftomsassafras and osage orange. He is a wood technologist,

consultant and freehnce writer living in Troy, Michigan.

dtr

' { "

a.&

\

rtI

I

I

I

I

tIttI

I

I

t

a

r.I

I

I

I

tI

tIItItIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIII

A pile of logs sit at a sawmill in Oregon"ready to be milled into lumber.

wood such as pine is more forgiv-ing of less precise joinery, whiledense, brittle species such as ma-hogany demand joints that arecut to close tolerances. And everybeginner quickly learns that sandin!wood across the grain, rather thanparallel to it, results in scratches thatare accentuated when a finish isapplied to the piece.

Remember, too, that how a par-ticular piece of wood behaves inyour shop depends in large measureon what happened to it before itreached the lumberyard. How thewood grew in the tree, the weather

the tree endured and how the wood was cut and dried all affectthe final product. The wood of a leaning tree, for example, willreact differently during machining than that sawn from thetrunk of an erect tree. And whether a board is quartersawn orplain-sawn has an impact on its dimensional stability.

One way to obtain intimate knowledge of your material isto saw it yourself from a tree using a portable lumber mill(page 36). Selecting and felling a tree, bucking-or crosscut-ting-it into logs, and milling the planks impart a hands-onunderstanding that is impossible to acquire any other way. Thework is arduous, and it also takes considerable time to cut anddry the boards. But the rewards-both in the unique lumberproduced and the personal satisfaction in producing it-arewell worth the effort.

II

TINDERSTANDNG WOOD

s you strive to improve yourl, \ mastery of the demandingcraft of woodworking, much ofyour attention will be devoted tolearning about tools and the tech-niques for using them. But in yourquest for perfection, do not neglectthe most fundamental componentof every project-the wood itself.

Rarely perfect and always vary-ing, each piece ofwood exhibits itsown character, just as certainly asa human being: Some woods areplain, some colorfi.rl; some are sta-ble, some unpredictable; some workeasily, some with difficulty. A knowl-edge of these properties will allow you to make the most ofyour abilities, achieving a wedding of form, substance andtechnique that can transform even an ordinary project intoa work of art.

You can obtain much factual information about the prop-erties ofwood in readily available books and articles. Learningto applythat knowledge is more challenging. For example, theknowledge that maple boards may contain wide variations incolor, texture and figure will assume greater meaning as youlearn to use these characteristics to best advantage. Likewise,although Douglas-fir is an attractive, easily worked wood, vari-ations in its surface porosity can make it difficult to finish well.But when you learn how to seal the wood, you will find manyuses for Douglas-fir. Experience will also tell you that a resilient

A stand of Douglas-fir trees baslcs in the sunlightin a West Coast forest. Many softwoods, like Douglas-frr are ideal for interior trim or cabinet work.

13

II

arvested from the trunks andbranches of trees, wood is a

resilient, dynamic building material.Understanding how trees grow can shedconsiderable light on why wood behavesas it does when it is worked or finished.

All trees consist of three major sys-tems: a root network that draws waterand minerals from the soil; a crown ofleaves, where water and minerals arecombined with carbon dioxide in thepresence ofsunlight to produce food forthe tree (photosynthesis); and--of mostinterest to woodworkers-a supportingtrunk that transporh the water and food.

Viewed in cross section, a tree trunkat first appears to be a fairly homoge-nous column of wood, marked by aseries of concentric bands called growthrings. However, a close view reveals aseries of distinct layers wapped aroundeach other, some living, some not. Atthe center is the heartwood, the dens-est-and dead-part of the trunk.Encircling the heartwood is the palersapwood, which in turn is surroundedby the cambium, the trunk's only active-ly growing segment. The cambium'sgrowth accounts for the layers of sap-wood that are added each year. On eitherside ofthe cambium are layers that trans-port sap throughout the tree and storesurplus food. As the inner sapwoodrecedes from the cambium, its poresgraduallyclogwith resins and gums, andbecome heartwood. As the outer sec-tions become dormant, they form atrunk's outermost layer, the bark.

The differences between sapwood andheartwood are important to everywood-worker. Because it is more porous thanheartwood, sapwood absorbs finishesbetter. But the denser heartwood is usu-allv more durable and decav-resistant.The carbohydrates present in sapwoodcells make the wood vulnerable to fun-gi and insects. The colors ofheartwoodare also generally richer and morevibrant than those of sapwood.

CrownThe branchesand leaves of atree, where pho-tooyntheoiatakee plaae

RootEAnchor tree andabaorb waterand mineralsfrom the aoil

TrunkAlao called stemor bole; aupportotree and channelanutriente to andfrom roote

ItrI

II

III

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

Growth ringsIn regions where a tree's growth is intenupted by seasonalchange, its wood is characterized by growth rings: concentricbands, usually fractions of an inch wide, perpendicular to theaxis of the trunk. Trees that grow in temperate areas with a win-ter season display distinct rings. In the tropics, where growth ismore or less continuous, a sharply defined ring may only be vis-ible as the result of a dry season. The rings are intersected bya series of rays: flattened bands of tissue that radiate outwardfrom the pith to the phloem of the tree. Growth rings consist oftwo separate layers. The first, called earlywood, is laid down atthe beginning of the growing season; the second layer, or late-

wood, is formed toward the end. Earlywood is more porous thanlatewood, which accounts for the contrast between the two.Taken together, the earlywood and latewood of a growth ringin temperate climates represent one year in a tree's life. Thewidth of a ring depends on growing conditions and varies fromspecies to species, but changes from year to year reveal a tree'shistory. A wide ring suggests a growing season with ample sunand moisture, while a narrow ring is evidence of disease, unfa-vorable weather or insect attacks. For the woodworker, groMhrings are also clues to the strengh of the wood: uncharacteristi-cally narrow or wide rings can signal weak timber.

A amall and often pulpy corerunninq up the center of the trunk

RayCarriea nutrientalaterally throu4hthe wood; alaoatoreg nutrientq

lneulatea treeaqainst temper-ature extremeo;

)apwood that haa been cloqqedwith resina, quma and otherextractivea: eupportg tree

Grotvth ringA concentric rinq divided intoaarlywood and latewood indi-catin7 the amount of woodadded to a.tree'a diameterin one growing aeason

Heaftwood

keepo oapwoodand phloem fromdryin1 out

9apwoodActivo parA of thetree'e wood throu7hwhich water andminerals are con-ducted from theroote to the leavea:al6o storea nutri-enta and helpa tosupport.the tree

PhloemA thin, spon7y layer of tubea thatcarry diaaolved eu4ara and qrowthhormonea from the leavea to otherparta of a tree

A thin reproductive layor that formanew t'isaue, addinq to the phloem andaapwood to increase a tree'a 1irbh

Cambium

IIII

I-( \

s.q

A thick slice from the trunk of a matureoak forms an oval-shaped tabletop. Thegrowth rings that characterized this tree

are clearly visible: Light-colored early-wood alternates with darker bandsof latewood, etching a distinct line

between each year's growing periods.

tt

SOFTWOODS AND HARDWOODS

f rees are roughly divided into soft-I woods and hardwoods, but the

terms are inexact: Some hardwoods,such as basswood or aspen, for exam-ple, are softer than North American soft-woods like longleaf pine or Douglas-fir.

The type and shape of a tree's leavesare more accurate indicators of aparticular wood's identity. Softwoodsinclude evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, while hardwoods comprisebroad-leaved deciduous, or leaf-shed-ding, trees. But it is at the microscopiclevel that the true differences betweensoftwoods and hardwoods can be seen.Softwoods are composed mainly of tra-cheids, dual-purpose cells which con-duct the sap up through the trunk and

provide support. Hardwoods, which arebelieved to have evolved later, have nar-rowet thicker-walled fiber cells for sup-port and large-diameter thin-walledvessels for sap conduction, These cellsdetermine thi texture of a tree's wood.

In spring, when there is abundantmoisture and rapid growth of early-wood, the tracheid cells in softwoodshave thin walls and large cavities to con-duct the sap. The result is relativelyporous wood. As latewood develops inthe latter part of the growing season,the tracheids begin to form thicker walls,creating denser wood.

In hardwoods such as oak or ash,most of the vessels develop in the early-wood, resulting in uneven grain. These

species are called ring-porous. With dif-fuse-porous hardwoods such as maple,the vessels are distributed more evenlyin the earlpvood and latewood. Somespecies, such as walnut, exhibit a moregradual transition from earlpvood tolatewood and are termed semi-rine-porous or semi-diffuse-porous.

The differences in cell structurebetween softwoods and hardwoodsbecome apparent when a stain is applied.In softwoods, the light, porous early-wood absorbs stain more readily thanthe dark, denser latewood-in effectreversing the grain pattern like a photo-graphic negative. Hardwoods, however,absorb stain more evenly, enhancing thec r o i n n a f f p r n

tI

I

I

I

tI

rIIIIIIIIIIItI

tI

trI

I

I

I

I

tI

(above, right),the sap is conducted through vessels, a series oftubel ike cel ls stacked one atop the other. Support for the trunkis provided by f iber cel ls. In the r ing-porous hardwood shown,vessels are more prominent in earlywood; f ibers are the pre-dominant cel l type in latewood. In both hardwoods and soft-woods, storage cel ls for carbohydrates and starch make up theremainins non-vascular wood t issue.

CELL STRUCTURE ()F SOFTWOODS AND HARDW()()DS

Latewood

A microscopic viewThe differences between softwood and hardwood are readilyapparent when viewed under a microscope's magnif icat ion.The cell structure of softwoods (above, /eff) is much simplerthan that of hardwoods. Almost al l softwood cel ls are long,thin tracheids, which support an unbroken column of sap thatcan tower more than 200 feet. The tracheids in Iatewoodbecome thrcker-wal led than those in earlvwood. In hardwoods

T6

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

THE HIDDEN HARVEST

IIIIIIIIrIIIIIIrIIIIIIIIIIITtIII

In addition to lumber and manufacturedboards, trees provide a cornucopia ofrawmaterials for products such as rolls ofnewsprint (left). For centuries, peoplehave extracted such natural products ascork, rubber, gum, medicine, spices, drugs,oils, charcoal, camphor and resins. Thecellulose fiber found in trees is used in theproduction of plastics and lacquers as wellas wood pulp. Coniferous trees supplyturpentine and resins, which are used inpaints, inl<s and finishes. Modern chem-istry has unlocked still more of wood'shidden treasures, finding ways to remoyesuch disparate products as glues, poisonsand arfficialvanilla.

For the practicing woodworker, call-ing a piece of wood by its commonname seldom creates confusion. lfyou ask for a few planks of white oakat a lumber yard, for example, thereis no reason why you should not getwhat you requested. But with somespecies, particularly exotics that mustbe purchased by mail-order, identitiescan be less certain. Common namesare misleading when trees with differ-ent characteristics share the samename, or when the same species hasdifferent common names in seoaratelocalities.

Suppose you wanted samples of avery rare and expensive species likeBrazilian rosewood, a black-streaked,dark brown wood often used in themaki ng of superior-qual ity guitars.A supplier could in good consciencesend you pieces of kingwood or tulip-

A ROSEWO(ID BY A]TY OTHER NAME...

wood instead, since both belong tothe rosewood family and are nativeto Brazil. In fact, there are severalgenuine rosewoods, such as EastIndian rosewood and cocobolo, thatcost much less than the Brazilianvar ie ty and are eas ie r to f ind .However, they might not fit the billfor a guitar-maker. Other species,such as bocote, bubinga and padauk,are often sold as rosewood substi-tutes, but do not look at all l ikeBrazilian rosewood.

To avoid confusion, it is helpful torefer to certain woods by their botan-ical names. Brazilian rosewood isDalbergia nigra, and a guitar-makerwho requests it by that name will notbe disappointed.

This scientific naming system wasdeveloped more than 200 years agoby Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus.

As shown below, in a botanicalanalysis of Brazilian rosewood,Linnaeus' now universally acceptedscheme classifies plants into thevarious taxonomic groups of phyla,classes, orders, families, genera andspecies. Almost all trees belong tothe spermatophyta phylum, with hard-woods in the angiospermae sub-phy-lum and the dicotyledonae class, andsoftwoods belonging to the gymnosper-mae subphylum,

A botanical breakdownof Brazilian rosewood

Phyfum: SpermatophytaSub-phylum: AngiospermaeClass: DicotyledonaeOrder; RosalesFamify: LeguminosaeGenusr DalbergiaSpecies: Nrgra

I 7

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

II

ItIIIIIIIIIrIIIIIIIIIIITI

II

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

caused during felling, poor judgment inbucking or inattentive sawing at themill can sabotage the value of a treeand raise the sawmill's-and the wood-buying consumer's-costs. Althoughpower saws have replaced muscle-driven

A tractor-Iike skidder hauls ahitch oflogs from the forest.

FROM LOGTO LIIMBER.p

etween the standing tree and theLl boards you pick offthe rack at thelumberyard stands a complex processthat requires manypeople to applyenor-mous skill at every step. Undetecteddefects in the standing tree, damage

A logger (left) makes his undercut in a mighty Douglas-fir tree in the rain forats of Britishcolumbio, canada. Fellingthesebehemoths was once the work of two men pushing andpulling a huge felling saw; today, a chain saw reduces fetling to a quick one-man jib.

pit saws in the forest and at the mill,and cuts are now guided by laser beamsand computer technology instead ofchalk lines, no replacement has beendevised for the practiced eye of anexperienced lumberman.

L9

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

II

It

Selecting the treesA neet joumey to the lumberyard beginsin the woods, when a forester or timbercruiser evaluates the trees for cutting.Not all cut trees will be earmarked forthe saw mill; some will be used for pulpor firewood. These lower-grade trees aredeliberately harvested to give the residualstockbetter access to nutrients and moreroom to grow, thus increasing the tim-ber stand's value. The very best trees willbe reserved for veneer.

Since most of the highest-grade lum-ber will come from the area just underthe bark, the forester must be able todetect at a glance clues thatbetray defects

in this area. Knots, for example, can beparticularly troublesome, dependingon where they are located. In the bot-tom part of the tree, where they are usu-ally indicated by a slight disfiguration ofthe bark, knots may be so deeply over-grown that theywill not affect the valueof the outerwood. But further up, wherethey are typically indicated by concen-tric circles or even bumps in the bark,knots pose more serious problems interms of qualiry

The ability to distinguish between dif-ferent types of fungi is another impor-tant skill in tree evaluation. All fungicause some damage, but certain species

Ahydrauliclogloader dispenses its contents onto a truck.

are rapacious: In beech and hardmaple, for example, a single body offalse tinder fungus on the outside of atree may signal the presence of a 12- tol4-foot-long column of decaywithin. Ifthe decaywere confined to the center ofthe tree, this would be less of a problem,but many fungi infest the most valuableouter wood. Any scarring of the bark isthus suspicious, since even the tiniestopening makes a tree susceptible tofungal infection.

Bird damage-specifically peckholesmade by the yellow-bellied sapsucker-also affects a tree's commercial value.Unlike its woodpecker cousins, which

IIIIrIIIItIIItIIIIIIIIIII

ItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIII

II

eat wood-boring insects that infest deadwood, the yellow-bellied sapsucker feastson the sap, wood cells, and inner barkoflive trees. Persistent feeding results inlong streaks ofstain that effectively ren-der the wood worthless.

Felling and buckingTiees are cut with three passes of a chainsaw The first two cuts iemove a wedgeabout one-third of the diameter of thetree, facing the intended direction of fall.The tree is felled by the third cut, orbackcut, made opposite to and a fewinches above the wedge. As the tree falls,its direction is controlled by a "hinge"

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

of wood between the wedge and back-cut. Expert fellers consider many factorsbefore making the cuts-the conditionof the felling site, wind direction, thelean ofthe tree, and the presence ofdeadbranches in adjacent trees, aptly called"widowmakers."

Once the limbs have been removed,the tree is skidded to a staging area, orlanding, where it is bucked into logs. Toensure that the wood is cut to the high-est possible grade, the bucker-like theforester or tree cruiser beforehand-hasto "read" the tree for signs ofdefectsbefore setting to work. Bulges in the barkindicate knots that are close to the sur-

face; large-diameter rotting branchespoint to decay within the tree trunk.While the optimal length for hardwoodlogs is 16 feet (8 feet for veneer-qualitylogs), cutting logs to this length isnot always possible. Sometimes thebucker cuts 8-foot and l2-foot lossto avoid defects that would render-alarger log worthless.

Tiansporting the logsIn some parts of North America, espe-cially the Pacific Northwest where treesare exceptionally large, bucking is doneat the felling site before the logs are trans-ported to a central yard. Steeply sloping

Although a variety of methods have been used to move logs tothe lumber mill, from river runs to draft horses, trucking remainsthe most common method of transport in North America.

2 l

III

It

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

The narrow kerfof aband sawproduces lesswaste than acircular saw.

Here, aworkerat aVermont

mill removes aj8-foot-long

band saw blade

for sharpening.

terrain may require the logs to be gath-ered in from the forest floor using a seriesof cables. One such system is known ashigh-lead logging. Two main cables-one called a haulback and the other amainline-are rigged to the top of a tallmast. Several other cables, called chok-ers, dangle from the mainline. Tiees arefelled so they land with their butt sec-tions pointing uphill; crewmen wrapeach choker around the butt section ofa bucked-up log, signal the head opera-tot and the logs are reeled up the hill tothe central pile, usuallylocated next to alumber road. When the logs have beendetached. the haulback cable is used topull the mainline and its chokers foranother load. No matter how they aremoved from the felling site or when they

are bucked, logs are loaded onto truckswith a hydraulic grapple hook for thetrip to the sawmill.

In the sawmillThere are two main types of sawmills:those that use a band saw and those thatuse a circular saw A sawmill is oftendescribed according to the type of woodit cuts and the type of saw it employs,such as a softwood band mill or a hard-wood circular mill. Large band mills areoften required for the larger-sized logsthat are common in the softwood indus-try in western North America. Circularsawmills, more common in smallerhardwood operations in the East, havea smaller capacity, but are far less expen-sive than band mills.

The sawing process generates a greatdeal of "waste"-almost one-third of thebulk of each log-but every possible bitof wood is chipped up and used. Someis soldto paperpulp mills orwood-firedutilities. (The volume of wood-burnedfuel has increased substantially since theenergy crunch ofthe early 1970s. Todaywood supplies about 3 percent of theUnited States' energy consumption.)Even the bark, which is immediatelystripped offthe logs, frequently powersthe sawmill's drying kilns.

The bark is stripped from the log withlarge grinding cutterheads or blasted offby high-pressure water jets. The log isthen mounted on a log carriage, posi-tioned so that the first cuts slice offthewidest, clearest, most valuable boards.

IIIrIIIrIIIItItIIIIItIIII

tI

tIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIt

It

In less than 2 seconds, thisband saw blade, drivenbya 1 S0-horsepower engine,

can slice through a 16-footlog. The red line-a laser

b e am-sh ow s th e op eratorwhere the blade will cut.

In the mill, the sawyer mayrotate thelog to "read" the log's hidden defects.While in the past this might have beendone by hand, it is not uncommon tosee today's sawyers work in a glass-endosed booth, forming judgments withthe help ofadvanced electronic equip-ment. In such a mill, the sawyer usesjoysticks-like those of a computergam+-to twirl the log almost a full turnin a matter of seconds, firing a beam oflaser light down its length to visualizethe effect of a particular cut before it is

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

made. In the most efficient mills, sophis-ticated computers are used to select thebest position to obtain the maximumproduction from each log.

First, the four outer slabs of the logare removed, giving the sawyer a cleanplane from which to make his nextcut-the so-called "opening face"-togive the widest, clearest board available.Once this face is cut, the log is rotated,and three additional boards are cut-one from each remaining face. Largemills handling big logs send the remain-

ing square timber-called a cant-toa resawing area for cutting into var-ious sizes of dimension lumber.Here again, this sawyer must deter-mine the optimum cutting patternthat will yield the most valuable lum-ber. All the boards are edged, trimmedto length and graded.

Smaller mills, and those handlingsmaller logs, may use a different sawingstrategf. After removing the outer slabs,the boards are cut from the opening faceuntil defects interfere. Then the log isrotated to the next clearest face. As withthe first method, the remaining cant isresawn into lower grade lumber. Finally,the boards are sorted, stacked and stick-ered-separated by thin strips to allowair to circulate between them-for theirtrip to the drying kiln, where they willremain for up to 50 days.

A device known as a "slot machine"sorts freshly sautnboards into theright widths and lengths.

23

LUMBER CUTTING METHODS

The growth rings in thisquartersawn oakboardappear as lines that areparallel to the board's edges.

f onverting a log into lumber requires\-r certain compromises. Most logs aresawn in one of tluee basic ways. The sim-plest method squares the log and slicesit into boards straight through from oneside to the other. This technique, knownas through-and-through sawing, resultsin stock cut tangentially to the annualgrowth rings. A second method, plain-sawing, is similar, except that the log isrotated as it is cut, and the low-qualitypith is set aside for items such as pallets.Plain-sawn lumber is also known as flat-grained lumber.

The third method. called cuarter-sawing or edge-grain sawing, divides thelog into four quarters and cuts everyboard more or less radially. Quarter-sawn boards have their annual growthrings perpendicular to the face.

This orientation of the growth ringsaccounts for the dimensional stability ofcuartersawn boards. Wood shrinks andexpands roughly twice as much tangen-tially to the rings as its does radially.When ouartersawn boards swell orshrink they do so mostly in thickness,which is minimal, whereas a plain-sawnboard changes across its width. A din-ing table made from plain-sawn pineboards, for example, can change as muchas I inch in widthl a similar table madefrom quartersawn boards would onlyswell or shrink by one-third as much.

radius of the log. But i t produces more dimensional ly stablelumber, making it ideal for drawer sides, tabletops and framerails. Through-and-through sawing (above, rghf) yields themaximum number of usable boards from a log; the outerboards are plain-sawn, while the inner boards are quartersawn.

IIIIIIttrIIItIIIIIItIIIIrIItIIII

THREE METHODS ()F SAWING IOGS

Choosing the best methodCutting logs into lumber at a sawmill is a balance between intend-ed use, structural stability and esthetic appearance. Plain-saw-ing (above, /eft) produces boards of diminishing width as the logis rotated to make successive cuts. The more expensive method,called quartersawing (above, center),limits board width to the

24

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

IIIIIIIIIIItIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Quartersawing also offers an estheticadvantage: It exposes the medullaryrays that radiate from the heart ofa loglike the spokes of a wheel. In mostspecies the rays are only one cell thick,but in a few species, such as oak, the rayceiis are thicker and appear as vividstreaks scattered along the grain.Sycamore, poplar and basswood are alsoideal candidates for quartersawing.

As the illustration at the bottom ofpage 24 shows, quartersawn lumber isnot always cut perpendicular to thegrain, and some through-and-throughcut boards close to the center ofa logwill have quartersawn grain. Therefore,no matter how they are actually cut,boards with growth rings at anglesbetween 45o and 90o to the wide surfaceare classified quartersawn, while boards

with rings at 0o to 45o angles to the widesurface are termed plain-sawn. Boardswith growth rings at a 30o to 60o angleare also called rift-sawn or bastard-sawn.

In actual practice, sawyers use a myr-iad of sawing patterns, depending on thetype of machinery being used, theintended use of the lumber,log diameterand the type of tree. For example, in vir-tually all trees the pith or central core ofthe heartwood is less desirable than andnot as strong as the rest ofthe heartwood.Plain-sawing "boxes out the heart" bycutting around it to eliminate it.

The growth rings in this plain-sawn oak boardappear on the face as an elliptical landscape

figure. Plain-sawn stock is sliced from logswith most of the cuts tangent to the rings.

ADVANTAGES OF PTAIN.SAWN AND SUARTERSAWN LUMBER

PTAIN-SAWN

Cheaper and easier to obtain

Shrinks and swells less rn thickness

Usually comes in greater variety of widths

Less susceptible to collapse during drying; easier to kiln dryFigure patterns resulting from the difference betweenearlywood and latewood in the growth rings aremore consoicuous

Has more interesting figure

Round or oval knots that may occur have less effecton structural integrity

Pockets of pitch extend through fewer boards

Not as susceptible to splitting when nails or screws driventhrough face

OUARTERSAWN

More dimensional ly stable

Shrinks and swells less across the boardTwists and cuos less

Splits and checks less in seasoning and in use

Raised grain caused by the swelling of the earlywoodin growth rings not as pronounced

Figure due to pronounced rays more conspicuous

Holds finishes better in some soecies

Sapwood in boards appears at the edges and iseasily cut off

Wears more evenlv

25

PROPERTIE,S OFWOOD

n experienced woodworker paysclose attention to the selection of

wood for a project. Every species hasunique qualities that can make it idealfor one application but unsuitable foranother. Among the key properties thatdistinguish woods are color, grain, tex-ture, figure, weight and odor.

Many species are prized for their dis-tinctive colors. Padauk is a fiery orange-red; black walnut often exhibits deeppurples and chocolate tones. Color in

Landacape ftqureon white birch

wood is the result of extractives such astannins, gums and resins in the wood.When cut lumber is exposed to air, thesesubstances gradually oxidize, deepeningthe wood's color. In some cases, howev-er, the color may fade.

Grain and texture are two distinctproperties that are often confused. Graindescribes the direction and regularity ofthe wood fibers relative to the axis of thetree trunk. As illustrated on page 28, thegrain displayed by a piece of lumber

Fiddleback figureon peroba rooa

depends on the growth pattern of thetree from which it was cut.

A wood's texture depends on the sizeand distribution of its cells. Ring-poroushardwoods with large vessels have acoarse texture, while diffuse-poroushardwoods with fine vessels have a fin-er texture. In some softwoods, abrupttransitions from earlp,vood to latewoodproduce an uneven texture. Where thereis little or no transition, as in white pine,the wood has an even texture.

MoLLle fi4ureon movin4ue

IIIItI

I

I

rIIIIrIIIIIrtI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tt

: t , i' ' , ' .

r l l t , , t , ' . r . 1 i "

, ,r,:' ' ,1 i,i;,. ,1 " l i :i., ' ',,1,

, ; . 1 1 r , : , ' , , ' l , , , , ; , , , ' . . . , " , , "

i ' r ' i l l ; ; , ' '1 , , , ; .

; , i r , r

i ; l : l i ,1 l '

' i " , \ , ' , r , ' , ' ' ' r r ' 1r1' ; '

, ' , " ' ' ' ' " ' l , , l ' i I ,

. l ' l , i , ! . , ' , ' . i , 1 , , ; ' ,, l i r . ' - i , , 1 r

' ' l ' . . , r , l '

.]i " ,;, ri; ' i, ':, '-,

. ' l ' l i , ,,, '

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

IIIIITIrIIIITIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIIII

Figure-an important quality inveneers-is the pattern displayed on thesurface of a board. This is the expressionof a board's "61n1261s1"-fte sum of itsgrain, contrast between earlywood andlatewood, eccentricity of growth rings,mineral streal6, disease and the methodused to saw the log. Some of the morestunning figures in different species areillustrated below. For example, plain-sawnwhite birch reveals a so-called landscaoefigure. Interlocked grain produces the rib-

Kibbon fiqureon African mahogany

bon figure common in African mahogany.Wavy grain in maples results in a fiddle-back figure, so named because of its use inthe bacla of violins. And inegular growthson the outer surfaces of trees, such as elm,yield an intricate burl figure.

The weight of differentwood speciesis expressed as specific gravity, or its den-sity compared to an equal volume ofwater. The specific gravity of an oven-dried sample of American elm, forexample, is 0.50, making it half as heavy

Dird'e-eye figureon maple

as a tropical hardwood like ekki, whichhas the same specific gravity as water-1.00. Lignum vitae, the heaviest wood,has a specific gravity of L23. The high-er a wood's specific gravity, the lessporous it is and the more imperviousit will be to a finish.

A wood's odor-usually caused bvoils in the heartwood-may also deter-mine its use. An aromatic species likecedar, for example, is often used forclothes chests and cigar boxes.

Burl figureon Carpathian elm

27

tttIIIIIIIIttI

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

Specific grnvity is a better irdicator of nwood's weight thart size. With a speciJicgravity of 0.90, a piece of cborry weiglrsthe sanrc tts a trtttclt lnrger block of whitepine, wlrcse speciJic grovity is only 0.35.

TYPES ()F GRAIN

Featured tn lumber wiLh even woodftbere thaL are parallel Lo the verLtcalaxta of the trunk; makea for eLronqwood, but hae ltttle or no fi4ure

Found tn lumber where the ftbera devi'aLe from the verLtcal axie of the Lrunk;not ao atronq ae etraiqhL-qratned wood,but producee an attracttve fiqure

treea with twtEt ed trunka; commonin 1coLch pine and aweet cheetnuL

Interlocked grainFound tn lumber from treeE with oppoein7 internal LwtaLe;eomeLimee found in elm and very common in tropical epeciee

Froduced by wood ftbereLhat undulate tn ehort, evenwavee: yielde fiddleback ftqure

2B

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

IIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIITIIIttI

W()RKING WITH THE GRAINReading the grainMany woodworking tasks, especial ly plan-ing, require working in the direct ion of thegrain. You can usual ly tel l grain orrenta-t ion by running your hand along a boardface: The surface will feel smoother whenyour hand is moving with the grain androugher when running against i t . Anothermethod is to sl ide a smoothing planel igh t ly a long the face in one d i rec t ion ,then repeat in the opposite direction. Theblade wi l l chatter or catch on the woodf ibers when i t is cutt ing against the grain.As shown on the plain-sawn board at right,the wood f ibers slope "uphi l l " in the direc-t ion of the grain and "downhi l l " against i t .

Determining the best direction to planeTo prevent a plane blade from catchingthe grain and tear ing or chipping the woodf ibers, always cut in the uphi l l grain direc-t ion. This wi l l produce clean shavings anda smooth surface. Be especially careful tospot grain that changes direct ion within asingle board. The dragram at left shows sev-eral typical grain patterns with arrows indi-cat ing the best planing direct ion. The uphi l ldrrection may be constant from one end of aboard to the other (A). Or it may change,demanding that you plane from each endtoward the middle (B). lt could also changefrom the middle to the ends (C). lf the graindoes not slope at all, you can plane in a sin-gle pass from either end (D).

29

IDENTIFYINGWOOD

hether you are restoring a piece offurniture made from an unfamil-

iar wood or debating the authenticity ofa particular board with a local lumber-yard, a knack for identifring a piece oflumber is a usefrrl skill.

Of course, an entire branch of knowl-edge is devoted to wood science andtechnology. Books have been writtenabout the subject, careers have beenfounded upon it, and universities offercourses and degrees devoted to it.Scientists identifr wood by first slicingoffa thin sliver of a sample, then mount-ing it on a slide and examining it undera mlcroscope.

The practicing woodworker, however,who is more interested in sawing than inscience, can successfully identiff mostwoods by methodically searching for afew simple clues with the help of inex-pensive equipment. Most of the toolsyouneed are illustrated at right. Your inves-tigation should begin with the easilyobservable properties ofthe sanrple (page26).Examne and feel the surface; deter-mine whether it is oily or dry, dull or lus-trous. Check its hardness by trying todent the surface with a fingernail. You

Examining the end grain of a boardthrough an illuminated 1& magnifierenlnrges several features of a woodsample that are helpful in speciesidentification.

may be able to tell with the naked eyewhether a hardwood is ring- or diffirse-porous. As shown in the photos on page33, these two types of hardwood are rel-atively easy to tell apart when viewed witha hand lens. Note whether the texture ofthe wood is coarse or smooth. Ifthe sam-ple has been recently cut, it may havea recognizable odor. If it has beensufficiently dried, you may be able tocalculate its specific gravity.

Aithough these observations can helpnarrow down the choices, you will stillhave to view a wood sample under mag-nification in order to hazardaneducat-ed guess as to its species. The illustrationon page 31 shows the three ways that asample can be studied: transversely, radi-

ally or tangentially. Each method expos-es a different view of a sample's anatom-ical structure. The simplest view is thetransverse since it involves looking at theend grain of the sample. However, toavoid a blurred view of crushed fibers,you must first shave the surface with arazor blade or a well-sharpened knife.To get a tangential view of a sample, youwill need to make a clean cut along thegrowth rings of the wood (page 32).Making a second cut at right angles tothe first exposes a radial view.

Once you have observed and record-ed the sample's properties and micro-scopic details, you can compare theresults with a printed key of woodspecies to identifi the wood.

TOOLS F(|R THE WOOD SLEUTH

IIItIIIrttIIIIItrrIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Labeled wood sampleaA set of domeatic or tropical wooda withlabela indicatin1 the apeciea; can be ueedto help identify and aompare wooda

Hand lensUsed to axamine woodsamplea; available in Bx,1Ox and 12x ma1nification

llluminaied magnifterFor axaminin7 wood aamplea;featu ree built- i n ill umin ationfor aharper viawinq than handleno. Typically available with upto 2Ox maanification

Poaketkni eUsed to preparethe end qrain ofwood aamplea forexamination

Razor bladeUsed to aut off wood aliversfor viewinq under a microacope;einqle-adqed bladea are theaafeat type

30

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tIIIIIIIIII

EXAMINING A W()OD SAMPTE

Three viewing perspectivesThe 10x magnification provided by a mag-nifer or hand lens al lows you to examinethree views of wood's structure, represent-ed by the hardwood log section shown atrrght. The transverse section lies at rightang les to the gra in and is v is ib le in theend grain of stock. The tangent ial andradial sections are at 90'to the transversesect ion. The tangent ial sect ion fol lows astraight line that is tangent to the growthr ings. This sect ion is the surface you seeon the face of plain-sawn lumber. A radialsection is exposed by cutting a straight linefrom the bark through the pi th, exposinggrain l ines that appear as vertrcal str ips.

Examining wood under a microscopeAt 100x magnif icat ion, a microscopeuncovers more de ta i l s o f the ce l lu la rstructure of wood than can be seenthrough a hand magnif ier. At lef t aretwo views of white pine, i l lustrat ing keyelements in species ident i f icat ion. Thetransverse section (far lefD shows thesize of the tracheid cel ls and the transi-tion in their density from ear-lywood tolatewood. Also evident is a longitudinalresin canal. The tangential section (near/eff) shows the number and thicknessof the rays in the wood.

ffiI l - , - - - \ -l ) / o ^ a \

, Y o X o ?

o"o OoO

\..5---

TRANSVERSE SECTI()N TANGENTIAT SECTION

Earlywood La'ewood

- ? _ - c = = - ^ - ^- - a ^ - ) = - g c ;

- - n - U - - - ; ,- ! : - ! r - \ / ^ -

U U _ \ _ t T l -_ _ U - u vL . / \ JnY f l t - rv X o X O Of -LL- r ;Uf ' l r - r\-ln uflX\-/

KayeTracheid Keein canal

3 l

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

PREPARING W()()D SAMPLES F(lR VIEWING WITH A LENS

Cufting tangential and radial sectionsFor a tangential section, mark a cuttingline tangent to the growth rings on theedge of the sample. Cut along the l inewith a band saw, making sure your handsare not in l ine with the blade of the tool(right). For a radial section, make anend-to-end cut through the sample at thehigh point of the growth rings with thepiece face down on the band saw table.To clean up the cuts for v iewing, l ight lysmooth the surfaces with a hand plane.Avoid using sandpaper, which wi l l crushthe f ibers.

Preparing a tlansverse sectionSlice off a sliver of wood from the endgrain of your sample using a sharpknife or razor blade Ueft).Ihe surfaceshould be smooth and even. l f thewood is part icular ly dense and dtf f i -cul t to cut, f i rst soak the end grainfor a short time in hot water.

IItIIIItIIIIIItIIIIrrIIIIIItrIII

32

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

ItIItI

The two photos above show what the end grain, or transyerse sections, of two dffirent hardwood sampleswould looklike under the magnification of a hand lens. A ring-porous hardwood (above, left) features rowsof relatively large pores in the eailywood and clusters of smaller pores in the latewood. The vertical barsinterrupting the pores are medullary rays. A semi-ring-porous wood (above, right) shows little distinctionbetween the earbryood and latewood. Here, the pores are evenly distributed throughout the tissue.

Although identifying wood requirescareful observation of the appropri-ate features of a sample, practicemakes the job easier. First measurethe width of the growth rings, andnote the color and luster of thewood. Remember that wood exoosedto sunlight and air changes color, sothe hue of a freshly cut sample maybe different after it has dried, Lusteris not a common feature of manywoods, but it can help distinguishbetween species that are otherwisealike in color, texture and weight.Although odor, like luster, is distinc-tive for only a few woods, it can be auseful key to identification, particu-larly among softwoods. Odor is mostpronounced in freshly cut lumber,

WOOD IDENTIFICATION METHODS

and can be revived by moistening adry wood sample.

Checking a sample for hardnessby running a f ingernai l along thegrain and noting the degree of inden-tat ion can helo di f ferent iate simi-lar species such as butternut andblack walnut.

The standard tool for macroscopicviewing of wood is a 10x hand lens.Choose one with bui l t - in i l lumina-tion for sharp resolution. Examinesamples in good light, holding thelens close to one eye and movingthe surface to be studied into focus.Note the distribution and shape offeatures such as vessels, tracheids,resin canals, earlywood, latewood,pores and medullary rays. The rela-

tive diameter of vessels (in hard-wood) or tracheids (in softwood) isimportant in determining the textureof the wood; the larger these cells,the coarser the wood. The distribu-tion of pores within the growth ringswi l l a lso tel l you whether a hard-wood is ring-, diffuse-, semi-ring- orsemi-diffuse-porous. When viewingend grain, choose an area of averagegrowth rate, avoiding defects likecross grain and knots.

With softwoods, look for resincanals; they are only present inpine, spruce, larch and Douglas-fir.lf you are looking for rays-an impor-tant feature of hardwoods-they arebest seen on a transverse or tangen-tial surface,

COMPARING MAGNIFIED VIEWS (lF TWO WOOD SAMPTES

33

WOOD IDENTIFICATION KEYS

A collection of labeled woodsamples can be invaluable inhelping you b ecome familiar

with a variety of woods. Itmay also contain a species

you wish to identify.

I orrectly identifying an unfamiliar\; wood sample out of thousands ofpossibilities requires close observation,and a thorough knowledge ofwood andits properties. But as a practical matter,the possible choices are usuallylimited toseveral familiar species, and a commer-cially available set of labeled wood sam-ples, such as the one shown at right, mayinclude a piece that matches the woodyou are attempting to identifr. Mostoften, however, you will need to recordthe features of a sample, then use a woodidentification key from a book to makesense ofyour results.

An identification key is essentially amaster list of woods and their proper-ties that serves as a cross-reference tolink the features of a particular sampleto a species name. Some keys requirethat you compare their entries againstfeatures that are visible to the naked eyeor with a 10x magnifier, while othersdemand that you note microscopicdetails. Still other keys are based on theuser having wide-ranging sensory infor-mation about the wood, including itscolot odor and texture, and the barkand leaf shape of the tree from whichit came.

Using a key is like climbing thebranches of a tree. You are asked toanswer a series of paired statements,choosing the one that best describes thewood in question and proceeding to thenext pair indicated. At each statement,the user forks onto a different branch

until reaching a leaf that identifies thesample. The first statement may involvethe texture of the wood. If the wood isporous, for example, you are sent to oneset of statements; if it is non-porous, youjump to a different set of statements. Youcontinue this way, flipping from page topage in a book, as each answer gradual-lyreduces the choices. Finally, the searchis narrowed to a single species.

Avoid keys that try to cover everywood species in the world; they will provetoo general. Choose one that describestrees in a specific region, such as NorthAmerican softwoods or tropical hard-woods. Several classic keys can be foundin woodworking boola; check your locallibrary or boolstore. Some public agen-cies (below) also offer wood identifica-tion services.

IIItIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIItIrIItIItII

SOURCES FOR WOOD IDEI{TIFICATIOI{

Books

Edlin, Herbert L., What Wood ls That?A Manual of Wood ldentification.New York: Viking, 1969.

Hoadley, Bruce, ldentifying Wood.Nevvton, Connecticut: Tau ntonPress, 1990.

Panshin, A.J. and DeZeeuw,Carl,Textbook of Wood Technologr.New York: McGraw Hill, 1980.

Rendfe, 8.J., World Timbers: Volumes1-3. London: Ernest Benn, 1970.

Sharp, John 8., Wood ldentification:A Manual for The Non-Profexional.Knoxville: University of Tennessee

Agricultural Extension Service,Forestry and Wildlife Extension, 1990.

Timber Research DevelopmentAssociation, Timbers of the World:Volumes I and 2. Lancaster;Construction Press, 1979.

Agencies that offer woodidentification services

Center For Wood Anatomy ResearchU.S. Forest Products Laboratory1 Gifford Pinchot DriveMadison, Wisconsi n 53705-2398

International Wood Collectors Societv2913 Third StreetTrenton, Michigan 48183

34

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

tIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIItI

I

I

tIIIIIII

USING A W()OD IDENTIFICATION KEY

Here is an example of how a typical wood ident i f icat ionkey works. In this case, we are start ing with a plain-sawnboard of an unknown wood. The f i rst step is aimed atnarrowing the invest igat ion to ei ther the hardwood or thesoftwood portion of the key. You examine your samplewith a hand lens and observe that i t has vessels and isporous; according to your key, i t is a hardwood. Next,you must determine whether the wood is r ing- or di f -fuse-porous: You not ice that i ts ear lywood is not sharplydef ined; you are told that i t is di f fuse-porous. The nextfeatures to examine are the rays. Seen in the tangent ialv iew of your sample, the rays are relat ively narrow anduniform in width. This observat ion leads to another con-cerning the size of the pores in the growth r ings. Sincethe pores in the earlywood of your sample are largerthan those in the latewood, this indicates that you havea semi-di f fuse-porous wood. Next, you examine the dis-tr ibut ion of the pores in the growth r ing. l f they wereunevenly distr ibuted, the key would ident i fy your sampleas tanoak. Instead, the pores in your sample are evenlydistr ibuted. You must then evaluate the storage cel ls inthe latewood. Seeing that they are present in a f ine,unbroken l ine, you are directed to determine the colorof the heartwood. l f i t were chestnut-brown or chocolate,you would have a piece of black walnut or butternut.But since the heartwood is brown to yel low-brown, youhave ei ther water hickory or persimmon. Since the raysof your sample are stacked vert ical ly, creat ing r ipplemarks, the key leads you to the end of yourquest: the sample is persimmon.

Wood wiLhout eLacked raya; Wood with aLackedeLoraqe celle conapicuouo tn raye, forming rippleconLinuouelineethrouqhoul, marksexLendiniqlaLewood: WaLer hickory acroea the 4ratn

when tanqenLialgectton of wood taviewed: ?eretmmon

HearLwoodcheeLnuL- Heartwoodbrownbrown Lo chocolat.e to yellow-brownor purplioh brown

LaLewood ef,orage celle LaLewood atoraqeappear tn fine, continu- celle not evidenioue ltnea

Foree evenly dia- Torea unevenly diotrtb-t,ributed throu6h- uLed throughout growt hout growth rinq rin7 and found in cluaLere

aeparated by eect iona offibroua Ltssue: Tanoak

Toree in the earlywood larger Toree uniform in sizethan thoee in the latewood; throuqhoutthe rin4Lra n aition q radual (eem i - d tf-fuee-poroue)

Kaye broadand viaible

Wood rtnq-porouo (eaily-wood eharply defined);earlywood porea larqerLhan laLewood poreo andviaible 1;o the naked eye

Kaye narrow anduniform in width

Wood diffuee-poroue (early-wood not eharply defi,ned):earrwooa Pore? ?malterthan latewood poreo andvisible to the naked eye

Wood n on -poroue (withoutveeeelo): Wood tieaue domi-nated by tracheide in dia-LincL rowa; raye not viaible1,o the naked eye

Wood poroua (with veoaelo): Wood Lto-sue dominated by veosele (poree)embedded in fibroue tiaaue: raJ6 mayor may not be viaible to the naked eye

5TART HERE

35

PORTABLE LUMBE,RMILLS

-|a h. desire to gain a deeper under-I standing of wood eventually leads

some woodworkers out of the shop andlumberyard, into the woods, and backto the tree itself. By sawing your ownIumber from logs, you can produceboards that exactly meet a project's spec-ifications and gain valuable insightinto wood as a living material. Each stepyields a thrill of discovery as you watchpatterns of grain and figure emergefrom the log.

A number of lumber mills on themarket allow you to cut through-and-through cut, plain-sawn or quartersawnboards. These tools include large sta-tionary production mills capable of cut-ting logs more than 20 feet in length,portable models with tough band sawblades, and still smaller units that usechain saws.

The procedures that follow showyouhow to cut logs into lumber with a chainsaw that is guided by a jig that attachesto it. Besides the cutting jig and a heary-duty saw, this simple method requiresnothing more than a straight board,a hammer and a few nails.

Most chain saws are designed to cross-cut trees-that is, buck the logs intoshorter lengths after the trees are felledand delimbed. Cutting logs into lumberis a ripping operation in which the saw-ing is done along the length of the log,Ripping with a chain saw requires at leastthree times as much power as crosscut-ting, and the saw must run at full throt-tle throughout most of the cut. Becausemuch portable lumber milling involveshardwood logs, it is best to use a direct-drive chain saw rated at a speed of atleast 3000 feet per minute, with a rip-

ping chain installed. To minimize strainon the saw, try to select logs that are rel-atively free of defects such as twist andtaper, with few knots and burls.-

Felling trees and cutting logs with achain saw is dangerous work requiringsafe working habits. Pay attent ion toyour task at all times and keep cuttingedges sharp, clean and wellmaintained.

Since prolonged work with chain sawscan damage the ears, wear hearing pro-tection, such as earplugs or ear muffs.Prooer dress for chain saw work alsoincludes a fuIl-face shield and steel-toedboots; do not wear loose clothing. Youcan also don special chain saw glovesto protect your hands and a pair ofsafe-ty chaps made from a tough, syttheticfiber, such as Kevlar'", to protect yourlegs should the saw accidentally slip oriump back.

IIIIIIIIIIItIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIrIII

Specialized commercial jigs andmachines enable you to cut logsinto lumber. Here, a band saw

lumber mill cuts a 2-by-10 board

from a squared-offlog. The device

features a narrow-kerf blade thatproduces less waste thqn a chain

saw, making it feasible to cutplanks as narrow as % inchthick without excessive wqsle.

36

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

ItIIIIIIIIItIIIIIrIIIIrItrIIIIII

CUTTING A t(lc INTO BOARDS

1 Squaring the logI To mark out the cant-the souared-off part of the log-and maximize thenumber o f boards the log w i l l y ie ld ,scribsa square on both ends of the log.Start at the end with the smallest diame-ter. Place the inside angle of a carpen-ter 's square just inside the bark, andmark two outside edges of the squarewith a penci l . Using the scr ibed l inesas a guide, complete the square (/eff,).Measure the sides of the souare andtransfer them to the other end of the log,making sure that the pith is centered inthe souare.

THROUGH.Al{0.THROUGH CUTTIl{GPATTERN

OUARTERSAWINGCUTTING PATTERN

Choosing the cutting patternBefore cutting the log, choose between through-and-

through cut and quartersawing and mark out the appropriatecutting pattern on the ends of the log. For through-and-throughcut lumber (above, /ef f) , scr ibe a ser ies of l ines within thesquare so that the board faces are roughly tangent to the growthr ings. Space the l ines according to the board thickness you

want. For quartersawn lumber (above, righil, divide the squareinto three segments. Mark out the middle segment as forthrough-and-through cut lumber, then scribe lines in the twooutside segments that are perpendicular to those in themiddle. The growth rings will be more or less perpendicular tothe faces of these boards.

37

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

Q Cutting the cantr-t Set the log on spacers, with one sideof the marked s0uare vertical. Cut a 2-by-4 guide longer than the log, then posi-tion it on top of the log so that it extendsbeyond each end. Al ign the outside edgeof the guide with the side of the squareand nai l i t in place. Use wood shims tolevel the guide. Place the lumber-cutt ingjig on the guide (above) and adjust itsfence so that it runs smoothly along theguide. Attach the chain saw to the jig fol-lowing the manufacturer 's instruct ions.To make the cut, position the jig on theguide at the smallest end of the log. Then,with the saw blade clear of the log, startup the saw and tip it forward so that theblade bi tes into the log. Careful ly stepbackwards and draw the j ig along theguide, cutt ing through the log to the oth-er end. To cut the other sides, removethe guide and rotate the log. Repeat theprocedure to al ign the guide with thesquare and make the cuI (right). Continueunt i l a l l the sides are cut. To cut theresult ing cant into boards, use the chainsaw and the j ig to cut along the l ines youmarked in step 2. lf you have a band saw,you can cut the log into a manageable 6-by-6 cant with the chain saw, then use theband saw to cut the cant into boards. Withits narrower kerf, a band saw blade pro-duces less waste than a chain saw blade.

ItIIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIItIIIrIIIIrII

38

UNDERSTANDING WOOD

tIIIIIItIIIIttIIIIItIIIIItIIIItI

t(lc CROSSCUTTING JIGSimplify the task of squaring theends of a log before cutting it intolumber with the crosscutting jigshown at right. The jig, which canbe built to fit a variety of log sizes,consists of a guide and an invertedL-shaped frame with two triangularsupport brackets.

To make the jig, cut two piecesof 7a-inch plywood for the frame.The lengths of the pieces shouldexceed the diameter of the largestlog you expect to handle. The widthof the top piece should equal thedesired width of cut. Screw the twopieces together along with the tri-angular brackets. Screw a 2-by-4guide that is at least 8 inches longerthan the diameter of the log to thetop piece, aligning its edge with thatof the top piece.

To use the jig, set the log on spac-ers and position the jig atop the log.Nail the side piece of the frame tothe end of the log, making sure thatthe guide is level and square to thelog's axis. Set up the chain saw andthe lumber-cutting jig on the guideas you would to cut a log into a cant(page 38). Then start the saw andtio it forward so that the blade bitesinto the log hight, below). Draw thejig along the guide until you cutthrough the log. At the end of thecut, the crosscutting jig and the cut-off piece will topple toward you. Keepthe blade from binding in the kerfand stand clear of the jig at the endof the cut.

39

i;.vffi--.=,'

i{rffSrrr**

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

\'"3*'.t

*t

tIItrI

t..""*' r

tI

I

I

II

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIrI

the National Hardwood Lumber Associ-ation. In addition, some care has proba-bly been taken to control the moisturecontent of the stock during its stay in theyard. You can also ask the retailer to fur-nish stock that is surfaced to a uniformthickness-a necessity for woodworkerswho do not have access to a power planer.

There are other, less costly ways toobtain wood. If you live near a smallsawmill, you mayfind good qualitylum-ber at a very low price. However, thewood will probably be green, rough andungraded-and it must be stickered, sea-soned and surfaced before it can be usedfor furniture. Bigger sawmills prefer todeal with large volumes of wood andmaybe reluctant to fill small orders. Oneanswer is to pool your material needswith those of other woodworkers. Some

Whatever your approach, there areseveral sources to cover in your searchfor raw materials. The most obvious isthe local lumberyard. Some yards stock

Different grades of lumber can vary widely-even in thesame stack of boards. There is no more certain way ofgening what you want than selecting the stock yourself.

II

SELECTNG LI.A4BER

ome craftsmen buy their wood pro-ject by project. They design and lay

out a piece of furniture, calculate theamount and tlpe of wood required, thenembark on a quest for exactlywhat theyneed. Other woodworkers stockpilebeautiful or interesting pieces of woodeven before they have a specific projectin mind. Picking through the piles at thelocal wood dealership, surveying felledIogs at a building site or scavengingbucked logs left over from roadsidetree work, these craftsmen accumulatepromising wood in the drying shed-asupply that serves as an inspiration forfuture work.

specialty items, depending on demand in the areas they service;lumberyards along the coast, for example, might carrymahogany and teak for boat construction and repair. Butbecause most yards primarily supply the construction trades,your solid-wood choices will probablybe limited to structur-al softwood lumber and perhaps an occasional piece of oak.For a wider choice of hardwoods, and for wood carving andturning blanks, you will have to range farther afield. Look inthe Yellow Pages for dealerships that specialize in fine hard-woods, or scan the advertisements in woodworking magazinesfor mail-order woodworking-supply companies.

You will paytop dollar for hardwoods bought from a retailsource, but in return you will generally receive material thathas been graded for quality using the standards established by

Principal tool of the lumber grader'strade, a lumber ruler measures thewidth of aboard. With aflexibleshaft and a hook at one end for

Jlipping stock, the ruler enables agrader to fill an order for wood quickly.

sawmills will sell you their "planer outs"-small pieces of vary-ing widths and thicknesses that can be bought at bargain prices.

It may also be economical for you to buy wood that hasbeen recycled after manyyears of use in bams, factories, wharvesand other structures. You may also find an opportunity to doyour own recycling. Reusing old wood makes sense environ-mentally, and it is rapidly becoming the only legal way ofobtaining some species. In addition, recycled boards that werecut from straight-grained old-growth timber may be superi-or to fresh lumber cut from smaller trees. There are drawbacksto recyclingwood, however. Wear, rot and insects may add upto a waste factor of 50 percent or more. And you should expectto extract many nails, bolts and staples-and still ruin sawblades in encounters with hidden metal.

4 I

ORDERINGLUMBER

hen it is time to order lumberfor a project, it pays to do your

homework before you go to the lum-beryard. Bybecoming an informed andwell-organized consumer, you increaseyour odds of coming away with yourneeds met and your wallet intact. Youwill also avoid having to make extra tripsto your supplier.

. Species: Ask for a specific woodspecies, not merely a broad family name.For example, order "white oak," not just"oak." Every species has unique proper-ties; select one with the characteristicsthat suit the needs ofyour project. It canbe helpful to learn the basics of woodidentification (page 30), since at somelumberyards several similar types ofwoods may be lumped together underthe same name.

. Quantity: Lumber maybe orderedeither by the linear foot or the boardfoot. Be sure your supplier knows whichmeasure you are using, because they are

very different. Board-foot calculations,which actually describe a volume ofwood, are explained at the bottom of thenext page. As a general rule, you canorder stock of like dimension by the lin-ear foot-25linear feet of 1-by-4lumber,for example. The main limitation ofthis method, however, is that it onlyworks with lumber of uniform widthand thickness. Once you mix dimen-sions-as you probably will end updoing when ordering hardwood-a board foot measurement becomesnecessary to describe your needs.

How you order your wood can alsodepend on whether you need softwoodor hardwood Wth softwoods you cin usu-ally specify any board width or lengh,while hardwood boards are generallyavailable in random widths and lengths,depending on the grade you order.

. Size Wood is sold in nominal ratherthan real sizes, so remember to makeallowances for the difference when order-

ing surfaced lumber. A 1-by-6 piece ofpine, for example, is actually 3/q inchthick and 5% inches wide when driedand surfaced. With rough, or unsurfacedgreen lumber, the nominal and real sizesare the same. For more information onhow nominal and real sizes compare,refer to the charts on pages 46 (hard-woods) and 48 (softwoods).

The thickness of hardwood boards iscommonly expressed as a non-reducedfraction in quarters of an inch. A l-inch-thick oakboard, for example, is termed% lumber a 1%-inch-thick plank is %and so on.

. Grade When ordering a particulargrade ofwood, use standard terminolo-gy. Refer to the chart on page 47 forhardwoods and on page 49 for soft-woods. The main differences betweenhigher and lower hardwood grades liein appearance rather than strength. Ingeneral, reserve higher-grade wood forthe visible parts ofyour projects.

IIItItIIIIItIIIIIIIIItIItIIIIIII

1HO? TI?Carryinglumber by aarTraneport lumber on your car eafely and oecurely with juol af ew pieceo of rope. Tie one rope t o a eolid sf,ruct ure in t'he t runk-a Lrunk hinqe, for example-and make a loop af. lhe other end,Secure a second rooe underlhehood andform anolherloop, At,the lumberyard, elip Nhe wood throuqh one loop and Nhen hitch bheother one in poeition,To keep N'he lumber from lurchinq back andtorLh, tie a ihird rope around lhe lumber and secure it to Nhe win-dow poel.Ueefoam orlowelslo proteclthe side ofyour car,

42

SELECTING LUMBER

IIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIrIItItIIIII

. Seasoning: Lumber is sold eitherkiln-dried (KD) or air-dried (AD). Thepractical difference between the two isthat KD wood has a lower moisture con-tent-about 8 percent, while air-dried,high-density hardwoods generally havea moisture content range of 20 to 25 per-cent. Softwoods and lower-density hard-woods are air-dried to 15 to 20 percentmoisture content. KD lumber ii there-fore preferable for making indoor fur-niture, because the wood is unlikely todry out any further; as well, the kiln'sheat allows the wood's cells to reposi-tion, reducing the likelihood of warp-ing and checking. This does not meanyou need to restrict yourselfto buyingonlyKD lumber, however;in fact, manycarvers prefer moister wood, making ADwood a better choice for them. You canbring air-dried wood to the appropriatemoisture level for cabinetmaking, asshown in the Drying and StoringWoodchapter (pageTB).

. Surfacing: Also known as dressing,surfacing refers to how lumber has beenprepared at the mill before it is sent tothe lumberyard. Lumber that is surfacedis usually surfaced on both sides: S2Slumber has been planed smooth on bothfaces, while S4S wood has had both facesplaned and both edges jointed. Rough,or unsurfaced, lumber (Rgh) is lessexpensive than either S2S or S4S wood,and if you own a planer and a jointer,you can save moneyby surfacing roughlumber in your shop (page 53).

A sample order for wood at a lum-beryard might be as follows: 100 bd. ft.% FAS red oak, S2S. This would amountto 100 board feet of nominally 2-inch-thick FAS (Firsts and Seconds) grade redoakwith both faces planed smooth.

Once you receive your lumber, checkit carefully to make sure you are gettingwhat you want. If the order does notmeet your specifications, do not feelobliged to buy it.

TIPS ON BUYING TUMBERo Make two copies of your cuttinglist (page 44); giue one to the lum-beryard and keep one for yourself.

r When ordering hardwoods, requestrealistic sizes. Large planks of somespecies are not available; hard-woods are generally available inrandom widths and lengths.

. Whenever possible, inspect thelumber you wil l be buying.

. Examine each board to see howit wil l f i t into your project. Whereappropriate, test-f it boards togetherfor a good visual match; if, forexample, you are building a table,l ine up the boards you have select-ed for the tabletoo to be certainthey form an interesting pattern.

. Once you have selected theboards you intend to buy, be sureto leave the pile neatly stacked.Lumber that is not stacked conectlvtends to warp and can be damaged.

CALCULATING BOARD FEET

Ordering lumber by the board footBecause the board foot is a unit of measurementthat offers a standard way of totaling the volumeof stock regardless of dimensions, it is commonlyused when deal ing with lumber. As shown at lef t ,the standard board foot is equivalent to a piece thatis I inch thick, 12 inches wide and 12 inches long.To calculate the number of board feet in a particu-lar piece of wood, mult ip ly r ts three dimensionstogether. Then divide the result by 144 i f thed imens ions are a l l in inches , o r by 12 i f onedimension is expressed in feet. For the standardboard, the formula is:I " x 12" x 12" + I44 = | (o r 1 " x 12" x I ' + 12 = I ) .So if you had an 8-foot-long 1-by-3, you would cal-culate the board feet as follows: 1 x 3 x 8 + 12 = 2(or 2 board feet). Other examples are shown in thei l lustrat ion. Remember that board feet are calculat-ed on the basis of nominal rather than actual s izes.

IIIUMBER OF BOARD FEETIN 4 TII{EAR FEET ()FDIFFEREI{T SIZE BOARDS

1" x 12" x 12" = | eYs11;12rd board foot

l -by-7=lboardfoot

1-by-6=2boardfeet

1-by-12=4boardfeet

2-by-4 = 2 2/s board feet

2-by-6=4boardfeet

43

SELECTING LUMBER

Adjuotable ehelf

Making and using a cutting listA cutt ing l ist records the f in ished sizesof the lumber needed for a oart icular pro-jec t . l t may be inc luded w i th the p lansyou purchase; otherwise, you wi l l have tofashion your own based on a drawing ofthe des ign . Ta l l y up the number o f boardfee t fo r each p iece us ing the fo rmulashown on page 43; tack on an extra 30to 40 oercent to account for defects inthe wood and waste. For the project shownon th is page, wh ich to ta ls rough ly l6board feet, you should order at least 20 or25 board feet of a/a lumber in addit ion tothe necessary quant i ty of plywood sheet-ing . T i ,e cu t t ing l i s t shou ld inc lude thename of the part , the quant i ty, the dimen-sions of the pieces and the kind of woodsuitable for the prolect. For convenience,assign a let ter to each piece.

IIIIIIIIIIItttttIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

CUTTING LIST

Piece Oty.

A T o p 1

B Bottom 1

C S ide 2

D Fixed shelf 1

E Adjustable shelf 1

F Drawer front I

G Drawer side 2

H Drawer back 1

I Drawer bottom i

J Back 1

L.

23Vt

z5'/4

3223Vq

223/e

ZZ' /4

IlVz

2 lVq

2 IVq

32

W.1 313131 3

I2Vz6

5

5

1 0

24

Th.

1

I

1

1

I

1

1

Ir l t

Yd

Material Board feet

ash 2 . I0

ash 2 . I0

ash 5.78

ash 2 . I0

ash L94

ash .77

ash .80

ash .7 4plywood

plywood

44

GRADINGLUMBERItIIIItttI

tI

tIIIttIItIIIIIIIIIIt

T umber grading is a way of evaluatingl-.i the surface aualiw of a board accord-ing to certain itandards, taking intoaccount factors such as the number, sizeand degree of defects in the wood. Thegoal is to ensure that woodworkers getwhat they pay for; a board of a certaingrade of wood bought in Maine willclosely resemble a similar-grade boardpurchased in New Mexico.

At first glance, the rules of gradingmay seem arbitrary. For starters, thestandards are different for softwoods andhardwoods, the result of the end use ofeach type of wood. Softwoods are pri-marily used in construction, so a grad-er may assume that a softwood boardwill be used as is, with no further sur-facing. Hardwood boards, on the otherhand, are almost always planed, cross-cut and ripped into smaller pieces to fit

a particular piece of furniture. Added tothat is the fact that, while there is onestandard for hardwoods, softwoods arefurther divided into separate groups andgraded according to rules established bydifferent organizations.

Taking the time to become familiarwith hardwood and softwood gradingwill pay dividends. A sound under-standing of the grading system enablesyou to select the most appropriate boardfor the job at hand; it can also save youmoney. There is no need, for example, toorder long planks oftop-grade FAS (orFirsts and Seconds)lumber if most ofthe pieces of the cabinet you intend tobuild are only three or four feet long.You would probably be better offbuy-ing No. I Common, which is consider-ably cheaper, and will be adequate onceyou have cut out the defects.

Lumber producers and vendors havelong found it advantageous to studywood types and set rules for gradingto guarantee a uniform product. One ofthe earliest ilstances of grading occurredin 1764, when Sven Aversdon ofStock-hohn divided Swedish pine into four cat-egories-best, good, common and culls.During the lBth Century, appearancewas the primary criterion for gradingwood, but as knowledge ofwood prop-erties increased, standards chaneed toinclude strength and the amount olclearor usable wood in each board.

The best way to become familiar withgrades is to visit a lumberyard and exam-ine stock firsthand. Get to know how ahardwood grade like FAS differs fromNo. I Common. And when you Selectlumber, tryto picture how each part canbe cut out of a board with the least waste.

HARDWOOD LUMBER GRADER'S EVATUATION (lF A TYPICAL BOARD

Equipped with lumber rule, pen and log book, a professionallumber grader can evaluate a hardwood board in roughly 15seconds. Although the system is scientific, it is not foolproof .Grading is al l done by eye-the eye of a human grader. St i l l ,r ig id qual i ty control ensures that only a very smal l percentageof boards are not graded correctly.

Here are the four basic steps lumber graders take to maketheir assessment:L Determine the species and mult iply the length by the widthof the board to f ind the surface measure (SM) in square feet-in the board above, 12 inches (1 foot) x 12 feet = 12 SM.2. Choose the poorest face from which to grade and visualize

the number of imaginary defect-free cuts that can be made;in this case, 4.3. Determine the number of portions of cutting units-clearlumber 1" wide by 1 long-that can be made from the 4 cuts;in this case, I08y4. (lf the board were perfect, it would yield144 cutt ing units.)4. Consult a chart that l ists the qual i t ies of di f ferent gradesand factor in the number of cutt ing units and the number ofallowable cuts: A No. 1 Common board requires that two thirdsof the total cutting units are clear. Given the size of this partic-ular board, up to 4 cuts would be al lowed. Since this boardmeets both criteria, it justifies the grade No. 1 Common.

N0. ICOMMON GRADE Cutting No. lt Cutting No,5:

3 t/2" x 4',/z' (15 3/+ unita)

B 1/2" x 41/z' (38 1/+ unita)Cutting No.4:6" x 5 2/a' (34 uniLe)

41/2" x 41/z' (2O 1,/a unite)

45

HARDWOOD GRADES

,.{ hundred years ago, hardwood grad-:i-l ing varied from mill to mill, butu,ith the formation of the NationalHardwood Lumber Association (NHLA)in 1898, grading became standardized.At first, the rules were based strictly onthe number and size of defects; in 1932they were broadened to reflect the pro-portion of a board thiit can be cut intosmal ler pieces, cal led cutt ings. Thesepieces must be clear on one side andsound on the other. Their size also deter-mines the grade. Today's hardwoodgrading standards assume that boardstrre invariably cr,rt into smaller pieces tomake ftrrniture; thus, grade is based ona board's poorest face, except in the caseof Select, rvhich takes the board's bestface into account.

Select is one ofseven standard hard-rvood grades. The top grade is FAS (anabbreviation ofFirsts and Seconds), fol-lowed by Select, No. 1 Cot.nuron, No. 2Aand 28 Common, and No. 3A Commonand No. 3B Common (clnrt, opposite).No. 2A and No. 28 Corrmon are fre-quently lumped together as No. 2Common; likewise, many iumberyardssellNo. 3A and No. 38 Common togeth-er as No. 3 Common.

The better the grade, the higher thepefcentrge of c lerr cutt iugs: B3' r per-cent of Select boards must be clear facecnttir-rgs; only 50 percent of a No. 2

Common board need be defect-fi'ee. Butgrading is a more subtle art than thesecalculations indicate. Tr,vo boards thatare the same size with the same numberofdefects can end up in different grades:The position of the defects mtry preventone board from having large enoughclear cuttings to make the higher gradeof the other board.

Although paying more for better-grade stock n-Ieans that you will end uprvith wood having fewer defects, this maynot always be the economicalthing todo. If your project is relatively modest,hand-pick the lumber yourself from avariety ofgrades, depending on the fturc-tion of each board in the piece. Whereonly one defect-li 'ee face is ialled for, theselect grade is a good choice. Or, for thepieces ofyour ftirniture project that arerelatively small, for example, you maybe able to get by with No. 1 Commonsrade boards. No. 2A Common boardsire suitable for the parts ofprojects inrvhich appearance is not of paramountimoortance. such as hidden furnitureframes. If you do buy lower-grade lum-ber, however, plan on more waste wher.ryou are calculating the number of boardfeet to order.

Of course, beauty is in the eye of thebeholder. Some cabinetmakers feel thatdefects such as knots add character to apiece of furniture. And if most of the

parts rvill end up being small, lower-grade wood is uot only rrrore ecortort t i -cal, it may also be nore suitable for thetask at hand-by yielding more attrac-tively figured rvood.

STANDARD THICKNESSFOR SURFACED HARDWOOD

Nominal(rough)

3/au

Vr"

Te'3/+u

1 '

I t /4 '

Lr/z '

z',3 "

4u

Actual(surfaced two sides)

3/rc"

5/to"

1/rc"

e/rc"

3/4t or r3/16t1

lrAa"1 q / nl " / 1 6

IVz" or I3/q"

2Y4"

33/4'

Tlrese twLt oak boords dentort-strste tlrc rottge of hardtood

t , r r ( / ( 's . T l rc lop bo,r r , l , 'o t r l , r i r tskrnts artd is classi.ficd a,s No.2A

Corrrrrtort; the bottotrr boartl isdefbct-fi'ce FAS grode lrurilte r.

I

tIttI

I

tIIIIIIIIIIItIItI

I

I

I

I

tII

I

'f"#--

46

SELECTING LUMBER

IItttrtIIIIIIIIIIIIttIItIIIIrIII

HARDWOOD TUMBER GRADES

GRADE

Allowable lengthof board

Al lowable widthof board

Min imum % o fclear face cutt ings

Min imum s ize o fclear cutt ings

Formula to determinenumber of cuts

Max imum number^ { ^ l ^ ^ . ^ , . + + ; - ^ ^u r L r t r d t u u L U i l B 5

permitted

FAS

8 ' - 1 6 '

6" or wider

83Vt%

3 " x 7 ' ;4 " x 5 '

S M + 4

A

SELECT

6 ' , - 1 6 '

4" or wider

83Vz%

3" x 7 ' ;4 " x 5 '

S M + 4

+

N0. 1C()MMON

4',- L6'

3" or wider

662/s%

3" x 3 ' ;4 " x 2 '

S M + l + 3

5

N0. 2A & 28C()MMON

4' - I6',

3" or wider

50%

3" x2',

S M + 2

7

NO.3AC()MM()N

4' - I6',

3" or wider

33%%

3" x2 '

Un l im i ted

N O . 3 8C()MMON

4' - I6',

3" or wider

25%

Not less than172" wide

containing 36square inches

Unl im i ted

Reading the chartThis chart , created by the Nat ional Hardwood Lumber Associa-tron (NHLA), records the minimum requirements a board mustmeet to merit a particular grade. Generally, a higher-grade boardis longer, wider and more defect-free than one of a lesser grade.The clear pieces are obtained wrth as few cuts as possible.

By compar ing the d imens ions o f a board w i th the f iguressuppl ied in the chart , i t is possrble to determine the grade ofa part icular piece of lumber. The f i rst two horizontal rows oro-

vide data on minimum board dimensions for each grade. Thethird row gives information on the percentage of defect-freesurface, or c lear face cuttrngs, a board must have for eachgrade. The minimum size of each clear face cutt ing is l istedjn row four. Once the surface area, or surface measure (SM),of a board is determined, the formula in row 5 wi l lg ive thetotal number of cutt ings al lowed for a part icular grade. Row6 contains the number of c lear cutt ings each grade permits.

The location of lumber grades on a logHigh grades of lumber, such as FASand Select, are general ly cut f rom theouter part of the log, near the bark.No. 3 Common grades , found c loserto the p i th , a re no t a lways su i tab lefor cabinetmaking and are frequeni lyused for packing crates or pal lets.In some species, such as walnut, wherecolor is important, the sapwood doesnot qual i fy as top grade, even thoughit may be clear.

FA9

9elect

No.1 Common

No. 2A and 2ECommon

No.3A and 3ECommon

47

SOFTWOOD GRADES

I lthough cabinetmakers generallyfI prefer hardwoods, many fine piecesof furniture have been built with soft-wood. There are good reasons for usinghardwood's less expensive cousin: Soft-wood is generally more readily availablethan hardwood, and is easy to work.

Pine is one of the most popular choic-es of cabinetmakers. Its varieties includeEastern white pine, Southern yellow pineand species from the West, such as sugarpine, Idaho white pine and ponderosapine. Douglas-fir, another Western soft-wood, is also gaining popularity as a cab-inet wood. Sitka spruce and Westem larchare two other good choices.

For cabinetmaking, you should restrictyourself to grades of softwood shown inthe chart on the following page. Remem-ber that softwoods are generally soldS4S-that is, planed smooth on bothfaces and jointed on the edges. And theyare graded based on the board's best faceafter surfacing.

Unlike hardwoods, softwoods aregraded differently depending on thespecies; the grade for a California red-wood board, for example, does notapply to a piece ofponderosa pine. Youcan obtain information about softwood

til0MlllAt(rNcHES)

I-by-2

1-by-3

1-by-4

1-by-6

1-by-8

1-by-10

I-by-12

2-by-2

Surfaced dry3/q-by-Ir/z

.3/a-by-2Vz3/q-by-3Y2

3/q-by-51/z

3/q-by-7t/+

3/q-by-9t/q

3h-by-I lVt

I|/z-by-IVz

grading standards from the AmericanLumber Standards Committee in Ger-mantown. Marvland.

Softwood grading takes both strengthand appearance into account. Threegrade categories-Select, Finish andCommon-are often used for wood-working. Select and Finish grades must

Thk F r ench - C anadian night stan dwas built entirely with pine-an

attractive alternative to moreexpensive hardwoods.

be clear of defects, while boards in theCommon grades may contain defectssuch as tight knots. Select and Finishstock are seasoned to a moisture contentof 15 percent or less. Common boards,used mainly in construction and home-building, may have up to a 19 percentmoisture level. The quality of Commongrade boards is further divided into cat-egories I to 5, with the highest numbercorresponding to the lowest grade.

Some boards display a grade stamp,like the one shown on page 49. Thestamp displays information about thespecies, moisture content when surfacedand grade of the stock. To avoid mar-ring their appearance, however, l-inch-thick boards in the better grades areoften not stamped after surfacing. Thestamp may also be missing from lessergrade boards that have been cut intoshorter lenghs by retail lumber dealers.

Keep in mind that softwood is soldaccording to nominal size, or greendimensions, which is different from aboard's actual size. A2-by-4,for exam-ple, actually measures lt/zby 3t/z inch-es. The chart below shows nominal sizesof some commonly available boardsalone with their true sizes when sufaced.

Surfaced dryI1/z-by-3t/z

Ir/z-by-5Vz

l1/z-by-7rh

lr/z-by-91/t

IVz-by-Ilth

2Vz -by-3Vz

3r/z-by-3r/z

31/z-by-5r/z

ACTUATfl1{CHES)

Surfaced green

Le/rc-by-3e/rc

ls/$-by-5Ye

Ie/rc-by-7 Vz

ls/rc-by-9Vz

Ie/rc-by-Mz

2s/rc-by-3s/rc

3e/rc-by-3eAo

3eAo-by-55/a

NOMINAL AND ACTUAL S()FTWOOD LUMBER SIZES

tIItItIIItIIfIIIIIIIIIttIIIIIIrI

ACTUAL0r{cHEs)

Surfaced green2s/zz-by_teAo

2s/sz_by_2e/rc

25/sz_by_3e/rc

2s/ez-by-5Ye

25/sz-by-7Vz

25/zz-by-91/z

2s/gz-by-lI1/z

Ie/rc-by-IsAa

it0MtNAt0NcHES)

2-by-4

2-by-6

2-by-8

2-by-I0

2-by-I2

3-by-4

4-by-4

4-by-6

48

SELECTING LUMBER

DECIPHERING A GRADE STAMP

IIIItIIrIItII,trIIItIItIatIIII

III

SOFTWOOD TUMBER GRADES FOR CABINETMAKING

GRADES

Select B and BTR (supreme)

C Select (choice)

D Select (quality)

Superior Finish

Prime Finish

No. 1 Common (colonial)

No. 2 Common (sterling)

CHARACTERISTICS

Clear appearance and highest quality; minor defects and blemishes.ldeal with clear finishes, Not always available; expensiveHigh qual i ty; smal l defects and blemishesGood quality; defects and blemishes more pronounceo

Highest quality of finish grade lumber; minor defects and blemishesHigh quality with few defects and blemishesHas l imited avai labi l i ty and size ranges; may have smal l t ight knots,making this grade appropriate if a knotty appearance is desiredLarger, coarser defects and blemishes; often used where a knottyappearance with strong character is desired

Reading a grade stampMost softwood grade stamps, like theone shown at left, contain five basic ele-ments. A code number ident i f ies the mi l lthat produced the board, and the gradeof the wood appears next to the trade-mark of the agency that established therules for grading the wood ( in this case,the Northeastern Lumber ManufacturersAssociation). The species is also noted;sometimes more than one species isstamped on the board, indicating it maybe any of those l isted. Final ly, the sea-soning information reflects the moisturecontent of the wood at the time it wassurfaced: S-DRY means that the boardwas surfaced after seasoning and has nomore than 19 percent moisture content;MC 15 refers to a board with a maximummoisture content of 15 percent; S-GRN isreserved for unseasoned wood surfacedwith a moisture content above 19 oer-cent. A board that has been surfacedwhi le st i l l green tends to shr ink and i tsdimensions wi l l not be as accurate asthose of a board that has been surfacedafter it was seasoned.

E S T W H I T E P I N EORWAY P tNE @

49

LUMBERDEFECTS

ost lumber defects adversely affecta board's appearance, strength,

workability or ability to take a finish.Sometimes, however, irregularities orabnormalities can actually make a pieceof wood more desirable, especially whenthey produce a popular, distinctive fig-ure like bird's-eye or burl. Of course,intended use is the final arbiter; whatmaybe a blemish to one woodworker isanother board's selling point. Knots, forexample, would be a significant defectin boards intended for a tabletop, butthey are an essential feature of sometypes ofpaneling.

Lumber defects are either natural,man-made or the result of poor sea-soning. All wood harbors natural defectsthat are caused by growing conditionsor qualities of the species itself. The sametype of defect may be present in differ-ent woods. Some imperfections arefound in all species. Loose knots, forexample, are caused simply by the waytrees grow. They are the remnants of bro-ken branches that have become encasedby the growth of new wood. Other nat-ural defects include gum in hardwoods,oitch in softwoods and reaction woodin all soecies. Natural forces such asfire, wind, fungi and insects can alsocause defects in wood. A commondefect oFthis sort is blue stain.

Several defects occur when wood isexposed to the air and allowed to dry.

DEFECTS IN WO()D

Because wood does not shr ink uni-formly in all dimensions, warping canresult when the moisture content oflumber droos below a certain level.(Refer to the Drying and Storing Woodchapter for more information on prop-er seasoning of wood.) Some commonseasoning defects are checks, bow, cup,twist, crook and split. Keep in mind thatthese defects can also occur in boardscut close to the pith of a log. Some com-

mon defects are exolained in the chartbelow and opposite.

Although it is virtually impossible tobuy wood that is completely defect-free,you can increase your chances ofobtain-ing the best lumber for your needs byselecting your wood careftilly (page 42).Another point to consider is that youcan salvase some lumber with defects ifyou havjaccess to the necessary toolsand learn how to use them (page 53).

ItIIIIIIItIIfIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

ttI

Three pieces of oak with defects: The top board shows splits,the middle piece reveals checks at one end, and the bottonrboerd displays a crook, a loose knot and reaction wood.

CHARACTERISTICS

Appears as a whorl that is intergrown with the surroundingwood tissue. Knots form as the girth of the tree increas-es, gradual ly enveloping the branches. l f the branches arest i l l a l ive at the t ime of their envelopment, the knot inte-grates with the wood in the tree trunk

Appears as a whorl encircled by a dark r ing. When abranch dies the remaining stump is eventual ly envelopedby the trunk. But the dead stump cannot integrate withthe t issue surrounding i t , creat ing a loose or dead knot,

REMEDIES

Does not seriously weakena board; can be cut out orused, as appearance dictates.

Remove knots before workingwith the lumber.

Loose or dead

50

SELECTING LUMBER

,V

IIIrIttIIIIIIItIIIItItIIrIIIIItI

CHARACTERISTICS

An accumulation on the surface of the board or in oock-ets within the board. Usually develops when a tree hassuffered an injury, exposure to fire or insect attack.

Lengthwise ruptures or separations in the wood, usu-ally caused by rapid drying. May compromise strengthand appearance of board.

An end-to-end curve along the face, usually causedby improper storage of lumber. Introduces internarstresses in the wood that make it difficult to cut.

An edge-to-edge curve across the face, usually causedwhen one face of a board dries more quickly than theother. Common on tangentially cut stock, on boardscut close to the pith, or if one face of a board has lesscontact with the air than the other.

Uneven or irregular warping where one corner is notaligned with the others. Results from uneven drying ora cross grain pattern that is not parallel to the edge.

End-to-end curve along the edge, caused by incorrectseasoning or having the pith of a log close to the boardedge. Weakens the wood, making it unsuitable forweight-bearing appl ications.

Similar to checks, appearing as separations alongthe growth rings. Also known as ring check or ringshank. Results from improper drying of wood orfelling domage.

Appears as a dark streak across the faces or edges oflumber. Occurs when planer knives are dul l or spinon one part of board for too long.

Appears as a discoloration of the surface on otherwisenormal-looking wood. Results from molds that flourishwhen lumber is dried or stored in warm, moist or poorlyvent i lated condit ions. Species l ike hol ly and Engl ishsycamore are prone to blue stain.

REMEDIES

Do not use where a qualityf in ish is required, as gum wi l lbleed through most finishes.

Can be cut off.

Flatten bowed boards onthe jointer (page 55), or cutinto shorter pieces, then usethe jointer.

Cup may correct itself if bothfaces are allowed to dry tothe same moisture content.Cupped boards can be sal-vaged on the band saw (page54) or jointer (page 55).

Board can be salvaged onjoinler (page 55), or cut intoshorter boards.

Board can be salvagedon jointer or table saw(page 55).

Board can be used, but splitmay mar the appearance ofthe wood, becoming morenoticeable when stain isappl ied.

Remove machine burn withjointer (page 53) or sander.

Conceal with a dark stain.

5 1

SELECTING LUIV{BER

THE STRESS ()F UNEVEN GROWTH

IIIIIIIIIIIrIItIIIIIrIIIIItIIIII

Recognizing reaction woodReact ion wood, shown above, is charac-terized by its compressed growth ringsand si lvery, l i fe less color. l t occurs whena t ree t runk has a p ronounced curve ,as often happens when a tree grows ona slone This defect can also be seen inboards cut c lose to the pi th of a trunk.Working with reaction wood poses prob-lems for the woodworker; because i t hasdif ferent shr inkage propert ies than nor-mal wood, the internal stresses in theboard can cause a saw blade to bind andk ick back . When the wood is cu t o rsanded, i t has a fuzzy sur face andabsorbs stain unevenly. Bending react ionwood or placing any Ioad on i t may causeit to break across the grain.

l l i l i l l t i l { l l l { t l l t l l i l l l l l l l l l l l i l l l l l l l l t r i l r r i i l i i l r i r i l i l l l l l l l l lllj lll ill {il ul irJ i$ i$ ut iil ul ul i$ ul ul {Ij ru ui

1HO? TI?Checking lumber for lwistWarped boards can somel imee be touqh I 'o recoqnize, but you canepoltwieled, olock quickly wit.hlhe atd of ohop-made windinq slicks.CuI Nwo narrow board,a Io a lenqlh thatr ie trwice t'he widLh of lheb o ard No b e tested. I eI Lhe bo ard f ace down on a work Lable, thenplace bhe winding el icke aL bolh endo, Varal lel to each ot 'her. 3i4hlacroo; Ihe t ope of Nhe et tcks. Your board ie twiet ed i f Nhe Lopoof the slicks are noN perfectly aligned.

-*---l

PREPARING LUMBERIIIIIIIIIIIItIrtIIIIIIItIIIIIIII

he first job in a cabinetmaking pro-ject involves preparing your stock. If

you own a jointer, a planer and a tablesaq you can do the work yourself.

Whether to construct a large cabinetor a miniature jewelry box, lumber isgenerally prepared in the same way. Theprocedures you follow depend on howthe wood was surfaced before youbought it. For rough boards, you startby smoothing one face on the jointer,then one edge. This will give you adjoin-ing surfaces that are perfectly square toeach other. Next, pass the second facethrough a planer so that the faces areparallel. Now you can rip your boardsto width and crosscut them to lengh.

For S2S lumber, which has alreadyhad both faces surfaced, you need only

SURFACING STOCK

pass one edge across the jointer, then ripand crosscut. S4S wood, with all foursurfaces dressed. can be cut to width andlength immediately; only edges that willbe glued together need to be jointed.

Although lumber with defects shouldbe avoided, you may find yourself witha few warped boards you do not wantto discard. Several simple techniques forsalvaging defective stock are shown onpages 54 and 55. A cupped board can beripped into several narrower pieces, ineffect flattening the curve into strips thatcan be jointed. A crooked or bowedboard can be salvaged on the jointer bygradually cutting away the high spots.And a simple jig can be used with thetable saw to transform a board with anuneven edge into a square piece.

For surfacing a board face, pushblocks help to keep stock flat andyour hands safe. Lateral pressurekeeps the edge against the fence.

Jointing a boardSet a cutting depth between lAa and 7e inch. Joint a board face as shown in thephoto above. To joint an edge, feed the stock slowly across the cutterhead,making sure that the knives are cutting with the grain (page 29).While feedingthe workpiece over the knives, use a hand-over-hand motion to keep downwardpressure on the piece just to the outfeed side of the cutterhead, maintainingpressure against the fence. Continue these movements until you finish the cut.

53

SELECTING LUMBER

Planing stockSet a cutting depth up to %a inch. Standto one side of the olaner and use bothhands to feed the stock careful ly intothe machine, keeping the board edgesparallel to the edges of the planer table.Once the machine gr ips the board andbegins pulling it across the cutterhead,support the trailing end to keep it flat onthe table (right). As the cut progresses,move to the outfeed side of the olanerand support the piece with both handsunt i l i t c lears the outfeed rol ler. l f youare making several passes to reduce theboard's thickness, plane the same amountof wood from both faces. This will mini-mize warping.

SALVAGING WARPED LUMBER

Ripping cupped stock into narrow boardsThis technique for salvaging cupped boards involves the bandsaw, but you can achieve the same result with a table saw or aradial arm saw. lf you are using a band saw, install your widestblade and set up a r ip fence on the machine's table. Set thewidth of cut; the narrower the setting, the flatter the resulting

boards. To make a cut, set the board convex (high) side up onthe table and, butt ing the board against the fence, feed i tsteadily into the blade (above). Make sure that neither hand isin l ine with the cutt ing edge. Finish the cut with a push st ick.Remove any remaining high spots on the jointer (page 55).

tItIIIIIIIIIIttItIIIIIIIIIIIIItI

54

SELECTING LUMBER

IItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIII

JOINTING CROOKED ()R BOWED STOCK

7

5

:5 :

lllt flt] llll illt fllt lllt lllt illt tlll illl l]Il illl flll ilI] ult t][l tlll l]ll5HO? TI?5trai6htening outan uneven edgeEven ouL lhe edgeeof a crooked board onthe Lable saw wiNh aohop-made j iq. CUNa piece of 3/+-inch ply-wood wiLh pertectlyparallel edqeo. ?lace Nhe board

Jointing concave and convex surfacesThe diagrams at lef t show how to"straighten out" crooked boards on thejointer. The severity of the defects isgreatly exaggerated for clarity in the illus-tration; extreme crook should be straight-ened on a table saw as shown below, 0nthe jointer, the idea is to pass the highspot on the board's edge repeatedly acrossthe cutterhead until the edge is straight.For the convex, or outward-bowing, edge(left, above), pass the high spot at themiddle of the board across the knives asmany times as necessary (cuts I and 2).Avoid "nose-diving," or al lowing the lead-ing edge to r ide up during the cut. Whenthe surface is f lat , make a f inal passalong the entire edge (cut 3). To flattenthe concave, or inward-bowing, edge (/eff,below), joint one end of the board asmany times as necessary (cuts 1 and 2),then turn the board around to reoeat theprocess at the other end (cuts 3 and 4).This operat ion is simi lar to basic joint-ing , except tha t you on ly cu t the h ighspot at the trailing end of the board. Startthe cut with the leading end of the boardan inch or so above table level. Feedthe piece toward the cutterhead withonly the trai l ing end in contact with theinfeed table. When the deepest part ofthe concave edge is above the knives,lower the leading end of the board ontothe outfeed table and complete the pass.Once the surface is even, make a finalpass the lengh of the board (cut 5).Flattening bowed stock is simrlar to facejointing: with the board concave face down,make as many passes as necessary toremove the high spots near the ends. Usepush blocks to keep your fingers safelyaway from the cutterhead.oquarely on to? of Nhe plywood, with the

uneven parN overhanging one edqe. tsult etop blockeagainotNhetrai l inq end and edqe oftheboard as shown,then screwNhe blocke No Nhe plywood. AtLach Noggle clampe to Ihe blocks andpreee Ihe clampo down No eecure the board to the jiq. 1et Ihe widthof cuI equal No'Nhe width of rhe Vlywood piece and

-oliae *,e iiq acro*e

lhe eaw table, cuttin4 the edqe of Nhe board etraiqht.

55

IIIIttIIIIIIIIItIItIItII

II

tIIIIIIIIIrIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

II

IIRED BOARDS\TENE,ERSATD

he time-honored technique ofveneering can transform a simple

cabinet door into a flamboyant burst ofcolor and grain, an unassuming piece offurniture into a seamless work of art.And though wood veneers have shiftedin and out offavor over the centuries,woodworkers have used them to mar-velous effect since the ancient Egyptiansembellished objects with thin sheets ofprecious woods. In the lBth and earlyl9th Centuries, fine veneers became thehallmark of sophisticated, high-stylefurniture. Large swaths of distinctivewood veneers covered tabletops; mar-quetry pictures-delicate patterns madeby aligning pieces ofveneer and inset-

Decorative matching of veneers cancreate unusual qnd breathtaking effects,

such as the natural grain figurefeatured in this Victorian davenport.

array of appealing configurations-her-ringbone and reverse-diamond amongothers. They can also take full advantageof such beautiful but unstable wood cutsas crotch and burl, which are impossi-ble to work with in solid form.

The old masters veneered over a sol-id-wood base, or substrate, using hotglue made from animal hides, blood andbones. They smoothed the veneer andpressed out air bubbles with specialhammers. While hammer-veneering isstill practiced, today's craftsmen maychoose a more modern veneer press;they can also choose from a much widerselection of glues and substrates. Theglue maybe an aliphatic- or plastic-resin

ting them in the surrounding wood-decorated all mannerofcabinetry.

Veneering declined with the advent of production machin-ery in the l9th Century, only to rebound once again in theearly 20th Century with advances in manufactured board tech-nology and improved adhesives. As materials continue toimprove, veneering makes more sense than ever. Furniturethat would be prohibitively expensive to craft from solid exot-ic woods can be veneered with the same woods at a much morereasonable cost.

And, of course, veneering today offers the same estheticadvantages it always has. With veneers, woodworkers are freeto create stunning grain patterns with such techniques as book-matching or slip-matching; they can arrange veneers in an

type; the substrate may be any one of a number of manufac-tured boards, most popularly plyvood, particleboard or medi-um-density fiberboard. The introduction of these manufacturedboards revolutionized furniture design: Because the boardsare dimensionally stable-they neither swell nor shrink withseasonal changes in humidity-traditional frame-and-paneldesigns can be replaced by large unbroken veneered surfaces.

Of the variety of manufactured boards, cabinetmakers prob-ably make the most use of plpvood, itself a product of veneerconstruction. Plywood is available in many grades for manyuses; always buy the best you can afford. Cabinet-grade hard-wood pllwood, which is already faced with attractive veneers,is a cost-effective alternative to solid wood-ideal for suchprojects as wall and floor cabinets, bookcases and drawer fronts.

Manufactured boards offer the solidity of hardwood alongwith greaterdimensional stability. Clockwise from lower left is a sampling of themo st p o p ular c ab inet m akin g ty p e s : s oftw o o d plnv o o d, me dium - den -sity fiberboard, particleboard, hardboard and Baltic birch plywood.

57

\ / eneer revolutionized furniture-V making as far back as 2000 sc, when

the Egyptians handsawed thin sheets ofwood and then adhered them to thick-er backings with animal glue and heat-ed sandbags. Veneering soon developedinto a refined art and became a hallmarkof many furniture stvles. The rococo

styles of the Louis XV period in the mid-1700s fostered a demand for kingwood,tulipwood, purpleheart and rosewoodveneers, while the futs and Crafts move-ment of the late 1800s ignited acrazeformarquetry based on mahogany, walnutand satinwood veneers. By the turn ofthe 20th Century. modern veneer mills

served both the furniture and construc-tion industries.

Almost as fragile as an eggshell andbursting with the warmth and opulenceofexotic hardwoods, veneers are avail-able in more than 200 varieties, somecut as thin as %oo inch. Some of the mostpopular varieties are listed below.

IIIIIIItIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIII

A GATLERY OF COMM()N DECORATIVE VENEERS

VENEER

Avodi16

Black walnut

Brazi l ianrosewood

Carpathian elm

lmbuia

Lacewood(Si lky-oak)

Mahogany

Maple

Myrtlebur l

Purpleheart(Amaranth)

Sapele

Ceylonsatinwood

Yew

Zebrawood

0l iveash burl

Peanvood

COTOR AND FIGURE

Golden yellow to gold;mottled figure

Light gray-brown to dark purple-brown; striped figure

Chocolate to violet and black tobrick-red; striped f igure

Brick red or greenish-brown to l ighttan; burl f igure

Rich chocolate to olive-brown andgold; burl and striped figures

Silvery pink to reddish-brown,f leck f igure

Light pink to reddish-brown,striped and fiddleback figures

Creamy white sapwood with tanheartwood; curly and bird's-eye figures

Golden brown to yellowish-green;mottled and burl f igures

Creamy white with dark brownstreaks; burl f igure

Rosy cream; straight-grained figure,sometimes curly

Deep purple with l ight gray sap-wood; striped figure

Reddish brown; mottled ancribbon stripe figures

Golden yellow; mottled figure

Warm orange with darker streaks;burl f igure

Cream background with dark brownlines; striped figure

CUTS AVAILABLE

Quarter cut

Crotch, butt, f lat,quarter cut, burl cut

Flat cut andn i l 2 r f c r a r r t

Bur l

Bur l , f la t cut androtary cut

Quarter cut, f lat

Quarter cut, f lat cut,ern inh hr r f i

Quarter cut, f lat cut,crotch, rotary, burl

Bur l

Bur l , s tump

Quarter cut, flat cut

Quarter cui, f lat cut

Quarter cut

Flat cut, quarter cut

Flat cut

Quarter cut

TEXTURE AND WORKAEILITY

Medium textured; easy to work.Stains unevenly

Medium texture; grain diff icultto work. Takes f inish well

Medium texture andoily; diff icult to work.Resists finish

Medium texture; easy towork. Takes finish well

Medium texture; easy towork. Takes finish well

Medium texture; easy towork. Takes finish well

Coarse texture, diff icultto work. Takes finish well

Fine texture; diff icult towork. Takes finish well

Fi ne texture; moderatelydiff icult to work. Takesf in ish wel l

Coarse texture; easy towork. Takes finish well

Fine texture; easy to work.Takes finish well

Coarse texture; hard to work.Takes f inish well

Medium texture; easy to work.Takes f inish well

Fine texture; easy to work.Takes f inish well

Fine texture; easy to work.Takes f inish well

Medium texture; moderately dif-f icult to work. Takes f inish well

SUPPLY

Plentif u I

Plentif u I

Rare

Plent i f u l

Rare

Moderate

Plent i f u l

Plent i f u l

Moderate

Rare

Rare

Plentif ul

Moderate

Rare

Rare

Rare

II

TI

tI

IVENEEITS AN I) N{I\NUI:A(] ' I 'LI I I .ED I]OARDS

\

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

ttI

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

WHERE VENEERSORIGINATE ON A TREE

: a.,) |

Mahogany crotch veneer

Crotch veneeri l i , i . i r ' r i t t i i i i r l l ; . , i 1 , . , 1

1 1 , ' i I l ' I a : a : ' ) i l i i ' : ' i t i r i i r I i i i ' r a i - :

I i l j : r I / : - r ' : : : j i r : , i r i . r , , ' , , ' , 1 - t i i t i . : )

: , r 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 r 1 1 ; 1 1 1 . 1 1 . i r i l i 1 . f f l .

Carpathian elm burl veneer

Eurl veneeri . i , 1 i ' t : t i i i i t ' i . i i . i ; 1 t . , , l i i , ' : i ' i ' 1 1 . ; 1 , ,

i.,i f i' i i i., f a-. I i. i I r a:, :::t,l, i i, -rr'r | :. a i-.1 . i a-, ri a :

1'1i1r. 1i1,,i, i ;1 r,r '.. t- i i i ' t- i ir,, i : r t : l i i ,., I : :t :: i ..

, l /.: '1 / l ' i i r ir. ;:,.; i i :: f:, 1 ::ri., t i- ia a'\art i i-

t r . l r ' , .1 t ta ra , ; i r ' , , i . - ' ,1 i i i i i , , ' : . i . , ,

Walnut butt veneer

Eutt veneerr ,L , i - i r - t l i t l i i r l ' : ' . i . i , i i i ; . : . i r i i . : r r j . i .

a ) f a - i . raa : l i i e i , i ' , i ' i ; i t t r : , , . . i .

l '- l l) i tt t: j i . ' ,r i :.,tr; i ir i i .,,n.:j

Flat-cut veneer

.; ;: I r ' :, : 1-.i i ,. | ) a.t | 1. .. i | |, r i i : ' t t i ,: j .

r,),\, a.a.l.. i t l i1 .,rri t . i .:., . j t l . j a,,\.::11..

Birds'-eye maple veneer

European beech veneer

at'

FROM LOG TO VENE,ER

1'\ nce its bark is stripped away, a log\J .un be cut into veneer in one oithree rvays: saw cutting, rotary cuttingor flat slicing. Saw cutting, which goesback to the early 19th Centi"rry, employshuge circular saws to rip strips of veneerfrom logs. Although not as efficient asother techniques, saw cutting is still usedto produce some crotch veneers fromirregularly grained or dense woods suchas ebony.

Rotary cutting and flat slicing canproduce veneers as thin as 7s to l,/r zo inchand as long as I B feet. In rotary cutt ing,a log mounted in a huge lathe rotatesagainst a presslu€ bar while a razor-sharpknife oeels off a continuous sheet ofveneeithe length of the log. Fir plp,vood,as well as some decorative veneers suchas bird's-eye maple, are normally rotarycut. Half-round, rift and back cuttingare variations that produce veneer fromhalf-loss rather than whole ones.

In flat slicing, a half-log is held onto aframe that swings r-rp and down againsta stationary horizontai knife; a slice ofveneer is removed with every down-stroke. FIat slicing produces crown-cutveneers. A type of flat slicing known asquarter-clrt slicing is used on woods thatdisplay a striking figure when quarter-sawn, as in sapeie, white oak or lacewood.

Flat-sliced sheets of verteer movenlortg tt conveyor for drying tud

storage hr n vetreer .fnctory.

VENEER-CUTTING METH(lDS

Rotary auttingUsed Lo cut con'etruction plywoodand eome decora'tive veneera guchao btrd'o-eye maple

Half-round auttingA method used forburla and aomedecorattve apectea

Eack cuttingA rotary cuttingmethod that. yieldebuLL and croLchveneer9

Flat eliaingUaed to make crown-cut veneer?; pro'ducea veneera wiLhrepeatinq figure thaLfacrltLaf,ea book'matching and oLherdecorative effects

Quarber-aui aliaingUaed to cut decora-f,tve veneerg, auchae ribbon, atripeand flake, that areobtarned from quar'Lereawn loqe

Ri{t cuttingYielde veneer wtththe raye at rou7hly45" to the eurface;uoed primarily onwhiLe oak

ttIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItI

I

I

I

rI

I

60

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

tT

I

I

I

tII

I

I

I

tI

I

I

tI

I

VENEER TYPES AND SIZES

VENEER TYPER n i e n r n r r l

Flat-sl iced

Quarter-cut

Butt and siump

Crotch

Bur l

stzEsLength up to 10 feet; width from 8 to 36 inches

Length 3 to 16 feet; width from 4 to 24 inches

Length 3 to 16 feet; width from 3 to 12 inches

lrregular dimensions. Sheet sizes vary from 10 x 36to 18 x 54 inches; average sheet size 12 x 36 inchesLength from 18 to 54 inches; width from 10 to 24inches; average sheet size 72 x 36 incheslrregular dimensions. Sheet sizes vary from 8 x l0 to18 x 54 inches; average sheet size 16 x 24 inches

AVAILABLE SPECIES

Bird's-eye maple, bubinga, Douglas-f ir,masur birch

Ash, Brazi l ian rosewood, cherry,maple, oak, teak

Avodi16, mahogany, oak, Queenslandmaple, sapele, satinwood, zebrawoodMaple , wa lnu t

Amburana, mahogany, walnut

Carpathian elm, English oak, madrone,myrtle, olive ash, redwood, thuya, walnut

SH()P.MADE VENEER

1 Settine up the cutt -

I To cu t venee r on the band saw, f i r s t make a p i vo t b l ock f r om two p ieces o fwood j o i ned i n a T , w i t h t he ou te r end o f t he sho r te r p iece t r immed to f o rm arounded nose. Insta l l a3/q- inch resaw blade on the saw and insta l l the r ip fenceon the table. Screw the p ivot b lock to the fence so that the rounded t ip is a l ignedwi th the b lade. Posi t ion the fence for the width of veneer you want (above), Iyp i -ca l ly r /e inch. l f the stock you are cut t ing is re lat ive ly th in, c lamp a featherooaroto t he tab le t o suppo r t i t du r i ng t he cu t .

6 l

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

r) Cutting the veneerL f eea the workpiece into the bladewith both hands, keeping the stock f lushagainst the tip of the pivot block (abovd.To prevent the blade from drifting offl ine, steer the trai l ing end of the work-piece. Near the end of the cut, move tothe back of the table with the saw st i l lrunn ing to f in ish the pass . Ho ld ing thestock square against the pivot block,oul l i t oast the blade.

Illl lllt llll llll llll lllt lllt llll llu lllt llll illt llll llll ilt llll lllt lltl1HO? TI?)alvaqin 6 w arped veneerCrotch and burl veneerzeomelimesbecome ---1,warped and bril-Nle, the reeulL ofaqinq or improVeroNorage.Io flattenthe eheeNe, dampenthem ueing a e?on7e

I

T

I

I

t

I

I

I

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

trtI

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

rII

moisNened wiNh warm waf,erand elackthem on a piece of Vly-wood wilh lwo or Nhree sheelo of newopaper between eachslice. Tlace a heavy weiqhl, such as a concrele block, on top.Let,the veneero sitfor a day or two.Wrap the sheets in Vlao-t ic and elore Lhem under a weiahl unt i l vou need them.

62

VENEERINGtTI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tIITTIIIII

I pplying veneer is like woodwork-A ing in reverse. Instead ofstartingwith a board, then cutting and sandingit down to its finished dimensions.veneered pieces are built up alayer atatime. Beglnning with a substrate-orbase-of solid wood or a manufacturedpanel, you glue banding to the edges andthen wider pieces of veneer to both faces.

With a plywood base, orient the grainofthe veneer so that it is perpendicularto the grain of the plywood, and bothfaces of the plyr,vood must be veneered toprevent cupping. (Never apply veneerover fir plywood, because the grain ofthe fir can be seen through the veneer.)With a hardwood base, veneer shouldbe applied parallel to the grain.

Furniture-quality particleboard andmedium-density fiberboard also makegood substrates for veneering. Since thesematerials have no grain (they are made of

wood particles pressed together with anadhesive), you may arrange the veneeron the panels anywayyou wish. But thelack ofa grain direction is also a disad-vantage: Neither of these products is asstrong as plywood, and any joints cut in

Sp ecifically designed for cutting veneer,a yeneer saw is usually used in

tandem with a guide block or astraightedge to ensure straight cuts.

them must be reinforced with splinesmade of some other material.

Brittle veneers must be applied over athicker underlay veneer such as poplar.Always cut the veneer larger than theactual size needed, allowing an overhangof about lz nchall the way around. Theoverhang is trimmed offlater.

If you are pressing down veneer thetraditional way-with a veneer ham-mer-use hide glue, which is reheatable.Otherwise, white glue is your best choice.Whichever adhesive you employ, it willbe effective only ifthe veneer is flat, cleanand dry.

As shown in this section, veneer canalso be pressed down in a veneer press.Newer commercial vacuum presses fea-ture a pump that sucks the air out ofa plastic bag that surrounds the sub-strate and veneer, allowing atmosphericpressure to hold the veneer in place.

VENEERING TOOTS

Veneer preaaFor preeain7 veneer down on a subatratepaneL featurea a base, pipe clampe, pipeClamP gaddlea and veneer

Veneer aawFor trimmin4 and cuttingveneer; ite curved blade,offaet handle and thin,eharp-tipped teethenaure clean

preaa clampa. Componentaare bouqht.aa a kit andaaaembled by uaer to auitdimenaione of panel

Veneer tapeA thin, etronq, perforatedtape ueed forjoinin7 pieceoof veneer before qluin4

Hand rollerA hard rubber roller uaed toapply edqe bandin4 to theedgee of eubetraLe panele

Veneer hammerFor preoeing veneerdown on a subatratepaneL puahed alonq theaurface like a equeeqee.Featurea three workin4aurfacea for veneera ofvaryinq widtha

63

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

APPLYING VENEER' l Gluing down edge bandingI Cut four strips of banding for the edgesof the substrate oanel from the same veneeryou wi l l use for the faces. Make the str ipsoverlap the panel edges by about % inch,and be sure the i r g ra in w i l l run a long theedges, rather than across them. Securethe panel in a vise, then apply a thin beadof glue to an edge. Use a smal l brush tospread the adhesive evenly, then center thebanding over the edge. Lay a strip of waxpaper over the banding and then, usingwood pads to protect the edge and faces,clamp the banding down with three-wayc lamps, spac ing them a t 6 - to 8 - inchintervals, unt i l the glue dr ies. Tighten eachclamp in turn (r ight)unt i l a thin glue beadsqueezes out. Tr im the excess banding(step 2), then repeat for the other edges.

r") Trimming excess bandingL Once the glue has dr ied, hold thepanel on edge on a work surface. Buttthe back of a veneer saw against the farend of the panel with i ts teeth on thebanding. Firmly draw the saw towardyou to,tr im away the excess bandinghbovd. Make sure the back of the sawremains f lush against the face of thepanel throughout the cut. Turn the pan-el around and repeat on the other side.Excess banding can also be removedwith a laminate tr immer (page 68).

llll ilI] rll1 llll lllj illt llll ilIl lll llll ljll llll lll llll lll r]I1 IIJ llllgHO? TI?Cutting edge banding *..o.siTo cut several eNriVe of S\veneer edge bandinq in oneoperaLion, slack Lhem onealop Nhe obher, edqeo aligned,beNween Lwo pieceo of l/+-inch ply-wood.Tackthe two plywood pieceoNoqebher wi lh f in ishinq nai lo placed alonqIhe edqeo; be sure ihe nail Nipe do not perto-rale trhe bandinq or ?aee Lhrouqh the boIbompiece of plywood. Mark cuLlinq lineo for lhe banding on theLop piece of Vlywood,Ihen cut alonq Nhe l inee on a Nable eawor band eaw. be careful nol lo cul alona lhe line of nails.

I

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

tI

T

I

I

I

T

I

I

T

I

tI

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

64

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

T

I

T

I

I

T

I

I

I

tII

Edging the face veneerThe edges of adjo in ing sheets o j

veneer must be perfect ly square i f thetwo pieces are to butt together properly.To square them, you wi l l need a shoot-ing board. Cut three pieces of 3/rinchplywood sl ight ly longer than the veneer.0ne p iece shou ld be w ide enough tohold the other two pieces on top andthe width of the plane ly ing on i ts side.Place the two pieces of veneer face toface and sandwich them between thetop two plywood pieces so that the edgesof the veneer are al igned and protrudeby about \/e inch. Set the sandwich ontop of the third, wider board and clampthe entire assembly to a work surface.Run the plane along the shoot ing boardfrom one end to the other to tr im offthe project ing veneer. Make sure youkeep the sole of the plane f lush againstthe edges of the top plywood piecesduring the cut (left).

Taping veneer sheets togetherl f you are pressing down your veneer

sheets with a veneer hammer, glue themin place individual ly (step 5). l f you areapplyrng more than one sheet of veneer toa panel face and using a veneer press tohold them down, tape the sheets togetherand glue them down as a unit . Al ign thesheets edge-to-edge on a work surface,arranging them good-side up to producea visual ly interest ing pattern. l f there aregaps between adjoining sheets, trim theedges on a shooting board, The combinedlength and w id th o f the veneer shou ldexceed the dimensions of the panel byaboul r/z inch. Once you have a satjsfac-tory arrangement, moisten a few lengthsof veneer tape with a water-dampenedsponge. Tape the sheets together acrosstheir jo ints at 6- to 8- inch intervals, thenapply a str ip of tape along each joint(right). Press the tape f irmly in placewith a hand rol ler,

65

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

TITt

VENEER-TRIMMING JIGCut sheets of veneer to width quick-ly and accurately on a router tablewiih the trimming jig shown at right.Refer to the illustration for suggest-ed dimensions.

Cut the base of the jig from %-incfi plywood and the top piece fromhardwood. Choose a board with aslight bow for the top piece, if possi-ble; applying clamping pressure nearthe ends of the board will flatten it,producing uniform pressure againstthe base. The top piece should beslightly longer than your veneer sheetsand the base at least 12 incheslonger. Screw wood blocks to thebase so ihe top piece will fit snuglybetween them. Then screw a toggleclamp to each wood block.

To use the jig, install a flush-cut-t ing bi t with a bearing guide on arouter, and mount the tool in a routertable. Place the veneer to be trimmedbetween the base and top piece ofthe jig as you would when trimmingwith a shooting board (page 65).l{akesure the sheets protrude from the jigby 7s inch, then press the toggleclamps down on the top piece tosecure the veneer sheets to the jig.Position the fence to set a cuttingwidth of 7e inch. (Caution: Guardand fence removed for clarity.) Turnon the router and slide the jig acrossthe table (right, below), trimming theveneer flush with the edge of the jig.Be sure to keep the jig butted againstthe fence throughout the operation.

Top piece1 1 / 2 " x 4 " x 3 0 "

T

I

t

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tITIIIIIIIII

66

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

IITItIIItIIIITIIIIITTIIIIItIIIII

f, Gluing down the veneerr-,1 Set the substrate panel face up ona work surface and spread on a thin layerof glue with a smal l brush or hand rol ler(right). Do not apply adhesive directlyto the veneer ; g lue w i l l make j t cur l .Remember to use white glue i f you areworking with a veneer press (step 6);choose hide glue if you are using a veneerhammer (step 7). Handl ing the veneergently, center the sheets over the panel. lfyou taped veneer sheets together, setthem taped-side up. Make sure the veneeroverhangs the edges of the panel evenly.

Pressing the veneer in position with a veneer presslf you are using a veneer press, assemble the device follow-

ing the manufacturer 's instruct ions. Make sure the spacingbetween the pipe clamp saddles is sl ight ly longer than thelength of the panel. Set the panel on the base of the press,

veneered face down with a strip of wax paper between the veneeredface of the panel and the base. Protect the upper face of the pan-el with wood pads. Tighten the press clamps one at a time (above)unt i l a thin glue bead squeezes out from under the panel.

67

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

I Pressing the veneer in position/ with a veneer hammerl f you are using a veneer hammer, set the glued panel veneeredface up on a work surface. Butt wood scraps against the endsof the panel as stop blocks, then screw them in place. Holdingthe hammer with both hands, work the head of the tool backand forth over the veneer, pressing down f i rmly and fol lowingthe grain. To el iminate bubbles or to smooth out sect ions thathave not stuck properly, melt the glue by running a householdiron over the veneer, then press down again with the hammer.

IIITITIIIIItIIIIIItTTIIIIIIIIIII

l]li ilfl llll t]l] I]Il lllt firl lllt ilIl Ir] llfi lll1 lll] ilIl u[ tll] rll] llll5HO? TI?Veneering aaurved surfaaeT n n r a a a \ r a A a a r

down on a con-loured surface,such as the draw-er fronL shownnere, uoe Sana-baqo or pi l low-caeee fil led wiLhsand, For besLreeulNe, etarElayin4 the baqeon Nhe middle ofNhe eurface, workinq your way to Nhe ende. 7incemoderate heal accelerales lhe qlue-curinq ?roceee,keep lhe baqo near a healer ao you ?re?are for Nhe job.

Trimming the excessOnce the slue has cured-2 hours

is the typ ica l wa i t ing per iod- t r imthe veneer tha t p ro lec ts beyond thef : n p n f t h o n : n p l R p e r r . ^ + h ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ l

L ' r u l J u i l u r . v L v u l t r L l l C P d l l t r l

veneered-face up on a work surface,pos i t ion ing s top b locks as you wou ldwhen using a veneer hammer (step 7).F i t a l a m i n a t e t r i m m e r w i t h a f l u s h -c u t t i n s h i t . t h e n r e s t t h e m a c h i n e o nthe panel with the bi t just c lear of theexcess veneer . Ho ld ing the t r immerwith one hand and steadying the panelw i th the o ther , tu rn on the too l andgu ide i t f rom one end o f the pane lto the other (/eff). Repeat for the otherthree edges of the panel. Light ly moist-en any veneer tape and remove thestrips with a scraper.

DECORATIVE MATCHINGIIIIIaIIIIIItI

tIIIItIITtITIIIItI

Q ince certain [pes ofveneer,like somer.J burls and exotic species, are availableonly in small sizes, pioducing a sheet ofveneer sufficiently large for your projectwill often involve joining several small-er pieces together, with some cutting andtaping before glue-up. Whenever veneersare joined, you must pay attention tograin, figure and texture to avoid clut-tered or haphazard patterns. But asshown below veneers carefully matchedwith decorative effects in mind can yieldresults unmatched by wood in its nat-ural state.

Veneer sheets that are intended to bematched should be cut from the samelog in successive passes. The result is aseries ofsheets that are essentially iden-tical. The type of match you achievedepends on both the figure and grainorientation ofthe veneer and the size ofthe finished pattern you intend to create.

Artfully matching v en eer scan create eye-catching effects.

This tabletop features acenter diamond match.

Straight-grained woods, such as zebra-wood and sapele, for example, yieldveneers that are excellent for diamond,reverse-diamond and herringbone pat-terns. Burl, crotch and stump veneerscan be butt-and-book-matChed intoIarge, elaborate circular and oval patternsideal for creating interesting tabletops.

Recognizing grain patterns suitablefor decorative matching takes practice.You have to know what to look for:A little swirl at the edge of a sheet, forexample, may yield a beautiful design.To get a quick idea of what an end-to-end or a diamond match would look like,place a mirror at a right angle to the sur-face of the veneeri use two mirrors set at90o to each other to preview a butt-and-book-match. Once you have settled onyour pattern, stack the sheets ofveneer sothat their grain is aligned, tape the edgesand cut the pieces for the match.

End-to-endA mirrorlike ?attern featurinqflat-cut veneere with promi-nent landacape figure

Eutt-and-book-matchCommonly uaed with butt, crotchand etump veneere to create anu nfoldi na, circula r effect

Reverse-diamond matchFeaLures four aheetE ofveneer that appear toconverqe at their center

1lip matahOften ueed to producedramatic effecta: reduceadratorDion cauaed by liqhtrefraction problema whenbook-matchinq maple

Eook-matchA repeating pattern whereadjoininq sheeta of veneerappear to radiate from Lhejoint between them, like thepaqea of a book

HerringboneVeneera whoee fi4uree rundiagonally off the aheet,creattnq a ztqzag effecL

69

TI

I lthough it may not be as glamorousA or as steeped in woodworking tra-dition as solid lumber, plywood offersseveral advantages to the cabinetmaker.First, it comes in a wide range of stan-dard thicknesses and sizes. Second, it isdimensionally stable and is unlikely towarp or show signs of checking or splirting. Third, it is available with just aboutany commonlv available veneer on itsfaces. And fourth, it is easy to cut.Indeed, plywood is a good choice foralmost any design that does not involveintricate joinery such as dovetails.

Although veneer has a venerablehistory and plyr,vood is a relatively mod-ern development-fi rst produced com-mercially in the mid-1800s-the tvvo areclosely related. Plyuood, after all, is alayered wood material made from thinsheets, or plies, of veneer. Decorativeplywood is often faced with matched

PLYWOOD

veneers made from high-grade hard-woods such as cherry or walnut. Theveneer used in construct ion-gradeplywood is peeled on a rotary lathefrom eight-foot-long logs of poplar,pine or Douglas-fir.

As shown opposite, both decorativeand construction-grade plywood aremanufactured with an odd number ofplies, giving the sheet a balanced con-struction. Three plies are usually theminimum number. Beneath the face andback veneers ofa typical sheet are layersknown as crossbands. The grain ofeachcrossband runs at right angles to that ofadjacent plies to counter wood move-ment. The result is a warp-resistantboard that is equally strong across bothdimensions. Some ply,voods are alsoavailable with reinforced cores.

As with solid lumber, plywood isavailable in both hardwood and soft-

wood varieties, although the terms referstrictly to the face and back veneers.Hardwood plyr,vood is a stable and cost-efitctive alternative to solid wood, and isused in woodworking applications whereappearance matters, such as for cabinets,drawer fronts and furniture. Softwoodplywood is generally used for carcaseconstruction, bookcases and shelving.

Not all pliwoods are created alike.More than 70 wood species are used inits manufacture. Plywoods are groupedaccording to strength and durability;both softwood and hardwood varietiesare available in four groups or categoriesthat are usually stamped on the sheet.Group I (softwood) and Category A(hardwood) species are the strongestand most durable;Group 4 and CategoryD are the poorest grades. Refer to thechart (below)for the species that make-up the various groupings.

IItIIItIIIItIIIIIIIIIIItIt

COMMON W()()DS USED IN PLYWOOD CONSTRUCTION

SOFTWOOD

Group Ir American

Beechr Yellow

Birch. Douglas-

fno Western

Larchl R r ro : r

Mapler Longleaf

Pine. Shortleaf

Pineo Southern

Pine. Tanoak

Group 2o Port Orford

Cedar'Cypress

. Balsam Fir

. Lauan

. BlackMaple

r VirginiaP ine

o Yel lowPoplar

r BlackSpruce

. SitkaSpruce

Group 3o Red

Alder. Paper

Birchr Alaska

Cedar. Eastern

Hemlocko Bigleaf

Maple. Jack

Pineo Ponderosa

Pi neo Redwoodo White

Spruce

Group 4r Biglooth

Aspenr Quaking

Aspen. Basswoodr Red

Cedarr Western

Cedaro Cotton-

wood. Sugar

Pineo Balsam

Poplar

HARDWOOD

Category Ao White

Ashr Bubinga. Hickoryr Red Oak. White

0ak. Pecano Rosewoodr Q a n a l o

Category Br Black Asho Avodir6. Black

Cherryo Rock Elmr African

Mahoganyo Honduras

Mahogany. Teako Black

Walnut

Category Co American

Basswood. Butternute American

Chestnut. Hackberryo Si lver

Mapleo Eastern

White Piner Western

White Pineo Black

Tupelo

Category D

o BigtoothAspen

. QuakingA q n p n

o WesternCedar

. Fuma

. BlackWil low

Ir

70

It

IITIIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIIItII

t

tI

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURE,D BOARDS

TYPES ()F PLYWOODThe basic design of a l l p lywoods is the same: a core coveredon both sides by layers of crossbanding and a face veneer. Themost common type has a veneer core. All softwood plywoodsare made th is way, and they are stable, warp-res is tant andinexpensive, Hardwood p lywoods can a lso be made wi th sol idlumber or par t ic leboard cores. The middle p ly of Iumber-core

plywood consists of several narrow strips of solid wood-usu-ally mahogany, poplar or basswood-edge-glued together.Particleboard-core plywood has a solid core of particleboard ormedium-density f iberboard. Lumber-core plywood holds nai lsand screws best and is preferable when addit ional strengthand f latness are required.

VENEER CORE

Dack veneer

TUMBER CORE

Lumper core

PARTICTEBOARD C()RE

Croaabande

TarDicleboard core Eack veneer

7 1

PLYWOOD GRADING

tl- h. wide array of plywood typesI available makes choosing the appro-

priate one for a project more involvedthan simply selecting a particular thick-ness. Both hardwood and softwood olv-wood panels are rated depending onhow they should be used and on theappearance of their face and backveneers. They are also available in oneof three grades, or durability ratingsdepending on the glues and veneersused in the construction of the oanels.Softwood plywood comes in eiteriorand interior grades, and a category calledExposure L

Exterior-grade and Exposure I ply-wood are usually made with a water-proof adhesive, creating weatherproofpanels that are resistant to moisture.

Their face and back veneers are cut froma relatively weather-resistant wood.Interior plywood is made with a water-resistant adhesive and is usually pro-duced with an appearance-grade faceveneer and a lesser-grade back veneer.For most interior applications, wood-workers generally choose Exposure I orinterior-grade panels.

The three hardwood ply,vood gradesare Types I, II and III. Type I includesfully waterproof exterior panels whileType II is an interior-grade plywood ableto withstand some moisture;Type III isa moisture-resistant interior plr.wood.Types II and III are your best choices formost cabinetmaking projects.

The appearance ofthe face and backveneers is another factor that distin-

guishes different plpvood types. Asshown in the chart opposite, both hard-wood and softwood panels are availablein six grades. Ifyou aie buying softwoodplywood you can determine its grade,plus additional information about a par-ticular sheet, by reading its grade stamp(below). Hardwood pliruood is general-ly not stamped; if you need a particulargrade, you have to ask for it and take thesuppliert word that you are getting whatyou want.

Plywood is manufactured in a rangeof sizes. Softwood plywood ranges inthickness ftomlE to 7a inch, while hard-wood ply,vood is available from ya toI inch thick. The standard panel size is4 by 8 feet, but special orders can beplaced for larger sheets.

IIItIIIItIItIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIII

DECIPHERING A SOFTW(|(ID PLYWOOD STAMP AND EDGEMARK

Reading a grade stamp and edgemarkMost grade stamps on softwood plywood,such as the one shown at lef t , contains ix bas ic e lements . In add i t ion to theAmerican Plywood Associat ion (APA)trademark, the stamp ident i f ies the mi l lthat produced the board and the productstandard publ icatron that contains thegrading rules. The hyphenated letters-in this case A-D-designate the gradesof the face and back veneers respective-ly. The durabi l i ty c lassi f icat ion may beeither exter ior, inter ior or Exposure 1,and the species group number indicatesthe woods that may have been used inthe manufacture of the panel. (See thechart on page 70.) In order to avoid mar-ring a plywood with two good faces-A-A

grade, for example-an edgemark, such asthe one shown at low-er left, is used. Paneledges sometimes car-ry color stripes to des-ignate the grade.

ExPosuR et-- 2'':f;::

. Gr1 . EXPOSURE1 . APA.0Q0. PS1-93

72

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

tIITIIIIIIIIIIIIIItItIIIII

tIIIII

PLYWOOD FACE VENEER GRADES

HARDWOOD PTYWOOD

Premium

Good

Sound

Uti l i ty

Back

Specialty

Face veneer with well-matched seamsand smooth; made of specific hard-wood, such as walnut or mahogany.Free of contrasts in color and grain

Face veneer simi lar to premium,but not as well matched. Free ofsharp contrasts in color and grain

Face veneer smooth, but not matchedfor color or grain; defects only on backveneer. General ly intended for paint ing

Veneers have rough grain and mayhave knotholes up to 3/d inch, as wellas some discoloration, staining andslight splits. Not matched for coloror grain

May have larger defects than utilitygrade, but none that impair panelstrength. Not matched for coloror grain

Made to order to meet specificrequirements, such as separate panelswith matching grain patterns

SOFTW(IOD PIYWOOD

C Plugged

D

Sanded smooth; can take a clearfinish; face veneer matched for grainand color, free of open defects

Sanded smooth; can take a naturalfinish, but is more often painted

Smooth and sanded; may haveminor sol i ts

Smooth; may have some broken grain,sanding defects and knotholes upto % inch

Sanded; simi lar to C grade, but knot-holes and sol i ts are smal ler

Used mainly for inner pl ies andback veneer; may have knot-holesup to 2% inches

llll lllt llll tlll llll lll fill lllt llll filt llll lll lll lllt llll iltl l1ll illt?HO? Tt?A plywood aarriereheele of plywood, particleboardor hardboard can beheavy andawkward No carry.The carrierehown here will make the loadeaeier No bear. RouL a |-inch-widerabbeL alon7 one face of a 12-inch-lonq board. Cut a nohch outrof one end of a piece of plywood,Nhen screw a wood block acroeethe end of Nhe nolch to serve aeahandle. ALIachLhe other endof fhe plywood piece No the rab-bebed face of Lhe board. Io uselhe carr ier, eimply hookit , underlhe lower edqe of the eheeN andVul l i t up under your arm.

73

CONCEALING PLYWOOD EDGE S

or all its advantages, plywood hasone major drawback for cabinet-

making: The multi-ply composition ofthe panels is clearlyvisible on their edgesand ends. Fortunatelv there are a num-ber of simple options for concealingthe unsightly plies. Pressure-sensitivewood-grain tape, for example, can bepressed in place by hand. Or, as shownbelow, self-adhesive edge banding canbe applied with an iron. Both productscome in several standard widths andwood species.

The illustration at right shows sev-eral more involved edge treatment alter-natives ideally suited to custom work.Wth the splined miter joint, for exam-ple, the mitered edges of two panels areglued together and reinforced with sol-id wood splines. The other methodsinvolve cutting strips of hardwoodbanding or molding and bonding themto the edges of the panel. The steps forapplying one of these types-tongue-and-groove edge molding-are shownon the following page.

SELF.ADHESIVE BANDING

EDGE TREATMENTS FOR PTYWOOD

Tongue-and-4rooveedqe moldinq

)olid woodedqe banding

Applying self-adhesive edge bandingSet a household i ron on High (withoutsteam) and allow it to heat up. Meanwhile,secure the panel on edge in a vise or withclamps, as shown, and cut a strip of band-ing sl ight ly longer than the edge to becovered. Set the banding adhesive-sidedown on the pane l edge. Ho ld ing theband ing in p lace w i th one hand, run theiron slowly along the panel edge, pressingthe tr im f lat . The heat of the i ron wi l l meltthe glue and bond the banding to the pan-el. Keep the iron moving; resting it on onespot for more than a few seconds will leavescorch marks. Flatten out the bandingby runn ing a smal l hand ro l le r back andforth along the length of the panel edge.Shave off any excess banding with a lami-nate trimmer (page 68).

IIIIIIIIrIIIIIItIIIIIIIIII

IIItII

74

VENEERS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

tItIIIItIIIItIIItI

IItII

tII

IIII

It

T()NGUE-AND-GROOVE EDGE MOLDING

rlll l]Il ]llr lrJ illr lil tlll l]ll llll ill uil tlll lllt illJ lllt ull illt ll]l5HO7 Tt?thop-madeedge bandingCutthin eNripe ofedqe bandinq froma board on Lhe Nableeaw. l./take the etriVo:,'ia l iqhNly lonqer thanLhe panel and aN leaelas wide ae trhe panel 'eLhickneee. 1ecure the paneluVriqht, in a viee, then aVply aLhin glue bead alonq i to edqe.Tlace the bandinq in Vlace and tape i tf i rmly at 2- inch inlervale.When the qlueio dry ehave off any exceo; banding wiI,ha laminate trrimmer (paqe 6B).

Making and apply ing the mold ingIns ta l l a comb ina t i on b lade on you rtable saw and make several passes tocut a groove one th i rd as th ick as thepanel . Next , you need to cut the match-ing tongue; it should be sawn in the edgeof a hardwood board the same thicknessas the pane l . Ad jus t t he b lade he igh tso that i t equals the amount of s tockremain ing on e i ther s ide of the groove.Cut the waste f rom one s ide of thetongue , t hen tu rn t he boa rd ove r andrepeat the procedure to complete thetongue; f in ish each pass wi th a pushsltck (above, left). Cut the piece of mold-ing f rom the board. F in ish the job bysecur ing the panel upr ight in a v ise andspreading some glue in the groove andon the tongue. Fit the two pieces togeth-er ( inset) and c lamp them in p lace wi ththree-way c lamps.

75

PARTICLEBOARD

ood composites such as particle-board and fiberboard are a pop-

ular choice for carcase backs, drawerbottoms and concealed oanels. Madefrom blends of wood particles and syn-thetic adhesive bonded together underin tense heat and pressure , compos i teboards are as strong and as durable asmost solid woods and generally lessexoensive. Thev are also more dimen-sronallv staDle.

Particleboard was first developed inthe 1930s as a way of recycl ing woodflakes. chios and sawdust dismissed assawmill wiste. Today, many mills focusmainly on particleboard production,processing softwood and medium-den-sity hardwoods into composite particlesrvith machines called drum flakers, chip-ners and hammer mi l ls.

Particleboard is manufactured by twomethods: extrusion and mat-formins.In the less corlmon extrusion pro..ri,wood particles and adhesives are forcedtogether through a small, thin openingto form panels. The grain orientation ofthe particles is perpendicular to the facesof the panels. With mat-forming, theparticles and adhesives are squeezedinto a mat in a press. With this method,the grain of the fibers is parallel to theoanel faces.

Mat-formed particleboard comes inthree confi gurations ( rigl t ). Single-layerparticleboard features wood particles ofuniform size and shape. Multi-layer par-ticleboard has coarser shavinss at thecore of the panel arrd finer orreis on theoutside surfaces. Graded-densitv parti-cleboard is similar to multi- laver oaiticle-board, but with a more gradual'charrgefrom coarse to fine particles. Standardpart ic leboard sheets are 4 by B feet,although 5-by-10 panels are available;thicknesses range from 7+ to 2 inches.

IItIttIIttIIIIItItItIII

tItIII

I

tI

TYPES OF MAT-FORMED PARTICLEB()ARD

Made from a mat of aimilarly etzed and evenlydistributed coar6e wood particleo

Featurea a core layer of coarae wood parDiclea retnforcedby two ouLer layere of fine, high-denetty particlee

G ra ded - d e n aity pa rti cleb o a rdCharacLertzed by a gradual transttton from coaree woodparbicleo at Lhe care to very ftne, htgh-denetLy wood par-ticlee on the outer eurfacee

FIBERBOARDtIIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIItIII

f, iberboard, or hardboard, is pressedI' into mats much like particleboard,but because the wood oarticles arereduced to individual fibers. the resultis a thin, hard and dense sheet withsmooth surfaces. Hardboard comes inthree grades: standard, tempered andservice. Tempered hardboard is harder,heavier and more water-resistant thanthe two other types. Thicknesses rangefrom 1Az to s/a inch. Another varietv.called medium-density fiberboard(MDF), features a fine surface texturewith faces and edges almost as workableas solid wood. MDF is available in thick-nesses from 1/+ to IV+ inch and can bebought with veneered surfaces.

WORKING CHARACTERISTICS OF MANUFAGTURED BOARDS

STAI{DARD HARDBOARD

HardboardMade of individual wood fibera; commonly uaed in furni|ureand cabinet work becauee of ite fine. amooth aurface

BOARD TYPEPlywood

Particleboard

Hardboard

Medium-densityfiberboard

WORKABITITY

Easy to work; fineface veneers needl i t t le sanding

Difficult to work;use of carbide tippedtools recommended;wear a dust maskwhen working

Edges easy to rout,shape or groove;sanding of facesnot requ i red . Useof carb ide t ippedtools recommended

Edges easy to rout,snape 0r groove;sanding of faces notrequired. Use of car-bide t ipped toolsrecommended

FASTENING

Face holds fastenerswell, but edges oftenspl i t . Bore pi lot holes;screw diameter shouldnot exceed one-quarterof panel thickness

Hold on fastenerspoor; bore pi lot holes.Use f in ish ing na i l s anddrywall screws

Face of tempered hard-board holds screws well.(other types not as well)Bore pilot holes and usesheet metal screws

Hold on nai ls excel lent;hold on screws poor

VENEERING

Softwood plywoodcan be veneered

Mult i - layer andgraded-density par-ticleboard excellentfor veneering

Tempered hard-board can beveneere0

Can be coveredwith thin veneer

Frl{tsHrl{GPremium and goodgrades of hardwoodplywood need little finish-ing; sound grade can bepainted; softwood ply-wood grades N and A canbe painted or f in ished

M u lti-layer particleboardaccepts most finishes;other types not suitablefor paint ing or f in ishing.

Accepts most finishes

Can be finished or painted

77

II

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

separate layers of lumber in a pile, allow-ing air circulation around the individ-

Irt

t

DRY]NGAI.{DSTOruNGWOOD

vY marenar:"uo'o,l:r'll!!firri' ,s.i-.:,,,'l

'"1?,1lo'inl",TffiYil'.!ffii**:?T:*::'"*.p-T*-Y E

--

ple, your joinery methods should allowfor wood movement. If thev do nor.p i e c e s o f f u r n i t u r e c a n l i t e r a l l y s e l f - _ ; - . f - - : . . - - . ^ v . 5 v r v v r ! u r r r \ v !Aao+q,n+ \^/ l^ i l^+L^^'- ' .r i^^+j^- ̂'^-.-^^r *

whitepine'air-dryingtoa l0to l2per-destruct' whi]e the.pnlication of a wood A resistance moisture meter like cent moisture level is sufficient f"#r,finish may slow dimensional change , the one shown above is a cylin- furniture projects. Whichever dryingnothingcan stop it. drical device with two pins ihot o* method y* .iroor., y*iun ur. u rp.-Freshly cut lumber, or green wood, pressed into a board. The meter cial meter like the one shown in the pirohas, a relatively high moisture content, measures electrical resistance, to above to measure moisture content.which for hardwoods can range from,60 which witl vary depending on the Apart from control over the wood,percent to 100 percent of the dry weight. amount of watei in the wood. the principal U.n.nt of atyinliun'b.,This chapter focuses on ways of reduc-

1 ̂ < in the shop is economic. The fewer oper-ing that to a level suitable for cabinetmaking, around 8 to l0 ations performed on 1 nl.ank Uefor"y"" U"y ii-ru.n u, ary-pelc:lt' depending on the climate.and species. ing and surfacing-thi less it costs. For large quantities ofunless youbuygreen wood with the intention ofdrying it luirber-say, t,060 board feet or more-theiavings can addyourself, your lumber is already either air-dried or kiln-'driid. up to hundreds of dollars.Air-dried wood. may.have up to 25 percent moisture con- Proper storage is as important as drying. Dried woodtent. Kiln-dried lumber has a lowei level, 6 to 8 percent. .*por.d to the eiements carire-absorb some of the moistureAlthough.kiln-dried wood is generally preferable for furni- that was extracted from it. There are several ways to ,ioi. r"ooa,turebuilding, some purists avoid it,contending tlalttrg process depending on the.kind gf G. you have and the wood yousubdues the natural colors of certain woods and, in thi short work withl-froq long pia-nlis-io short stock too pi..i*, to U.term, can induce internal stresses in the wood, making it consigned to the kindiing box. you can design y6ui o*n tun'-difficulttoresaw'

-L_--_-, r , r , berraik,usingth.o*rtlio*ninthischapteias'startingpoints,. Large industrial kilns house hundreds of ptafl15 at a time, or install a coirmercial lurnberruil. Iid;;;;;rlir.rn.n,but there are a number of.do-it-yourself models that are rela- to store wood, consider installing a dehirmidifiJr to rejuce thetively simple to built, including a small-scale solar-powered high relative humiditylevel.o.111on in such an area.

Kilns provide a fast and ffictive way of dryingwood to a moisture level appropriate for cabi-netmaking. Here, stacks of hardwood planksare loaded by forklift into an industrial kiln.

79

WATERANDWOOD

oisture changes in wood can causeproblerns for a piece of [urniture,

some merely annoying, others quite seri-ous. A freshly cut log can contain waterequal to twice its dry weight; made intoa oiece of furniture, it can turn stonediy. This capacity to hold differentamounts of moisture r,rnder differentconditions causes wood to swell andcontract. If this property is not consid-ered by the cabinetmaker, a drawer thatoDens smoothlv in the dead of wintercin swell and jam shut in the humidityof summer. A perfectly square carcasecabinet can pull itself apart as humiditylevels chanse from season to season.

The am6unt of water in a piece ofwood is often expressed as a percelrtageof its oven-dry or water-free weight.For example, i f a 50-pound block ofwood drops to 30 pounds after oven-

drying, the weight of the shed water-20pounds-divided by the wood's dryweight-30 pounds-is the rnoisturecontent of the originalpiece: in this case,66 oercent.

Wood holds rnoisture in two ways: asfree water in cell cavities and as boundwater in cellwalls. As wood dries, freewater is exoelled first. When this is alldischarged, the wood reaches what istermed its fiber saturation point (FSP).At this point, the cel lcavi t ies are empty,but the bound water remairts, Dermeat-ing the cel l wal ls. For most woods, theFSP occurs between 23 percent and 30percent moisture content depending onthe species, with 28 percent the average.The kev ooint to remember is that at thefiber saiuration ooint. there is no dimen-sional change in wood from its freshlycnt size. It simply weighs less. However,

tIItItIItIIItIIIIIIIIIIItI

III

I

II

How wet is wood? This f'e*lycut log of Eastent hemlock con-tains 1.5 gallons of water or sapConrpletely dry, the log wotldweigh one-haf ns rrruch ns itsgreen weight.

As the moisture content of a plain-sawnplank of 2-by-10 softwood lumber dropsbelow the f iber saturat ion point (FSP),the wood shrinks across the grain. At 17nercpnt the hoard is l,/a tnch narrowerthan i t was at i ts FSP. l t loses anotherr /q inch of width when k i ln-dr ied to an 8percent level . Shr inkage depends par t lyn n a c n o e i o c ' d a n c i t v . o o n p r : l l v d o n c p rv , , u J v v L , v J u v , , J , L J ,

woods shr ink and swel l more than l ighterones . Sapwood a l so t ends to changedimensions more quick ly than heartwood.

MoiaLure contentabove 30%(no chanqe)

Moiature contentaL F9?-26%(no change)

Moisture contentat 17%(1/+' ahrtnkaqe)

MoisLure content^ + l z o /

(3/a" ehrinkaqe)

MoieLure contenLat B%(1/z' ehrinka4e)

80

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

IIItItIIIIItIIIttIIIIIIIIIIIrI

tI

if the wood dries further, falling belowthe FSB it loses bound water from itscell walls. The cells shrink and so doesthe wood. As the illustration on page 80shows, the more bound water a boardloses the more it shrinks.

The only way to prevent wood fromshrinking is to treat it with a chemicalsuch as PEG-1400. (PEG is an abbrevi-ation ofpolyethylene glycol; 1400 is thechemical's molecular weight.) PEG- 1400diffirses into the wood and replaces thebound water, keeping the cell-walls ful-Iyswollen. The treatment is suitable onlyfor green wood, however, and is mostpopular for use with turning and carv-ing blocks.

Wood gains and loses moisture as therelative humidity in the air around itchanges. If the relative humidity rose to100 percent, a piece of wood would reach

its fiber saturation point and be at thesame size as when it was milled. If rela-tive humidity fell to 0 percent the wood'smoisture content would drop to 0 per-cent. Because relative humidity fallsbetween those extremes only a portionof the bound water is lost. Realisticallv,the moisture content range of most stockis 5 to 20 percent.

From season to season, the relativehumidity in a given location can vary 80percent or more. This is because relativehumidity and temperature are closelyintertwined. Warm air can hold moremoisture than cold air. As a result, whencold winter air is heated, as it is in homesand worlshops, its ability to hold mois-ture increases dramatically. Ifthere is noadded moisture available, the relativehumidity plummets to extremely lowlevels. In contrast, hot summer air can

hold a large amount of moisture. Butwhen cooled indoors, it can hold muchless. The result can be fairly high rela-tive humidity. Both extremes causechanges in the moisture level of woodand in its size.

You can take several precautions tocounteract the effects of changinghumidity levels. If you store lumbeiindoors, tryto keep the relative humid-ity fairly constant, using a dehumidier,for example, when ttre levels get too high.And although you may not be able tocontrol the environment where your fur-niture will end up, you should build thepiece to compensate for wood move-ment. When cutting a panel for a frame,for instance, leave a t/s-inchgap in thegrooves thatwillhouse thepanel. The extraspace will allow the panel to expand andcontract as humidity levels rise and fall.

Relating a wood's equilibrium moisturecontent to relative humidityWhether wood is in the form of a log,a ki ln-dr ied board or a f in ished oieceof furniture, its moisture content varieswith the relat ive humidi ty of the airaround i t . As humidi ty r ises, so doesthe wood's moisture content, expressedin percent in the graph shown at left.The moisture level of a piece of woodeventual ly reaches i ts equi l ibr iummoisture content (EMC) after the hum-idity stabilizes. The EMC also variesdepending on the temperature. Theband shown in the graph covers EMCvalues for most woods at 70 degreesFahrenheit . Those values decreasesl ight ly at higher temperatures andIncrease marginal ly with cool ing.

30s== 2 2

C'tJ

e 2 0o.E= l b

'=

=Elrt

6

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Relative Humidity in Atmosphere (%)

90 100

I

77

7

8 1

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

W(IOD SHRINKAGE

SHRINKAGE VATUES (lF DIFFERENT WOOD SPECIES

Finding dimensionally stable woodThe chart at right shows the typical amount of shrink-age of var ious species in both the tangent ial andradial directions when green wood is dried to zeromoisture content. (Values are shown in percent;a 10 percent value in the tangent ial column, forexamole, means that a 10-inch-wide board wouldshrink by that amouni to 9 inches wide.) Althoughtangential shrinkage exceeds radial contraction inevery case, no two species shrink by the sameamount. The average is 8 percent tangentially anc4 percent radial ly. The key column of the chart isthe third: The T/R ratio indicates the proportion oftangential to radial shrinkage. The lower the ratio,the less the differential between the two types ofshrinkage and the more stable the wood. Specieswith relatively low ratios, like mahogany (i.4) andteak (1.8), are less susceptible to warping thanwoods with higher ratios, such as beech (2.2).

Tangential and radial shrinkageLumber does not contract uniformly; as shown bythe dotted red lines in the illustration at left, tan-gential shrinkage-parallel to the growth rings-isabout twice the radial shr inkage, which occursacross the rings. This difference accounts for thewarping of boards and panels as wood expands andcontracts with fluctuations in moisture content.Shrinkage along the length of a board is usual lynegligible. A 2-by-i0 plank that shrinks r/z inch inwidth, for example, might lose less than %o inchalong its 8-foot length.

IIIItIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIttItII

II

SPECIES

Ash, White

Basswood, American

Beech, American

Butternut

Cata I pa

Cedar, Alaska yellow

Cedar, Western red

Cherry, black

Douglas-f ir

Elm, American

Hackberry

Hickory, shagbark

Holly, American

Madrone

Mahogany, Honduras

Maple, sugar

0ak, red

Oak, white

Persimmon

Pine, Eastern white

Pine, ponderosa

Sassafras

Sycamore, American

Teak

Walnut, black

Willow, black

TANGENTIAL (%)

7.8

9.3

1 1 . 9

6.4

4.9

6.0

5.0

7 . r7.8

9 .5

8.9

10 .5

9 .9

12 .4

5 . 1

9.9

8.6

10 .5

II.2

6 . 1

6 .2

8.4

4.0

t . 6

8.7

RADIAL (%) T/R RATIO

4.9

6 .6

5 .5

3 .4

2 .5

2.8

2 .4

3 .7

5.0

4.2

4 .8

7 .0

4.8

5.6

4.8

4.0

5.6

7 .9

2 . 7

3.9

4.0

5.0

z . t

5 .5

3.3

1 . 6

1 .4

2 .2

1 . 9

2.0

2 . I

2 . r1 . 9

1 . 6

2 . 5

1 . 9

1 . 5

2 . 1

z - z

1 . 4

2. r2 . r1 .9

1..4

2 .9

1 . 6

1 . 6

I . 7

1 .8

7 .4

2 .6

82

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

tItIIItIItIIIItIIIIIIItIIIIIItII

MEASURING THE MOISTURE CONTENT IN WOOD

ehould ideal ly :reach lhe ::middle of a -

board when .:takinq a read-inq,they LendNo be inade-

ill' lllf"llf lfil'1ll-fl1-lllf-lll'llf' III "lII fll-fll-fiI" ill llll "ffi lll5HO? Tt?Re a din g m oist ure a ontentin thick stockThe melal pins on commercial reeis-Iance-Iy?e moielure melero are lypi-cal ly abouL 1 inch long. 9ince Lhe pine

quate for s locklhat ie thicker lhan 2 inches.You canexNend Lhe reach of lhe pine by dr iv in7Iwo f iniohing nai lointo the wood unLi l Ihe Lipe reach the middle and Lheheads proNrude trom Ihe eurface. Then touch Lhe meLerpine Lo the nai l heads and t ake a readina.

Using a resistance-type moisture meterTo determine the moisture content ofyour stock, use a moisture meter. Setthe stock on a work surface and pushthe metal pins on the end of the meterinto the face of the board as far as theywi l l go. Twist the dial on top of the bar-rel unt i l the l ight turns on and take areading (above). Repeat at several pointsand average the results. Alternatively,crosscut the board 12 inches from eitherend and take a reading from the freshlycut end grain (photo, page 79). MosImeters are calibrated for wood at roomtemperature-about 68' F. Follow themanufacturer's instructions to adjustyour results if you are working in tem-peratures significantly above or belowthis level.

83

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

trII

sotAR KIU{The kiln shown below, with a roof andfront wall of tempered glass, providesa natural drying cycle. During the day,warmed by sunl ight, the wood dr ies;at night, the moisture in the wettercore of the stock migrates toward boardsurfaces, ensuring more even drying.

Bui ld the ki ln according to theamount of wood you plan to dry and thespace you have avai lable. l f you are

reusing glass paris, such as used patiodoors or storm windows, you may wishto base the size of the ki ln and i tsframing on the dimensions of the recy-cled material. The kiln shown belowand opposite is 5 feet wide, 16 feetlong and about 8 feet high.

Choose a sunny location for the kiln,then level the surface and spread grav-el over it. Lay concrete blocks at 2- to3-foot intervals as a foundation. then

build a base frame of pressure-treated4-by-4s on top of the blocks. The restof the framing and rafters are con-structed with 2-by-4 stock; the floor,walls and door are made of 3/+-inch

exterior-grade plywood.0nce the base frame is in place,

nai l the f loor on top of i t , then con-struct a stud wall frame for the frontof the ki ln. Cut the studs to lengthand nail a sole olate to their bottom

IIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIItIIII

FRONT VIEW

Top plate

Faecia board

Lumber aupport

Glaea atop

Concrete block

1ole plaLe

Baee frame

III

IIII

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

rtItIIItIIIIIIIIIItII

II

stDE vtEw

)tick

D'*

ends and a top plate at their top ends,Recess the front edges of the studsaboul Vt inch from the front edge ofthe plates to provide a ledge for theglass panels. Make the gap betweenthe center of the studs eoual to thewidth of the panels, spacing them nomore than 4 feet apart. Set the wallframe upright and nail the sole plateto the floor and base frame. Repeatthe orocedure to make and attach wallframes for the back and sides of thekiln, this time without offsetting thestuds from the plates. Cut the studsfor the side walls so that the roof willhave a 4- in -12 s lope (4 inches o f

rise for every 12 horizontal inches).Cut the roof rafters to allow a few

inches of overhang at the front andback, then nail the rafters to the topplates, spacing them to fit the glasspanels to be instal led on the roof.Tack fascia boards to both ends ofthe rafters, leaving a small lip abovethe top edges of the rafters to hold theroof panels. Cover the opening betweenthe fascia and the back wal l with a1-by-4 board as a soffit. 0n the frontof the ki ln. this soace should be lef tooen. Next nai l the wal ls to the out-side edges of the studs on the backand one side, instal l ing hinges and

haso locks on one side wall to convertit into a door.

To install the glass panels on theroof, set them on adjacent rafters,leaving ample space between the pan-els for screws. Then fasten down l-by-3 wood strips that overlap the edgesof the panels to hold them in place.To accommodate the glass panels inthe front wall of the kiln, cut notchesin the bottom edges of the rafters,then s l ide the pane ls up in to thenotch, resting the bottom of the pan-els on the sole plate ledge. Screw 1-by-3 wood blocks to the front edge ofthe sole plate to support the middleof each glass panel.

To keep the air in the ki ln circulat-ing, fasten a piece of plywood as abaffle to two adjacent studs on theback wall, leaving an opening betweenthe baffle and the top of the studs forair to enter. At floor level, construct aframe on the front of the baffle for anexhaust fan. The fan wi l l pul l warm airdown through the baffle and circulatei t through the ki ln. Instal l the switchfor the fan on the baffle, along with athermostat to start the fan when theair temoerature reaches 80"F and atimer to turn the fan off at night.

To keeo the lumber stack off thefloor, nail down 2-by-2 support piecesspaced about 16 inches apart . Pi lethe lumber as you would for air-drying,leaving adequate space between adja-cent boards and separating the layersof stock with 1-by-2 stickers.

lf you cannot supply electricity to theki ln, leave addit ional space betweenthe boards to ensure adequate air cir-culation. Drying of the wood may takeseveral months; use a moisture meter(page 83)to check on the lumber'smoisture content periodical ly.

I

II

85

ESTIMATING WOOD MOVEMENT

J J nles you plan to build all your fur-\-/ niture from manufactured boardssuch as particleboard and plywood, youshould expect the wood you work withto swell and shrink slightly. This shouldnot cause any problems as long as youcompensate for the change of dimen-sions when you build your piece.

A good first step is to measure themoisture content of the lumber (page83). Then determine how much thismoisture level will change as relativehumidity fluctuates in ttre location wherethe finished piece of furniture willbe placed (page 81). Finally, try to esti-mate the amount of wood movementthat will occur as a result of the wood'schanging moisture content. As a rule ofthumb, plain-sawn lumber will move0.04 inch per foot of width for every per-cent change in its moisture content. Thevalue for quartersawn wood is .025 inch.(The difference between the two gives agood indication of why cabinetmakerschoose quartersawn over plain-sawnlumber when they want to limit woodmovement.) If, for example, you useplain-sawn white pine with an equilib-rium moisture content of 12 percent insummer which dries to an EMC of 8percent in winter, you can count on asmuch as 0.16 inch ofmovement inwidthper foot between the two seasons.Changes in length are negligible enoughto be discounted.

A thin line of unfinished wood is a telhale sign of wood movement in thiscloseup photograph of part of a frame-and-panel door. After the finishwas applied, the humidity level in the room where the cabinet wasstored gradually dropped, causing the wood to contract. A similaramount of movement in a carcase construction might have threatenedthe piece's structural integrity. The frame-and-panel design, however,allows for wood's natural swelling and shrinking. The panelJloats insidea fixed frame with room for % inch of movement horizontally.

1HO? Tt?M akin 6 a m oiet"u r e in dia alo rKeep thio moiolure qauqe in your ehoV ae a reminder of therelationehip belween humidity and wood movemenl,To makethe qauqe,'cuN alen7bh of woodfrom Nhe end of aalued-uo oanel. orf L l

bond a tew woodblocke Noqelheredqe-to-edqe. Naila melal oointertoone end of lhie arm,then altachbhearm'e other endto

IIItIItIItItIItItIItIIIIII

ItII

tI

a piece of plywood. Drive a screw through the pivot, hole of rhepointer inlo lhe plywood eo lhat the poinler io parallel io Lheend of the arm. Leave the ecrew looee enouah to allow thepointer to pivof,. As Ihe relative humidity flitctuaVes and lhearm swells or shrinks,lhe poinber will ewivel to eilher side.

86

AIR.DRYINGWOODItIIItIIIIttIIIIIIIIIIIItI

IIIIIt

"l- h. illustrations on page 88 showI wo simple ways to stack green lum-

ber to ensure proper drying. As shownin the chart below, drying times varyfor different woods. To avoidconfusing different batches ofwood. mark the ends of eachboard with the species and thedate you stacked it. It is also agood idea to treat the ends oftheboards with an impervious coat-ing such as hot paraffin wax,varnish, diluted glue or a com-mercial end sealer. Otherwise,the ends of boards may drymore quickly than adjoiningsurfaces, causing checks to formin the wood. Ifyou are workingwith logs, coating their ends willincrease the amount of usablelumber the logs will yield by asmuch as 20 oercent.

Whateveithe size or locationof your drying stack, air mustcirculate evenly around all thesurfaces of the stock. This willensure that the surfaces oftheboards stay dry enough to pre-

vent fungi from causing blue stain. Itwill also help guarantee a minimalamount of warping of the boards.Placing stickers, or narrow strips of

Logs for carving can be stored in a pile one atop theother, provided their ends are not in contact. The endsshould be coated with a sealer, however, soon after thelogs are bucked to ensure even drying of the wood.

wood, between different layers of stockexposes the top and bottom surfaces ofthe boards to the same flow of air.

Lumber can be air-dried indoors oroutdoors, but for best results,you should start the process out-side or in an unheated buildinglike a barn or garage. In a heat-ed indoor location, wherehumidity is typically low andtemperatures are high, greenwood may dry too rapidly, whichpromotes checking. Outdoors,the lumber should be coveredwith a sheet of plywood toserve as protection from the ele-ments. As the wood dries, checkits moisture content periodical-ly with a meter, keeping notesfor future reference.

Wood destined for outdooruse need only be dried outside.For indoor furniture, the woodshould complete its dryinginside, preferably at a humidi-ty level similar to that in thelocation where the furniturewill eventually be used.

APPROXIMATE DRYING TIMES F(lR VARIOUS W(l(lDS

HARDWOODS

Ash, white

Basswood,American

Beech,American

Butternut

Cherry, black

Elm, gray

Hickory

Maple, sugar

Oak, red

Sycamore,American

Walnut, black

DAYS60-20040-150

70-200

60-20070-20050-15060-20050-20070-20030-150

70-200

s0nwo0DsDouglas-f ir

Hemlock

Pine,Eastern white

Pine, sugar

Redwood

Spruce, red

DAYS20-20060-20060-200

15-20060-36530-120

These charts indicate the drying time fora stack of 1-inch-thick green boards out-doors. The low end of the range for eachspecies is for lumber stacked in spring orsummer-prime drying weather. The highend is for lumber stacked in autumn orwinter. The f igures assume that the lum-ber i s d r ied in a reg ion w i th a c l imatesimi lar to that where the wood was cut.

87

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

TW() OPTIONS FOR AIR-DRYING LUMBER

To air-dry a large quantity of lumber, start your stack with two 4-by-4 supports equal in lengh to the boards to be dried (above).Rest the supports on concrete blocks. Then place 4-by-4 bolstersat 3-foot intervals across the supports. Begin stacking your lum-ber at right angles to the bolsters, leaving a space between eachpiece equal to the board thickness, Separate each layer with a 1-by-2 st icker as long as the width of the stack; cut the st ickersfrom dry heartwood. Thinner stickers will slow the drying time fordi f f icul t species l ike white oak. Al ign the st ickers with the bol-sters; if you are drying thin stock, place the bolsters and stickerscloser together to prevent the wood from warping. Cover the top

row of stickers with plywood, topped with a pair of concrete blocksto apply uniform pressure on the stack and protect it from rain.Stack smaller quantrties of lumber in support frames made fromfour pieces of 2-by-4 stock nailed together (below). Build a framefor each end of the stack and one for every 3 feet of boardlengh. The frames should be sl ight ly wider and higher than thestack. Arrange the boards as you would for a larger stack, sepa-rating each layer with stickers. Space the stickers at 18-inchintervals, al igning one with each frame and also center ing thembetween the frames. To keep the stack pressed down firmly, insertwedges tightly between the frames and the top row of stickers.

tttIIItItttIIIrIItIIIIIIItIIII

II

88

STORINGWOODIItItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIttIIIIIIt

'fil- ffi "ill' llf "'ul"'III".lll""lIl" lll* IIf1HO? TI?Storing woodto preaerve itsmoieture aonientl f you are in the middle of aproject and have No leave itrtor acouVle of weeke you may find Vroblemeonce you return, A change in humidity-asudden period of humid wealher, for example-may cauoetrhewoodto ewel l or shr ink.You caneolve the problem by etoring Lhe wood in a plaeticqarbaqe baq or in vinyl, oealing any loooe ende with trape.Wrapping Nhe board will keep Nhe moislure content of lhewood conelant, prevenlinq any dimenoional chanqee,

hether you wish to store lum-ber, manufactured boards, dow-

els or "shorts"-all those odd-sizedpieces you cannot afford to toss out-you should find a storage option tosuit your needs on the pages that fol-low. The dimensions provided in theillustrations are given strictly asguidelines. Each design can be adapt-ed to any situation.

The only design element you cannotskimp on is adequate support for therack. A dozen l0-foot-long planks of6l+white oak can weigh as much as 400pounds. Rack supports should be secureddirectly to wall studs or to the joists abovethe ceiling at no more than 40-inch inter-vals. In most homes with 16-inch on-center framing, this means tying intoeverv other stud or ioist. If the walls and

Commercial lumber racks are avail-able in various sizes and can be adjust-ed to dffirent heigh*. The type shown

can be screwed to a concrete wall orto wall studs. Four brackets will hold

more than one ton of lumber.

ceiling of your shop are finished, use astud finder to locate these framing mem-bers. Some racla,like the cantilever tlpeshown on page 91, may need footings,joist supports or both.

If space is at a premium in your work-shop, you need to consider the designand placement ofyour wood storage sys-tem carefully. The end-loading type of

rack used at most lumberyards is imprac-tical for storing long stock in most homeshops. You are far better offwith a front-loading system, which makes it easier toload up new material and to shift woodaround to find the particular plank youwant. Avoid using triangular-shapedbrackets to support lumber; they wastepreclous space.

89

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

A TRIO (lF TUMBER RACKS

IIIIIIIIIIIttIrtIIttIIIIIIIIIIII

Building a pipe storage rackThe storage rack illustrated at left featuresthree-piece vertical supports bolted to wallstuds. The supports buttress the steel pipes,which carry the lumber. You wi l l need onesupport at each end of the rack, with anadditional one every 32lo 48 inches alongthe wal l . Use 2-by-6 stock for the middlestrips of the supports and 2-by-4s for theside pieces; the steel pipes should be rough-ly 20 inches long with a 1 inch internaldiameter. Mark cutt ing l ines on the edgesof the middle str ips at each point whereyou want to locate a pipe bracket. Makesure all the brackets in the same horizon-tal row will be at the same height. Saw themiddle strips for the brackets, angling thecuts by about 3" above the horizontal sothe pipes wi l I t i l t u p sl ight ly (below) toprevent the lumber from sl iding off . Oncea l l the midd le s t r ips a re cu t , na i l on theside pieces, forming brackets with evenlyspaced notches for the pipe supports. Borepilot holes at 24-inch intervals into the wallstuds and drill clearance holes through thesupports for %-inch lag bolts. Secure thevertrcal brackets to the studs with bolts thatpenetrate 2 inches into the wal l , then sl ipthe pipes into their notches.

90

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

IItIIIIIIItIIIIIIllIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Making a cantilevered storage rackThe rack shown above and at r ight isanchored to the joists in the cei l ing tokeep i t f rom toppl ing forward. Mark l ineson your workshop floor directly under eachjoist. To provide a sturdy base for the posts,nail short lengths of 2-by-6 to the floor asfoot ings, centered on the marked l ines.Use 4-by-4s for the posts, then cut a joistanchor for each post and as many armsas you need from 2-by-6 stock. Angle thetop edge of the arms sl ight ly to t i l t thelumber in toward the wal l . Cut a mort iseat the top of each post for the joist anchors,and at every point along the post 's frontedge where you want to locate an arm.Make sure a l l the mor t i ses in the samehorizontal row are at the same height. Cuttenons at the ends of the joist anchorsand arms, then bore holes through theside of the posts for 3/q-inch dowels: twoholes for each arm and one for every joistanchor . Inser t the tenons and tao thedowels in place. Toe-nail the posts to thefoot ings. Bore clearance holes throughthe anchors and pi lot holes into the joistsfor carriage bolts, then secure the anchorsin position (above).

1 3 / + " x 5 1 / 2 " x

Arma1 3/+" x 51/2" x 20"

9 I

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

Fastening a lumber-and-plywood rack to an unfinished wallThe rack shown below, made entirely of 2-by-4 stock, is attached to exposedwall studs and ceiling joists. Lumber can be piled on the arms, while plywoodis stacked on edge against the support brackets. You will need at least 8% feetof free space at one end of the rack to be able to slide in plywood panels. Beginby cutting the triangular-shaped brackets and screwing them to the studs (nghf).Cut the footings, slip them under the brackets and nail them to the shop floor.Next, saw the uprights to length and toe-nail their ends to the footings and thejoists. Cut as many arms as you need, aligning the first row with the taperedend of the support brackets. Use carriage bolts to fasten the arms to the studsand uprights, making sure the arms in the same row are level. The rack in theillustration features arms soaced at 18-inch intervals.

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIrIIIIIIIrtIIIIIIIt

9upport bracket11 /2 "x31 /2 "x41 . / z '

Wall Etud

)ole plate

Footinq11 /2 "x31 /z "xB"

92

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

IItIItIttIItIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIrI

I

t

PLYWOOD RACKS

rlll lm illl llll iltl fill ull illt tlll I]t] lllt lllt fiIl llll I]l1 ilu llll illt5HO? TI?Holding plywood paneloa4ainet a wallTrevent plywood paneleetacked on edqe aqainela wall from fallinq overwiNh some rope and aVair of window eashweiqh|o.)eNtwo 20-inch-lonq 2-by-4e on thefloor in fronL of Ihe wall.Then ecrew lwo eyehooke into wal l ebude abouN41/z feet, above the floor. Cut, two7-foot lenqlho of rope, and Nie one endof eachNo ahook andthe oNher end lo aweiqht wrapVed in pipe insulat ion. eland Nhe Van-els on lhe 2-by-4o and lean them aqainoN the wal l .OraVe the weiqhlo over Nhe plywood to keep Ihem in Vlace.

Making a freestanding plywood rackThe rack shown above can hold ply-wood panels on edge without any wal lsupport. Cut the bases and legs from2-by-4 stock and nail the pieces toge-ther. To reinforce the rack, nai l t r ian-gular braces of t/z-inch plywood to theoutside legs and the bases; use sol idlumber braces to support the legs inthe middle row. To connect the threesets of legs, cut rails from 1-by-4s andnai l them in place: one halfway up thelegs and another at the top of the legs.Set up the rack where you can sl ip thepanels in and out end-f i rst .

Leq11 /2 "x31 /2 "x36 "

1 1 / 2 " x 3 1 / 2 " x 3 6 "

N

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

Building a vertical plywood rackFor long-term storage, stacking plywoodon end not only keeps the panels fromwarping; it also saves precious shop f loorspace. The rack shown at r ight is bui l tf rom furr ing str ips, threaded rods andwing nuts. Start by screwing two furringstr ips to the studs of one wal l , 2 and 5feet from the floor. Then screw two rods4t/z feel apart into the top strip. Cut athird furrrng strip and bore a hole throughit 2 inches from one end and saw a notchat an interval oI 4Vz feeI. Both openingsshould be sl ight ly larger than the diame-ter of the rods. Place two wood pads onthe floor between the rods and stack theplywood sheets upright on them. Placethe third furr ing str ip across the faceof the last panel, s l ipptng one rod throughthe hole and the other into the slot . Sl idewashers and wing nuts onto the rods andt ighten them, pul l ing the furr ing str iptightly against the plywood (inseD. f oremove a sheet from the stack, loosenthe wing nuts and swing the furr ing str ipdown and out of the wav.

IIIIIIIIIrIIIItItIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

illr llll lll llll lll lIl lll llll illl illl fill llll llll lllt llt llfl lllt ill]1HO? TI?Atemporaryplywood pallet,For ehorN-Nerm etoraqe .of a few eheeLe of ply'wood, make a pal leLfromfour ueed car Lires, Tlace a Lireat each corner of a 4-by-B-footarea; sNacklhe plywood sheels ontop.lhe Lires will keep Nhe eheetelevel and elevaled above anv moieLureon Ihe f loor. Do noN eLack anyLhinq on top of theeheeLe:Lhe addiLional weigh| may cau6e Nhem No bend.

Furrtnq etdp3 / + " x 2 1 / 2 " x 5 '

Wood pad3/+"x31/2"x12"

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

STORING DOWELS

tIIIIItIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Wrapping dowels with ropeDowels tend to rol l around when they are stored f lat . Stackingthem upright is a better al ternat ive, but then the problem is tokeep them from sl iding down or fal l ing over. 0ne answer is to loopthem togetherwith a lengh of rope, as shown at lef t . Dri l l a holeth rough a pa in t can jus t be low the r im and t ie one end o f therope to i t ; form a loop at the other end. Drive a column of nai ls,spaced a few inches apart , into a wal l stud a few feet above thecan. S tand the dowels in the can and loop the rope aroundthem tw ice . Pu l l the cord t igh t and hook the looped end onone o f the na i l s tha t a l lows the rope to hang tau t . Move theloop up or down as the size of the dowel bundle changes.

Storing dowels in the ceilingThe gaps between exposed joists in a shop ceiling are oftenconsidered wasted space, but you can make good use of themto hold dowels. Screw a couple of 1-by-3 furring strips acrossthe bottom of the joists and then rest the stock on top of strips.This method is part icular ly useful for long dowels, which canclutter a workshoo.

95

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

STORING SH()RT STOCK

Constructing a rack with a mobile baseSort ing through a jumbled wood pi le in acorner of the shop for a piece of shortstock of the right size can be frustrating.The rack shown at right stores short piecesaccording to size. The bottom section isa box with dividers, ideal for storing piecesof plywood; the box is made with %-inchplywood, whi le the dividers are t /q- inchplywood. The top sect ion, bui l t f rom %-inch plywood, consists of a back panel,t r iangular-shaped sides and r/q" plywoodshelves spaced according to the diameterof the containers you place between them.The rack shown features S-gal lon cansbelow the bottom shelf and plastic tubesof varying sizes on the other shelves. Keepshort stock in the cans and tubing. Cuttriangular cutouts near the top of the sidesto hold dowels flat. To make the rack mobile,fasten it to a shop-built dolly with casters(below). Cut a piece of plywood to thesame dimensions as the base of the rack,then screw corner blocks to one side. Attacha heavy-duty caster to each corner block.

tIItItIIIIIIIIrIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

96

DRYING AND STORING WOOD

ItIIIIIrItIIIIIIIIttIIItIIIIIIIt

Making a combinat ion workbenchand short-cut binIn a wo rkshop w i th l im i t ed space ,bu i l d a wo rk t ab le w i t h sho r t - cu ts to rage space unde rnea th , such asthe one shown at r ight . Cut 2-by-4sto l eng th f o r t he l egs ; suppo r t t hemwith 2-by-4 braces-one set nai leda few i nches above the f l oo r and asecond se t a t t ached f l ush w i th t hetop of the legs. Cut the top and twoshelves f rom 3/q" p lywood, then nai lt hem to t he b races . Saw no tchesou t o f t he co rne rs o f t he she l ves tof i t a round the l egs . Make d i v i de rsf rom r /q inch p lywood and at tacht h e m b e t w e e n t h e s h e l v e s u s i n gqua r te r - round mo ld ing s t r i ps na i l edin to t he she l ves .

Stacking stock between wall studsStore short stock between the studsof an un f in ished shop wa l l . To keepthe wood from fal l ing over, screwspring cl ips to the studs and insertdowels in to the c l ips to span thegaps between adjacent studs (/eftl.To stand shorter lengths of stockh igher up on the wa l l , cu t she lvesand support cleats from scrap wood.Screw the cleats to the studs andrest the shelves on top of them.

Front brace11 /z "x5 t /2 "x36 "

97

WOODDIRE,CTORY

. rees have formed a part of the Earth's landscape for morei',, than 300 nill ion vears- since before dinosaurs first

roamed the ulanet. in that time they have developed a rernark-able diversity of species, nurrbering tnole than i,000 varietiesin the United States alone. Tiees come in many sizes and shapes,fiorn the stunted spruces of northern Canada to the sublime,torvering stands of California's giant sequoias. Wood's diversiti'is also apparent in the wide array of colors and grain patternsavailable to the u'oodworker, from the bold vermiiion hue ofpadauk ancl the inlyblaci<ness of ebony to the intricate, swirlingdesigns of rvalnut burl.

The 78 species of wood shown in this directory were cho-sen n ith the needs and interests of the cabinetmaker foremostin rnind. The basic cabinetmaking woods are here-speciessuch as oak, pine, cherry and ash. But there are also a numberof less familiar exotic woods too, from afrormosia to ziricote.Some you may have only read about; others you may be see-ing for the first time. In either case, the photos and informa-tion may inspire you to nerv adventures in your upcomingwoodworking projects.

The directory is arranged alphabetically according to awood's most commonly used name. Sometimes a wood maybe known by several llames; to avoid confusion you may needto use the botanical name when buying a particular species("spp." indicates that the wood comes from several speciesbelonging to that genus). The woods in this chapter were pho-tographed with a clear lacquer finish to highlight their color andfigure. For this reason-and because of the inevitable varia-tions within species-the unfinished wood that you buy maylook somewhat different.

Hardwoods are indicated with an (H); softwoods with an (S).However, do not take the terms too literally. Some softwoodsare actuaily harder than some hardwoods. For more informa-tion on the differences between the two groups, see page 24.

The workability category gives information about the easeor difficulty of working rvith a particular wood. Some speciesmay be tough to plane unless you reduce the angle of the blade,while others may require you to pre-bore for nailing.

Rather than providing tr specific cost per boarcl fbot-rvhiclrcan fluctuate-for each rvood, price is listed on a re latit'e scale,from inexpensive to expensive. Usuallv, thc pricier tvoods arechosen for a specialpart of a piece of funtiturc. \btr nrishtselect a piece of cocobolo, for exalnple, to make a tlt 'atvt'r pull,or an inlay ofebony to add a decorative touch to a chail leg.

All the woods shown are commercial\'available in NorthAmerica; for species you cirnnot find iocally, check rvooc'l-ivorking magazines fbr nrail-order sources. Howeter, sourespecies are becoming increasingly rare, and a tbrv tropicalharcl-lvoods are in danger of extinction. Irade in matty'sPecics isseverely restricted, and for this reason, woodrvorliers oftetrmust seek alternatives to using traditional u,oods. Fortunatcll',there are many, and their number is growing. Some have longbeen available: pau ferro, for exampie, rvhich is strikingll'sirn-ilar to the costly, endangered Braziiian roservood. Others-so-called "good woods," grorvn and harr,ested with a vietv toconservation and sustainable growth-are recent arrivals inNorth America. These lesser-known species, imported pri-marily from Centrai and South America at present, or iginatcfrom sources that are monitored in order to be certifieci aswell-managed. Four of these woods are fbatLrred in this direc-tory:bayo, chactacote, chontaquiro amarillo and tornillo. (Youcan learn more about these woods and rvhere to buy themthrough the Woodrvorkers Alliance for Rainforest Protectioirin Coos Bay, Oregon; the Rainforest Alliance in Nerv York; orScientific Certification Systems in Oaldand, California.)

You maywant to avoid the problerns of scarcityby buildingyour projects with more plentiful woods or pl1nvood, thencovering them rvith a beautiful veneer. Another alternative isrec,vcled wood, scavenged from old buildings, shipping cratesor pallets. With effort and imagination you can transformmany workaday items into handsome pieces.

N)This symbol indicates a species thatis rare or endangered in at least one ofthe countries where it is harvested.

rI

I

I

tIIrI

I

I

I

I

tIIIIIIIIIII

E

\\roo I) I )t I{E(.TOl{\ '

Tffi

mnUTI

TTttI

ttI

I

I

ttI

I

I

I

I

I

I

,., trl{o{tNioslAt - i

i o lan ica l Narne: I

lo t l . t :r loc',F.t:d qrain: moder'ovtn, c)arKart -"o a r ich qci)aen

boa* ' b t l C nq . caD i -

a ! ) t taaz Va l \ \ \ le1)

It

n

, o o

AGBA( H )gOtaniCal Naff ie: i , r1r , , r , " , , . , r . i i i ' r i l ' , . i r : r t , i r ' . ,11 i - j r : ; t i r t , i . r t r i r ,

11:3 9i i : . i1 i1;2 'b j iq(a.a. f .y '1:1.2. . , ' ] . . . : t1 r l r i r , , , , i ia i I t r r , I I

O i l 2 l ) , e t : t , . aO , l a i t , L . n . . ) 6 t , t t . : : , . ) ) ' . , : f i r . r ' r ' ; : i r t i : . : . .

, : : , l r ac r , t t , e , Au ra i e a t J : i q i t l ' , , ' t e r , , l . t . . i : , r ' - ' ! r a i . r , . ' ' : ' . , . r L

,- , ,mrr ican f f ia lcqea. i ar , ) | :a: ' , i f : r [ ] r 'a , : i inr . r ' r . . ' r -n - .1

| r : , , , r . ' . '=- , , re lq i . l , , . a.ca: t ,ora 0 aa.a:a a)?\ i L 'a: a: i . ; f . r i | i ! ' r r i i : . : ' iqt:ir1a|\t. fna<ilq ii aaaa.ta.)2t',1 i.a :)t:- a-.i.)i:i-::r r,' .-,| i"' ,vaen oe:ecLtr 'q +"h;,: t t ,mber.Other Names: I o:a 17 ;; i r t i t i : : t : . t i t ; . ,r : : ' . :1,. i , . , , i . . : i -rr, i| / ' , ,nqc a): l l iaeriar, r ; : l ; :r Ll l . i . . . l ; ni l i2 I . i - . . ; , ; . .4; t ; "r i . . . . ,r . : i r . , i

rn antb c r: ( I't iler:: ).?ource: Troptca \t" ieel , l t i r ca.Characteriet ice: 5tr ai4it t ia a ) r"r. a' ,nt l t ; , ' , ' . , 1 i 1; ; i . f i :1'1:1qratn:moderat.ei,1 f inei.a' t t , t .)ra: trr:r : . j \ ' , t i . -r , , ,N.,r1'1.1' l . . . : ia V tn l . l : tL .Uaes: i-:Lrniltre., lL)raiaq, ? :lrooa, l;it:i: I; : l.:lil'rrl. rr :r l.rl f rlr.pare tnr4 and occaairlna '! ror \t',ttrt-.r:t'::.

Workab i l i t y : Oenera l l , l r ,e ry doo) : : : t iq ' r ' , | | L r r t r r . , r l l ial .1l ' ,er5', lo 'n Denitna pro2erlter,: aJft l t ' , !{ , 'arar..J i t tr !aarae aeN bladea L.o bntr. t .Finiehing: l \c,: ;eg-'"z f intel. ,ee we.i , l tr l tet i t t : t1.Weight: 32 1v.lc '1. f-v.?rice: l,/oderaf,e.

\A/OOI) DIITECTORY

I

I

ALDER, RED(H )bolanical Name: ,r',iiti's rtibra?..ea a der ie eao'1 -,a cfv o.a iL LakeE f iniehee very we)|,ee2ec ia y i f a , t ,aeh coeL o l r .a tnn .d eAe ac ie apV iedbe iore a ia in inq . Th ie v tcod can be o f e iqn i f i canL va lae in\, taca\Narki.q. despir-,e i te re atr ively nodeel repuT,ation.z-vert aelective alder eAcald noL be geqqed lor l i rewood.)e fecLz . a lc i ae bude and e la ins , can prod tce beat f i 'f t , ig.n"rru.

Other Names:\" leer"ern a1der, areqon a der.9ource; Tacfic CoaeL of Nor"th Anter ' tca.Ch a r a cle r i et i c e : G e n e r ai l y eLr ai qht ' qr ai n ; f i n e, ev e nlexlt iret paie ye:iovt Lo readieh-brown.U e es: I ur nin,2, f ' , - t r niLu r e. c arvin q, plyw o o d an d v en e er e.Workabil i ty: Generaly qood: reduce blade anqle whenp)an rrq Lo prevenl LearouL: only ol iqht bluntinq of cuL'r er-. . 'ot b.r d r q ?-o?e-! e4.Fini shin g: l ,c c epLe f i nieh ee vt el l ,WeighhSS b , lca . t r . .?rice: lnexgeneive.

-

100

AMBURANA( H )6ot anical Namer Lm b u ra n a c. a r. n. i i .KelaLt ' tely alranqfcr tLe v,te qf,. amo,Lrarta :s a qr:: : : t)cho tce fo r lo inery . lLe i r requ la r a ranE. raye 2rc l toeaLLrac l i ve venee(a . ToanA mai r ' y : r - , "he - r ra t )aa , c r ' , \reqione of SouLh An:enca. the Nreee ciLer' , .otver' : . t :1aa fee t . Ihe v tood can p ta te L ie eeneee wt l l : an ca , : ro f v a n i J a .Other Namea Cerejeira, .uff iare. cumart. rajada(3raz i ) : rob le de l pa te . Va lo l rebo ( ,Ar4ent ina l ' .

i e h p i n E o ( 7 e r u ) .9ources: Cenlra and SauLh /tmer' tca.Characterisl ice: lnteriockec and irreqt)ar qrain: rqettt r ,ta coaroe -vexture: ye)iow *vo pale brown w)Ll a eJb::, e:oranqe r. inr., darkeninq ei iqhLly v' t i" ,h ex2ceure.Uses: FurniLure. joinery, boal but dinq ani var,aero.Workabil i ty: GooA; aul la cult i .q edqeo nod,erately.reduce cuLL inq anq le o f b lade when p lan in4 i r re4 t la rqrain; ?re-bore for nai l inq: moderaLe bendinq progert ' iee.Finiohing: t ' ,ccepte ftniehee well when i i )ed..Weight 37 \b. lcu. f t .?r icet Moderale.

I

I

tI

:

I

I

I

I

I

tIIIttI

I

I

I

I

rtII

tI

tI

tII

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

ASH, BLACK( H )bolanical Name: Fraxtnue ntqraOiLen k.nown aa ewall? ar waLer a",h, black aeh qrov'temainiy tn lhe wellande of eaeNern l ' )orth America. Ae+,.1e solLeat y',merican aeh, it, te more ik.e1y Lo be loundin in te r io r 1o nerg and cabtneLwork than in eporLe equ ip-menL, where v , rh t t ,e aoh io common)y used. l t a leo hae aeiqni l tcan"v hieLory ae a weavinq wood for many Lygee olbae l .eLe.31ack ash 'a raLary cJ t and e l i ced veneerz a rehiqhry decoraLive and much oouqhtr af ler.Other Namee; 3r own aeh, hoog aoh, ow amp aeh, w aLer' - ' . ' o - ? e ' n b r o n n a o \ .1ources: l ,) .3.4,. and Canada.Characterist ics: 1LraiqhL qrain: coaree, even text ure:dark, qrayieh brown.Uees: )oinery, cabiner.work, glywood and, veneere.Workabil i ty: General ly qood; blun|e cultero moderaNely:. , ce l e r bead i "q 2 -o2er t iee .F in ish ing : Accepte f in iahes we1 l .tNeight:35 lb./cu. fL.?rice: lnexpeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

-

1 0 1

_t_

II

ASH, WHITE,( H )9otanical Name: Fraxinue amencanaV' lh i te aeh can be cono idered Lhe a l - f ,mer ican Je ie t rcwood. SLronq and very ehock-reaielanf, i t . le ueed Lomake oare, pool cuee and baaeba I bala. l t ie a eo Lhewood of choice for qarden-I.ool handles, aeed exten"t ive yin boaLbu i ld inq and, cu t inLo decora t iveveneer6 . t o fLenhae a hiqhly varieqated hearfwood, k.nown a., ol ive a""hor ca )co aon.Other Nameei A\rnerican whiLe aah, Canadian ael .Amer ican aeh,Souraes: Canada and U.3.A.Charact eriel icat 3lr ai qhL qr ain; co a ra e LexLur e: l iqh-v-brown hearLwood wilh almoeL white eapwood.Usea Saeeball bats, pool cuee, oare, f ,ool hand ee, boat.b u i l d , in q , f u rn iXur e an d v en e e r e .W o rkability : 3 aLi of a cLo ry : m o d, e r aLe b) u nti n q of c ut -

Lero: excel lenl bendinq properLieo; pre-bore for nai l inT.Weight: 42lb./cu. f t .Trice: Inexpeneive.

AVODIRE, N(H )9otanical Name: Tu rrea nLh ue afr t ca n uaConsidered t 's be one of Lhe world's beoL quality bloniwooda, avodird rarely ie available in lar7e quant"iLiee. II;normally cameg to North America ae veneer, which poe-oeoeee an aLi.racLive molLled oall,ern.LhaI ie ueed infine cabinef,makinq and, V anelinlq.Olher Names: African satinwood. African whitemahogany, apeya (Ghana): apaya (Niqeria): enqan(Cameroon); lueamba (Zaire): aqbe (lvory Coael): eeu(Conqo): African furniLure wood, olon,)ourcea W eeI and Equat orial Africa.Characterialica: LighL, elronq wood; mainly ebraighLgrain buL can be wavy or inLerlocked: medium lo fine Nex-t"ure; qolden yellow.Uges: Cabinetwork, veneere, marquetry and plywood,.Workabilityt Fair: increaae blade angle when Vlaninq aeintrerlocked qrain lende to cause Learout; Voor bendingp rop erri eo'. pre-b ore I o r n ail inq.Fin iohing: O ener a l ly qo o d.Weight :36lb. lcu. f r .Tricet Exoeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

-

102 .

BALSA(H)9otaniaal Name: O ch ro m a py ra m t d a l eSalea hae the ltghLeoL weiqht of any commercially ueedhardwood,.Thie properLy has made iL a key inqredient.of life rafLs and a wide variely of eafeLy and buoyancydevicea ainceWorld,War l l. ln facL,the word balsa meanerafLin Spanish. A,lthouqh iria diff icullto dry, once iL aoeoit ie a relalively elable and sLronq wood for iLe weighL.Oiher Names: Guano (Tuerlo Kico,I 'ondurae): lanero(Cub a) : p o l ak (3 e l ize, Ni c ar a qu a) ' , No p a (? e r u) : I ami(Solivia).?ources: Weer" lndiee, Central America, Lroeical 7ouLhAmerica (Ecuadoi.Charaal,erieticaz 7traiqht, qrain: fine, velv ety t exture:white Lo oaf,mealbrown wiLh a pinkieh tint.Ueea: \/todelmakinq,toye, water e?orte equipment andNheaf,rical proos,Workabilityt ExXremely qood, Vrovided bladee are keptvery eharV: wil l not bend without bucklinq: l i tt le blunlinqof culNers.Finiehing: Accepte finiehea well: absorbs a qreaL quan-Nity of f iniohing malerial.Weight t 6-16 lb.lcr'. fL.Tricet Moderahe.

trI

ItI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

rIIIIrI

II

IIIII

I

I

I

I

rIIIIIItI

I

I

tIItIIIII

BASSWOOD(H )9olanical Namet Ttlia amencanaLiqhrweiqht and eaoy to work,basewood hae been con-eidered one of the world,'e foremoeN carvinq wood,e forcenNur iee. lL can be ehaped to remarkably f ine dela i l . l Iie odor-free and hae been used, exLeneively for d,omesLtcqood,e euch ae kiLchen ulensilo andfood conf,ainere.Saeewool, ie coneiAered uneutLable for ouLd,oor d,uLybec au"e i1 6e21116o poorly.Olher Namea. A,merican l inden, l inn, l ime f,ree: Americanl i r re (U.K.) .5ourcea Eaetern Canada and U.9.4.Characberistics: Straiqhx qrain: f ine lerturei creamywhite darkeninq lo creamy brown.Ueea: Turninq, carvinq, ?attern making, toyo, piano keya,match eplinto, boxeo and, cratee.W orkabilityt V ery qoo d: blunf,s cutLero eliqht ly; p o orbendinq proVerDiee,Finiohing: Generally qood wiLh all f inishee.Weight t 26\b. /cu. fL.?rice: lnexpeneive (eliqhl;ly htqher f or thick 12/+ and 16/+ kiln-dried carvinq efock).

WOOD DIRECTORY

l_

tI

103

BAYO(H)9olanical Name: Aepido eperma c rue nLu mA wondertd, eaey-workinq Limber, bayo te a "lesoer-

known epeciee" hardwood Lhaf, iE ofLen available in larqesizes and, someLimee cul inlo veneere. Noi orly aL|rac-tive, bayo io aloo very decay-reliotant.5ouraes: 3 o ubh e aot Mexico, fr elize, I ondur as.Charaaterislicot Slraight lo eliqhlly interlockinq qrain',medium Lo fine LexLure: heartwood'. brownieh pink; eap-waod: cream wiNh a Vinkioh blueh throughouL.Usea Cabinebwork, Lurninq, framinq, furniLure and, deco-raLive veneere.Workability: Generally qood: doee noL Lake nailE well:good, bending properLiee.Finiohing: AccepLo finiohee well.Weighu 37-46lb./cu. ft.?ricet Moderate.

BEECH, AMERICAN(H )Ootanical Namer Faqua qrandifoltaleavy, hard and eLronq, American beech ie uaed foreverythinq from floorinq Lo woodenware. Althouqh con-eidered leos allracLive than European beech, Americanbeech hae 2rominentr raye and v io ib le t iny poree, l t iahiqhly fiqured when quarlereawn.Other Name:1eech.5ourceq Eaetern U.3.A. and Canada.Characteristicot Straiqht qrain: f ine, even Lexture;reddieh brown Lo liqhl brown hearLwood witrh almoelwhiLe eapwood.Ueee: 7enlwood furniNure, turninq, handlee andcabineLmakin4.Workabilifyt Satief actory: qood wif,h moettoole bu|may burn when croescut or dri l led: may bind on aawe:exc ellenL turninq wo od; excellenl b en d,in q pr op erLi ee.,hiqh ohrinkaqe makes iL unelable in use,Finiohing: AccepLe finiahee well.Weight :46lb. lcu. fL.?ricet Moderate.

WOOD DIRECTORY

rr

:104

BIRCH, PAPER(H )Dolanical Namet DeLula papyrifera7 aper birch io a Louqh, heavy wood, a)Lhouqh iI. ie eolLerLhan olher birches. lIe bark wae uaed by lr)ative Americaneto faahion wigwame and canoee eo thaL many peop)eeLil l refer Lo it ae "canoe birch." The wood poeeeeeea anatLracLive figure, and, ie aometimee eliced into decora-T,tve veneere.Other Namea WhiLe blrch. eweeL btrch. American birch.5ouraesz Canada, U.A.A.Charaaterietica: SLraiqht grain; f ine t exture: wide,creamy while eapwood: pale-brown hearLwood.U e eet I ur ni n q f o r d, o m e eIi c ule n sil a, d ow el e, Lo othpi cke,eVoolo, bobbine, hooVo and, toye, plywood and decoraf,iveveneerg.Workability: Generally qood; moderate dullinq ofcutfere: unueual curly qrairt may pick. up in planinq; oat-ief acNory b en din q p rop erLi ee.Finiehinq Accepte finiehes well.WeighV 39 lb./cu. fr.Trice: lnexpenoive.

ttI

tI

I

tI

tI

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

tIIIIIIIIt

tI

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItIIIIIl

t

WOOD DIRECTORY

BOCOTE,(H )9otanical Name: Cordta aop.A beautiful eubstiLuLe for roeewood. bocote ie one ofLhe many Lypee of cordia-a qroup of hardwoode foundLhrouqhout lhe West lndieo, LroVical America, Africaand Aaia. frocotre'e LexLure ie similar No teak-althoughit, ie eomewhaL harder-and iXe wild fiqure pal\ernoproduce eNunninq cabineLwork.fhe wood ie available onlyin smal l s izes.Other Namet Cordia.Souraes: Mexico, Selize, I 'ondur as.Charact erielica; 1traiqht, grain: moderat ely coareeLexLure; qreen Lo qolden yellow wiLh black fiqure paLterne.Usea Furnif,ure, cabineLe, int erior joinery, turninq anddecorative veneerg.WorkabiliNy: Generally qood; blunto cu|tinq edqesoliqhLly; qoo d b en ding prop erLieo.Finiohing: Accep|o finiehes well.Weighh 4b lb./cu.fL.Triaet Expeneive.

BUBINGA N(H )1otanical name: Guibourtia eoo.A rosewood eubetibut e, bubinqa'o loqe oflen weighmore than 10 tons:they can be cut into exlremely wideVlanke. Kevazinqo, a veneer peeled from irreqularlyqrained loqe, Voeeeooee a wild,,f lame-like fiqure that ioe op ul ar f o r c abin et w ork.Olher Namee: African roeewood, eseinqanq, kevazinqo\r otary - cut v eneer only).Souraee,Equatorial Alrica (Cameroon, Gabon and 7_aire).Charaat,eriatiasz V ery denee; fine grain: purplieh pinklo ealmon red,wiLh dark Vurple veining. QuarLereawnboarde ofLen ehow very atlracf,ive black motlle fiqure,U eeet T u rni n q, f ur nit ur e, c abin et w o rk a n d v en e er e.Workabilityz Generally qood: irregular grain Nendeto tear when hand-planed: pre-bore for nail inq.Finiahin1 Excellent.Weight:55 lb./cu. fr,,?ricez Expeneive.

( H )bolanical Name: Jt.rqlane ctnereai , m:rrtber of "vl e 'ua rtaL f amily. br.f t fernf i haa aeeumeda r.) . tc.: of l tono; ae lhe vtr:od olLen ciosen lor cAurcAeli .ar.r ' . fhie lree tr ' l rea"' tred for more LAan i-"e wood:' . '1.

?a... .a.6 a r ich. dei ic aro nJ-, ane ?roduceaa aag -vltat e used, t o mal.e a eweeL eyruV simi ar1.., me? . t ' ! rn?.Other Namee: V.lhf ie vtalnuL, oi nt, t i .1 o u r c e e : a + o d ' . 0 . 1 . t - .Characleriet ica: Straiqlt qratn; eofl but coaree lex-I . ' . - e , m a ' l b ' o * r .Ueea: 7lrnir. l re. inl ,etor Lr ' tm on boate, int erior jo nery.aaf"/ n4. venaafa.Workabil i tyt General ly qood: becauee wood ie eofL, i tie imgorLantto keep ct)t tera eharg: wi l l fuzz uV whenaanded; gocr bend in7 progerL iee .Finishingz Accepl,e f iniehee very well .Weight 2b lb. lc ' , t . f l .Price: ModeraLe.

\,\rOOl) t) I ll.HCTC)ItY

106

( H )6ot anical Name: C aLa I pa a pt: c r t: t a/,, co7r, at.lracltve vtor:d. oaLal2a t:' a l,n,': aatit',e-;",'rt:r:,:ia a ey ta rvo rk with a v t avy I qt;r e. I I t e't't,:: o rj i a i a eLi't.:: J\'inerpertei, , ,e. btL olLen di+Jict t to l ini ctcal y. Le c:ptnqrain and exceear' ie aaflnea'a f ial .e t l L)1a.t- iar a lorfr. trni lure Lhal wtl l raae:e aeaq ' .pe. F.r:ai '" lanl r.r ,decay, iL ie tdea for r: t ldor:r oar\ ' f lQi.Other Namee: Catawba. a qe- ; rce . nd ian- l t .an . t r : rL r t 'e rn caLe l?a .5ourcet 1-).3./ : .Ch a r a cleri sti c s : G e n e r a|ly L) a ev e., w a,"" 1 qr ai n : m e di t mcaarae, even LetLrr. i I igl : f tan wii ,h a 2ro':ninent darl .er 'qrowil t nnq f iqure.Ueee: Cab ine lmaktnq . L t rn inq , p i r :L t re i remee and qen 'e ra l o rnamenla uaea.Workability Generally very qcod: may fray til'ten crr:ee'c t t : du l le cuLters on ly e l iqh t ly .Finiohingz t ' ,cce2Lo f iniahee vtel .W eight: 2b-32 lb. I cu. tL.?ricez Inexpenaive to moderale.

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

ttII

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

r

II

i : IItI

-

BUTTERNUT CATALPA

IIIII

ttI

I

I

tIItIIIIIIIIIIIIItI

WOOD DIRECTORY

CEDAR, ALASKA YELLOW(e)b otanical Name; C h a m a ecy p a ri e n ooLkaLe n e t eA'taeka yellow ced,ar ie etable and remarLably reeisLanlto aecay, Like moet, members of the cedar f amily, iI haea dJeLincLive odor that, f adee ae Ihe wood a4eo.Thiewood ia not, abundantly available. The Ireee qrow tro 60lo ba feel; in heiqht in Lhe forest,e of Lhe ?acific norLh-weef,, an) if, can take up tu ZaO yeare for them to reachmarketable eize.Olher Names:Yellow cedar, ?acific CoasLyellow cedar,nooLka falee cypreoe, yellow cy?re6e.Source: Tacific CoasL of Norfh America.Characterisliae; SLraiqht, qratn; fine Lerture; pale yellow.Uses: Furnilure, joinery. boat build,inq and veneers.Workabilityt Very qood: low dulling of cutLere.Finiehinq: Accepte finishee well.Weight:31 lb./cu. ft.Tricet Moderale.

II rr i

CEDAR, AROMATIC/ .q\

Ootanical Name: J uniperue virqinianaLike mosL ol,her Lreee known ae "cedar," aromaLic cedarie nol boLanically a "cedar" at, all. ln f acr., the Lree fromwhich thie softwood comee ie a iuniper. 7uL Ihe timberconNaine cedar oil and qivee offihefamiliar"cedai' ecenlthat, is eaid to reVel moLhe.fheae two characleriettcaare f,he reaeon why Lhe wood is frequently used Io l inecloeef,s and chesLe.Other Namee: Ked cedar, eaeLern red cedar,fenneeeeered cedar, juniper,Sourcea Canada and eaEtern U.9.A.Characterielicsz 7Lr aiqht, qr ain; fine texLurei reddieh-b r ow ni b o a r d e ofLen h av e kn oLe an d b a rk i n cl u ai o n e,Uaeo: Cawing,lininqo of cloeeLe and cheete, veneeroand pencile.Workabilityt Generally good, but briXtle: may break orchip when dril led,; may eplit in nail inq.Finishin7: Acceple finiehes well, except, for Lurpenline-baoed Vroducf,e,Weightt SO lb./cu. fL.?rice: lnexpensive.

;iiF't':,\.1' 1 .

' . '.. ' '

'f

: l l

CEDAR, WESTERN RE,D(e)botanical Name: Thuja plicataA qrand-eized Lree, weet ern red, ced,ar can qrow Lo ff iorexhan 15O feet in heiqhL. lL ia one o l the l tqhteel andmosL durable eofLwoode, makinq it ideal for ouLdooruoe. lte dielinct qrowLh nng li4ure and, alLraclive coloraleo qive iI eiqnificant, value for panelinq and, veneer.Eepecially knolty pieceo are eold ae "knotty cedar." Thieepeciee ie elow lo reqeneraLe;if currenNheavy levele ofconeumpf,ion do noL abat e, weelern red cedar couldbecome a rare wood in Lhe 21el Century,Other Namea Gianl arborviLae (U.3,A.); red, ced,ar(C an a d a): 9 ribi eh C olumbi a r e d, c e d, ar (U.K.) ; c an o e- c e d a r.1ourceet Canada, l.e.A.Characterietice: Straiqhf, qraini co aree lexLure.Ueesz Outd,oor furniture, boat buildinq, exLerior millwork.Workabilityz Generally qood: keep culLero aharp.Finiehinq AccepLe finiehee well.Weiqht:23 lb.lcu. ft.?rice: ModeraLe.

WOOD DIRECTORY

i

i 108

III

CEDAR, WHITE/41

B olanical Name: Th uj a o cc t d e nta li eWhtte cedar ie oooular in NorDh America for i f ,e reeia'Lance lo decay. l t is of l .en ueed far canoea, ehinqleeand o ther exLer io r app l i ca t ione.Whi le no l eepec ia l l yetronq, the wood ie eaey Lo work and is well auitedLo out door d,ecoraLive objecle. Smal er Lreee are ueedfor po lee and poete .Thewood ie ee ldomf iqured and,almo1T, never ubea a9 veneer.Other Names: Arbowilae, eaglern whiLe cedar,ewamp cedar.Sourcea Canad,a and, U.3.4.CharaaNerielicez Stratqh| 7rain: even terLure; liqhtbrown hearlwood; eapwood ie white; many knol,ecommonly ?reoent,.Ueea; 7oai, bui ldinq, poele and d,ecoraLtve fencinq.Workability.. Good.Finiohinq Accepte f iniehee well .Weight;23 lb. lcu, f t .Tricet lnexpenoive.

IIrIIIttIIItIIIIIItIIIIIr

II

II

IIIIrtIIIIIItIIIIIIIIIIII

II

WOOD DIRECTORY

CHACTACOTE( H )9otanical Name: 9ickinqia ealvadoreneieChacLacote, a hardwood lrom wellmanaqed eourcee,qrowo in lheYucatan and Ch iapa io req iono o f eouth-eaef,ern Mextco and Selize. Seau|i ful and eaoy f,a work,iL ie a wood, of inlenee color and olLen poeeeeeee a qor-qeoue f lame f i7ure . lL ie recommend,ed Lo uee a f in iehwiLh ulLravioleL ray proLecLanN, since iLe incredible huefadee wiNh ex?o6ure lo f ,he eun.Other Namea Chacahuante; Kedwood (Selize\9 ources: 9 out\ e aar, M ex' co, 3 el ize.Charaaterist iae: F air ly irreqular qrain; f ine LexNure:hearLwood,: bri l l lanl cr imson red; eapwood: crearn,Ueeq FurniLure, cabinelwork and Lurninq.Workabil i tyzVery good,Finiehinry Accepf,e f iniehes well .W eight: 40 -45 lb./ cu. tt.?riaet Mod,eraLe.

CHERRY, BLACK(H )Ootanical namet Frunue eeroLtnaExtremely eLable when il camee Lo checkinq and warp-inq, and excepLionally beautifu|black cherry ia one ofNorLh America'e fineet, cabinef, woode, However,Nhereto a ?ronaunced, variance in color beLween ite eapwoodand hearlwood, which can somef,imee be problemaNic.lf Lhe two are ueed oide-by-eide, f iniehed work may die-play a discrepancy in color, which wil l inNeneily ae thewood agee. A good portion of black cherry wood con-t aine qurn deVoeiLe Lhrou7hout. AlLhouqh thie doee not.eignificanr.ly affecI the lumber, it showe on veneero;1oqewiLh exceaeive qum are avoided for veneers.Other nameat American cherry, rum cherry,whiekeycherry, wilA cherry, fruitwood.5ourcee; Canada, U.9.A.Characterislicet Fine qrain; omooLh lexture; reddiehbrown to deep red hearLwood.U s ea F ur niLu r e, f,u r nin q, c a win q, joi n ery, m u ei c alinsf,rumenLo, boat interiors and decoralive veneer..W o rkabil*y : V e ry g o o d, : bl unt e c utli n q e d q ee m o d e r at e -ly: qood bendinq properLiee.Finiehing; Accepte finiehes wet|Weight:36lb./cu. ft,Triaet ModeraNe.

CHESTNUT, AME,RICAN( H )Ootanical Name: Castanea cenlta[ai ' i r t .ra ;r er.r"erninaLed by a fun4t-te dieeaee known aeclteelntf i b tE6*', -vle ma)onL'1 of chesLnul .ow corie.i rom re ,cyc led L tmbere f ron barne an) ' o ther bu i ld inqcl l ,a-v Stre-dale the b qlL. ) l hae a eo been avai lableirorr eLandtnq dead treee t 'hai have been aLLacled by:.naecle, Ihe ree,-t Ltrq

"wormy cheeLnut" is noneLhe eaE

cor,eidered an atLrecl ive wood Lhat ' retaine cAeaI'nut, s.eL.Nra durabt|Ny and makee i t ' excel lenL for or,t ldoor ueeOr.her Namee: !\torrry cheeLnut', oweet cheaLnuL.?ourcee: Canada ana Eaelern U.3.4,.Characterisl ics: Toroue qrowth r inqe reeulN in promi-rtenL f iqure; coeree t,ey.r i l rei pale brown.lJseez I tc ;1ee , oLakee, g ic tu re l rames, fu rn iLure anddeacraLlve veaeera.WorkabiliNy Generally ea6y Lo work: ferroue mer.alernay otatn lhe wood blue: epl ir 'o eaei ly; medium bendinq

properLiee.Finishing': /^,ccepte f iniehee very well .W eighr,: 3a b.l ct-t. fL.?rice: " loberaLe ta P\ ?c4a" \ . e.

WOOI) DII{EC'I 'ORY

-

1 1 0

CHONTAQUIRO AMARILLO(H)gotan ica l Namez ) .1 | t , c ' | |t hara , f 'eavy L imber , chonLaqu i ro amar i io ie io t :nd : . tabunaance in l le t rog ica i fo res l " o i 7er t . , a tA l : raz i .t ie a beatft , i f t- t wood, wi i l a atr ikinq f iqlre or boLr:p la tn 'eawn and qaarLereawn Iumber . U.aA aca \ l aa am ah o 4 a ny e ob st tLr-t t e, Lhi e 1 e s s e r - k n o\N r i 5p. ci . a | )beqinninq to be exporr,ed into l loft 'h l ' .merica fcr taein f tne lu rn i iu re and cab ineLmak i r :q .O lher Names:3 tcu2 i ro . ca l - t l c .Source :3ouLh Amer ica .Characterist ico: )LraiqhL to intedocLea 4ratn', rncaer'at ely co aroe Lo co ar6e lexLLr ei iqht t o dark. br out 'nhearLwood: y el lowieh cr earn eapw oo d.Uses : Furn i tu re , cab ine t 'maLtnq and a raaq. a l con-eLrucLion usee.Workabil i ty: General ly ,qoo,): doee naL t)r. or ehape tve)i .

F in ioh inq : Accepte l tn tehee v r e l l .Weiqht: 5B lb. lcu. tL.?rice: \,4oderate.

TI

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tIItI

r

II

TI

IIITIIIIIIITIItIIIIIIIIII

II

COCOBOLO N(H) v-

6olanical Name: Dalber4ia retueaA durable, hard wood, cocobolo ?ae6egee6 some inler-eelinq workinq properLiee.lN conLaina a nal,ural oily eub-of,ance f,haI noL only walerproofe Ihe wood, but makeeiN very eaey to work and finieh. However, ile fine eawdueLmay cauee itchinq and eneezing and, ofLen temporarilyd,yeo the ek in oranqe. l t , is recommended No coverexpooed ekin when working with cocobolo.Other Nameo Granadillo (Mexico): Nicaraguan roee-wood, qrendil l.Source:WeeN coaeL of Cenbral America.Characterietico: Heaug, denee wood: otraiqhtlo irrequ-lar grain; medium Lexlure: purple, oranqe, ruel andyellow color wifh black markinqe, d,arkening with exVosureLo a deep red,d,ish oranae.Ueeo: Turning, knife haidles, brueh backe, t ool hanaws,inlaye and veneerg.Workabilityt galief acilory: eiqniticanL dullinq of cuttersiblad,ee ehould be exiremely eharp: reduce blade anqlefor planing: very difficult f,o qlue.Finiohinq Accepts finishes very well.Wei1htt OB lb./cu, ft.?riae: Expenoive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

1 1 1 ll!l. :

. 1

C.YPRESS, BALD N)(e)Ootanical Name: Taxod r u m d t aLi ch u mNormal ly found in weL reqione and ewampe, baldcy?rees lumber io truly al home in waLer. ln f acL, iLie ofLen used in bridqee and docke, Old-qrowLh timberie eignificantly more decay-resieLant. Lhan second-grow\h wood,thouqh bobh are coneidered ideal forouLdoor uee. Valure s lands of th ie epecies arebecoming gcarce, and ae gwarype are drained, iL tesuffering from a lose of habitat, which will make iIincreaeingly rare ao Lime paeeee, Dald cypreee occa-e^ionally yield,a intereelinq veneere and, panelinq.Olher Names Soulhern cypre6e, ewam? cy?re6e,li dew aLer cy ? r e 6e, y ellow cy p r eo e, while cy p r e e e,red cypreee, black cypreeoSource: 3 o uLh eaeLern U,9.A.Charaaterietice: Straiqht, Train: oily texture; yellow-brownto darkbrown.Uaeet Joinery, chemical vaLe and tanke, boaL buildina.poleo, poete and many conetruclion applicatione.Workabilityt Generally qood: keep cutters sharp.Finiohing: AccepLa tinishes well.w eight 2B-35 lb. / cu. tL.Trice: lnexpenoive.

DOUGLAS-FIR(e)7otanical Name: FEeudotouqa menzteeiiane of r,he moet wtdely uee), woode in North America,and tAe con l ine . I 'o moet p len t i lu l epec iee , Douq laa- f i rie htqhly valued as a conetrucLion wood because ol i f 'e

etrenqth, eLif fneoe, moderaLe welqhl ' and avai labi l i ty ofIarqe eize t imbera, 1L ie f requenLly epel led, wi lhout ' t 'heiyphen ae

"Oouqlae f ir ," althouqh lL ie, in f acL, not ' a f ir

aL al l baL part of Lhe qenuo Teeudot'euqa, or"falee hem-

ock," Current ehorLaqeo of t 'his umber are due more Lo

loq1inq bans Nhan any real ecarc't t 'y.With i f '6 prominenLqrowLh rinq f iqure, Douqlae-f ir aleo yielde ar"tracl ive"/eneera ana ?tywaoa.Other Names: Srir" ieh Columbia Vine, Oreqon pine, yel low

ftr, red fir.Souraee; C anada, W eaLern U.3.4., Europe.Characteriet icat 3f,raiqhf ' qrain; medium lexLure: red'

d, ieh brown: may be reeinoue.Useet ?lywood,, joinery, veneere ani a wide ranqe ofc o n aLr u cLi o n a 2 p|| c a' i o n a,Workability: Oenerally qood', beLLer wit'h machine toole:blunLe cuLLere moAer aLely.Finiehinq AccepNa f iniehes fair ly well ,Weighu,33lb. lcu.t t .?rice: lnexVeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

rt2

E,BONY :(H )7otanical Name: Dtoepyroo .pp.AI ebony ie ra re and expeno ive , eepec ta ly Lhefarned,inLenee black ebony v' thich, aI ' one I ime. wae obta ned

grimari ly frorn )ndia and )r i Lanka. Today, i l e loun) in

l imited quantir. iea in areae ol Equatorial V' lesL Afr i ' :a.l - )n l i ke Macaeear ebony , A f r i can ebony ie qenera ly eo l idb lack , wt thout e t r ipee or mo lL |nq .3h1p2ed to Nor thAmerica in ehorL hearLwooA bi l let 'e, iL ie uaed in thefinestwood oblecLe, Sawdustlrom ebony can cauaereepiratory probleme.Olher Names: SaLulinau,lndian ebony, Ceylon ebony,Afr ican ebony, MaAaqaocar ebony, Gabon ebony etc.,accord i "q t o ca )n t ry o" o r q t .9ourceq lndia, Sri lanka, Afr ica.Charaaterist ics: )enee wood with a coaroe I 'exture;eLraiqht to inLerlocked, qrain: very d,ark brown I 'o b1ack.Ueee: Turninqa, brueh backs, mueical inetrumenf'e, han'

d leo , in lay ,bu l ta o f b i l l i a rd cuee, occao iana l ly veneerband other ht4hly decoraNive applicaLione.W orkabilit y : Diffi c ulf,: dull e c ut ler s a ev e r ely : V r e - b o r efo r na i l inq .Finiehinq AcceVte f iniehee well .Weight 65lb. lcu, fL.?rice:Very exVeneive,

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

w\ , , ^ - ) i )

tr

I

tIIITITtIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

It

E,BONY, MACASSAR l'ffil(H )Botanical Name: Droepyroe opp.Macaeear ebony, unlike black ebony with iLe inteneedeep hue, ie mulL icolored, , ueual ly more l iqht lhan dark.7oLh Macaeear ebony and, black ebony are ueed, in I,hefineel inlay and, cabineL work. Macaeaar ebony comeefrom a number of d,ifferent epeciee Nhat are all parL ofLhe ebony f amily: Nhere may be eome variaLion in denei-Ly. Lext)re and, a??earance from one giece t o anor"her.Olher Namea Calamander wood, coromarlel (U.K.);qol d en e0 ony, m arblew oo d.1ource: 3o tLheaet Aaia.Characteriatica: Extrremely denoe with very britt leheafLwood,: moetly etraiqhL grain, buf, may be irreqularor wawt fine, even f.eKLurei dark brown to black, withliqht-brown ef,reaks.Usea Cabinetwork, Lurninqo, brueh backe, walkinq eLicke,mueical inelrumenLe, inlay work, bil l iard cuee and deco'ral,ive veneers: saowood used for lool handlea.Workability:Very d,ifftcull';: exlreme blunting of cuLLere;pre-bore for nai l inq; uneui table f or g lu ing.Finiahing: Accepte finiehee very well.W eightz 60 - bO lb, I cu. ft .Trice:Very expeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

1 1 3

ELM, WHITE(H )9otanical Name: Ulmue americanaWhite elm ie Lhe larqeet. and arquably the moet. eLatelyelm of a1l. More so than olher elme, Lhie majeelic lreewae devaet af,ed by Dutch elm diaeaoe ana iaaay tt i5relarively diff icult Lo l ind white elm lumber.Ihe wool, ieexI;remely eaey to bend and ie moet, olLen ueed Lo makefurniNure, When eliced on the quarLer, white elm pro-duc ee lov ely ribb on- ef,rip ed v en e er e.Other Namest American elm,water elm, ewamp e\m(U.9.A.); orhamwooA, qray elm (Canada),Souraesz Canada and, U.3.4.Charaaierietico: U oually sLr aight qr ain, Lhouqh ofteninberl o cke d: c o a r e e f, eKLur e: li ghf,, y ell owi eh - b r ow n c ol o r.Usee: FurniLure, boat. buildinq, o?arf,6 equipment. anddecoraf,ive veneerS.Workabilityt Generally qood: dulle cuLtinq edqee moder-alely; good bendinq properLiee, bux prone Io warpinq.Finiehing; AccepLo finiohea well.Weight:35 lb.lcu. fL.Tricez lnexpeneive, but. increaoing d,ue to ecarciLy.

N

WOOD DIRECTORY

I

t

GONCALO AIVF,S .N-;( H )

L v u v ' l >

Ootanical name: AaLrontu m 7raveoleneSeauLifal, durable and etronq, qoncalo alvee eomef, imeebears a reeemblance f,o bolh roeewood and Macaeaarebony. I I ie ueed, lor f ine applical ione l ike knif e handlee,bi l l iard cue butt a, bruah back.e, and dampero in grandpianoo. SecauEe Lhe tree has become an endanqeredepecieo, qoncalo alvee ie dif f icult .Lo f ind in NorLhAmerica. lL ie avai lable primari ly in veneere.Olher Name:Iiqerwood5ourcer Srazi l .Characteristice: Dense, very heavy wood; irceqular,int e r l o cke d, qr ai n: m e diu m LexLu r e: r e d dieh -b r ow nmarbled with black elreako: large variat ione in colorand qra in .Uses: Fine furniLure, cabineLmakinq, Lurninq andveneer6.Workability: Difficult: blunLe cu|I;inq edqee moderatelyto eeverely; Vre-bore for nai l ing.Finiahing AcceVX.o f iniehee well .Weight:59 lb. lcu. fL.Trice: Expeneive.

HACKBERRY( H )Ootanical Name: CelLta occtdent a|telackberry ie elaeLic, ehack-resi""tanL and eaey to bend,characf,erieLice iX eharee with elm and, aeh', iL ie ofLenuaed ae an aeh eubsti tut e in Lhe farniLure indu""fry,Hackberry Lreee qrow to more fhan 1aO fueI Lal l .Al l ,hough moeL hackberry ie ueed for conetraction, thewood's dist inct, f igure makeo i f , an att racLive choice forv eneer g, cabineLwork an d, lurniLur e.Olher Names: euqarberry, hack-f,ree, baeLard e m, net -

XleIree, beaverwood.Sourceet Eaelern U.3.A. and eouLhern Canada.Characterist ics: lrregular qrain; moderalely coaree t ex-ture: l iqht brown with yel low bande.Usest Furnif ,ure, I?orlo equtpmenL, cabineAwork, ply-wooa and veneer?.Workability: Generally qood: dulle cuttero moderately:interlocked, qrain requiree reduced planinq anqle; qoodbendinq proVerLies,Finiahinq Accep|e ftniehea well: ea?ecially aLLracLive innaLural color.tNeight ' :40 lb. lcu.fLTricet lnexpeneive.

I

I

II

I

I

IttI

I

r t

{II

Ti$i'

I

:' t n

tt i .

t .9 l; ;I Jt :! i

: ,i ; ,

t.;: 1.l;ir l it I

E** 4

fFt, ti; #i1 tu;: { l

*:* I

II

I

IiI

,7

Et

II

TITI

ai.t :

t#';f,t : '

; l-+ri*+

I-

Lt4 I

t

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tIIIIIIIIIIIIII

WOOD DIRECTORY

HICKORY( H )9otanical Name: Carya epp.For ol;renqLh, hardneoa and flexibil iLy, hickory ia the besLcommercially available wood in NorLh America. lL ie ueedfor Lool handlee, euch ae axee and, maule, and,for eporL'inT equiVmenL. Even iIe wood chiVe are ueeful: Ihey areoflen uaed, in emokinq meal.Other Nameet Shaqbark hickory, piqnut hickory, mocker-nuL hickory, red hickory, white hickory.9 ource: Eaef,ern U.5. A.Charaoleristice: Normally etraighL qrain, buL can beirreqular or wawi coaroe t"exlure: brown to reddieh-brownhe arlw oo d; whitre e apw oo d.Ueee; SporLtnq equipmenL, benLwood furnilure, chaire,eLrikinq handlee, plywood and veneere.W orkability: DifficulL: blunLe cutLing edqee moderaLely:when planing irregular qrain, reduce blade'e cutf, ing angle;very qood, bendinq proVertieo.Finiohing: Accepte finiehee wel|Weight:51 lb./cu. ft.?rice: lnexpeneive.

_l_

It

-

1 1 5

HOLLY(H )6otanical Namet I lex eoo.A clooe-qrained, almoetr white wood, with vtrLually noviaible fiqure, holly io valued for inlay work. Holly veneer,dyed black, eubatiLulee for ebony.Very l itt le of thietimber ie cut, each year, makinq i l a diff icull wood Loobtain. Spri7e of holly, however, with Lheir ehiny leaveeand red berries, are common Chrietmae decoralione.Olher Names: White holly.Sources: Europe, U.9.4. and weelern Aeia.Characterielice: lrreqular qrain; fine, even lexLure:whiLe Io grayioh-white; ?rane lo blue eLain.Uees: )rnaLe Lurninqe, musical inof,rumenle, inlay,rnarquetry and veneere.Workabilit"y: Difficult: keeV cuNNing edqeo very oharVand reduce cuLbinq anqle of plane blade.Finiehing; Acceple finieheE very well.rN eightz 35 -5O lb./ cu. ft .?riae: Expeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

IIt

IIITIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIrll,J,,. . ] ' .1 '

#

WOOD DIRECTORY

. ,ra,IA ' I -nRA YIN)tt LL \-,r ur \ \ _\\,(H)9otaniaal Namet Hym en a ea co u rba rilA etronq, hard wood, iatoba has shock-reEist'ancequalit ieo similar to ash and hickory, and i6 olLen ueedin tool handleo and eporte equipment. Althouqh a diff i-cult wood Io work, lat oba lakee on a e?ecial glow whenit io planed, lte bark is similar to that' of paper birchand eheeNe of iL are used in canoe-makinq.Olher Namee Amerelo, cuapinol, courbaril, W est lndian|ocuet, (U.9. A., U.K.); |oouet, etinkinq toe (W eot, |ndieo):guapinol (Central America): jut'aby, iatai vermelho(Arazil): alqarrobo.Sourcesr Central and )outh America andtheWestlndies.CharacteriEtiaa Mootly int'erlocked qrain; medium tocoa?6eteKVu?ei ^almon re+Lo oranqe brown hearLwoodwith dark brown streake, darkeninq to reddish brown:whiie t o oinkish oagw oo d.Ueeet F urniiur", c)binet makinq, turnin4, tool handles,o?ortin7 equipment, froorin4, Vanelinq and veneero.W orl'abilityt F aia lough to sawi interlocked qrain hardto plane; poor for nailinq; moAeraNe bendinq ?ro?erbiee.Finiehin1 Accefio stains well,but does not poliahtoa hi7h-qlooofinioh.tN aighrz 4B'56 lb./ cu. tN.?riaez Moderate.

t)-.

KINGWOOD SN)(H)

v-

1ot aniaal Name; Dalberqta cearenaiaLike most rceewoodo, kinqwood ie heavy and veryaLiraclive. Oeeewinq of ite reqal name, Nhie Nimber wasueed in lhe finesL furnilure built for Louie XIV andLouisXV of France.Today,kingwood ie an endanqeredepecieo lhal is becominq e*remely ecarce. The smallamounf,o lhat are available find uee in reetoralion work,fine lurninqo and veneere.Alher Nameez Violetwood, violetta (U.9.A.);violete (brazil).5ouraetOrazil.Characterislioez )traiqht qrain; line texlure: violel'brown, dark violet and black etripee aqainet' yellow loviol eL-b r own b a ckqr oun d.Useez Turninq and veneero for inlay and marquetry.Workabilltyr Oenerally qood; blunto lool and bladecuthinq edgee moder alely.Finiahingl Aaaepto finishes well; well euit'ed to anatural waxfinieh.W eiglrf,r 7 O -75 lb. / cu. fN.?rlcelVery expen6iv6.

WOOD DIRECTORY

III

I

I

I

I

IIIIIttIIIIrItt

WOOD DIRECTORY

LIGNUM VITAE N(H)Aotanical Namer G u ai a cu m offici n aleLignum vitae or "wood of life" received ile name lor theoupVooedly curaf,ive qualiliee of its resin.Thie eVecieo,which is extremely olow'qrowinq, producee one ol t'heworld's heaviesl commercial timbere, and io virLuallyself-lubricating due Io ito hiqh raein conhent. Thismakea it ideal for ito prinaiVal use, ao bearinqo andbuohin7 blocks for ehiV propellor shafas, lor which thereie preoently no elfective oynNhebic oubot'ilute.Olher Nameer lronwood (U,5.A.); 7uayaaan neqro, palooanio (Cuba);bois de gaiac (Franae).5ouraea T rooical America and W eet lndieo,Charact'erlEblaet Heavy, denoe woodi intarlo cked, irrequ'lar qrain: qraenioh-brov,n to blaak.lJEes: M anne bearin4a, malleb heads, pulleyo and u)minqz.W orlability, Difficuli'; dulls autters mo der awlg notouitable for qluinq unleao treated frroL,Flniehin g Ac c eVt o finishe s w ell.Weighb-77lb.lcu.ft, . '

?riaet,Very il?eneive. ,j,;i;l

MADRONE(H)9 otanical Namez Arb utu a m en zi eei iMadrone varieo greatly in size, some treeo reaching125 teeL in heiqht wilh enormouo bnnchee somelirneeoLrelchinq aut over an area of IO,OOO equarefeet. ltoffere a beauliful t imber, which, thouqh diffiault todry, canbe qiven a remarkably srnoothfinish.Smallermadronetimber often has burl qrowtho atit's baee;these are frequently developed inf,o otunning veneers,It ie also known as one of r,he beat, sourcee of charcoalfor makin1 6unpowdenOhher Nameal 7 aoftic ma*rone, arbutuo, madrona.9ourceat Canada and western U.5.4.Chalz,otnriallcet 5t r aigWb to irreqular q? aini fine, ev eniet&urei pale reddioh'yellow to deeVer red or brown.Ueesz Fine furniture, htrninq ani decoraiive veneero.Wo*abiltq6 9 atisf act'oryt blunto cutting edqeo r aihere ev ar ely i m edium b andin 6 ? r o? e fti es.Flnlehingz Acce?t o finishes wellWaigltu 48lb.lcu.ft.?dcrltModerata.

WOOD DIRECTORY

rIr

I

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

ttI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

MAPLE,, HARD( H )Oolanical Name: Acer eaccharumf' denee wood, harA maple'e ueea afLen Lake advantaqeof i te reeiet,a.ce to wear and, abraaion. ) i ie ueed in awide ranqe o f conoLr tc t ion , inc lud inq bowl inq a l leyo anddance f loora. Olten poeeeeeinq an at lracl ive l iddlebackor cur ly f iqure , Lh ie ie a leo lhe map le wh ich producee lhef arroue bird, 'a-eye veneere.Other Names: Rock maple, euqar maple, whiLe maple(eapwood) , b i rd 'e -eye map le (1 t the d io t inqu ieh inq qra inie preaent).Sources : Canada, U.3 .4 .Ch ar a ct 'er ist ' i cot 3t r ai 7ht qr ai n, o c c a ei o n al ly c u r ly, w avyor bird'e-eye; f \ne texLure: hearLwoad ia reddieh brown:eapwood io whiLe,Ueee: Turning, furni lure, 6?arLo equiVment' , mueicalinetrumenf,s, butcher' a blo ck.e, f lo orinQ, plyw oodand veneerg,W orkabilit'y: D ttficult: blunle cutLing ed4ee mod,erately:pre-bore for nai inq: qood bendinq proVerLiea.Finiehing: Acceple f inieheo we1l.Weigh i 42 lb . l cu . f t .?rice: lnexpeneive lo moderaf,e,depend,ing on f iqure.

WOOD DIIIECTORY

-

121

+_tI

MYRTLE(H )botanical Name: U mbellularta caltforntcaEopecta)ly well known for iLe clueLer and burl f iqareAveneerg, myrLle io a favorif,e amonq ftne crafLErnen lorcabinetnakinq and marqueLry.Wht le t l hae a et ronqLendency lo check and warp in dryinq, once zeaeonedmyrtle io a touqh wood, able Lo withet'and much wearand, abuse. Aleo a preferred turntnq wood, myrf' le iefrequenLly made inlo bowla and, canaboticko, amanqother f ine qoode.Alher Names: Californta laurel, mounlain laurel,bayrtree, epiceLree.1ources; Oreqon and California, I).3.4.Ch ar acl eristicot G e n e r ally oI r ai qhL q r ain, b ul o c c a 5i o n -

ally irreqular; f ine LexXure: qol)en Lan Xo yellowieh-qreen,Uees; f urninq, furniLure, joinery, cabineImakinq, panel-inq, and veneera.Workabilisyt Fair: dulls cuLtinq edqee eeverely and quick'ly : reduce cutL ing anqlefor p lantnq and ehaVinq.Finishing: Accepts finiehee very well.Weight:3b lb.lcu. ft.?rice: ModeraLe', burl io exVereive.

OAK, RED(H )botanical name; Quercue epp.Ked oak,l:he moEt. caffirnan oak varieLy in NorthAmerica, qrowa very quickiy-youn q treeo olLen a2routa foot. a year.fhe wooA ia an al,lraclive and valuaptehardv,tood and, hae been one ol Lhe moef, popular Nor1hAmerican oako' ueed in Europe eince Lhe early lBLhCentury. I l ie coneidered uneuiLable for exLerior work.Olher Names: NorLhern red oak, American red oak,Canadian red oak, qray oak.Sources: Canada and eaetern U.3.A.Char a cteriet i ce; 7tr ai qht. qr ain ; c o a r e e texLu r e: pi nk -ieh-red color.Uses: Furniture, inLerior joinery, f loorinq, Vlywoodand veneerg.Workability: Generally qooii moderaLe blunlinq of cuL-lere; moder ate b en dinq ? ro? erLi ee,Finiahinq Satief actory: becauoe of open poree, iLehould be fi l led, before any finishing or painLinq.Weight:40 lb./cu.fL?ricet N4oderale.

WOOD DIRECTORY

-

r22

OAK, WHITE( H )Ootanical Name: Quercue epp.Thie oak-a wood of uniqae veroati l i ty-prodacee LhefineeL oak veneerz and lumber, and ie very reej", t anL t owear. Tieae qualiLiee maV.e i t eiqni l icantly more val lableNhan red oak.7ut perhape i ta moeL-valued property ielhe preeence in iLe cel ls of tylosee, a honeyconblike ",ub-etance thaL makee I;he wood waLerLiqhL and ideal forwhiekey barrela. Kecently, lheee barcels have bequn Lobe reuaed, red,ucinq the larqe drain on whtLe oak. forthat purpoee,Other Namee: American while oak, burr oak, swamV whileoak, cheotnJf, oak, overcuV oak, ewamp cheetnuL oak.Sourcee: Canada and l ,) .3.A,Characteriat ice,t 1f,r aiqht qr ain: moder ately co aroelexLure: liqhl Lan wif,h a yellowieh Lint.Ueea: FurniLure, joinery, cabinef,making, boat bui ldinq,barrele, Vlywood and veneers.Workability: Good; pre-bore for nailinq: qoodbendinq properLiee.Finiahing; Accepte f iniohea well .rNeight:47 lb. lcu. f t .?rice: ModeraL.e.

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

rrI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

rI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

ttIIIIIIIII

WOOD DIRECTORY

OLIVE,WOOD(H )Aotanical Name: )lea europaeaGrown alonq the lr4ed,itrerranean caaot, European olive-wood ie a comely tree, and yielde a fine, att 'racLtve woodLhat, ernita a oweel scent. when iL is worked,. Thie treeie aleo f amoua for iLe fruil and, oil. Available in veryamall amounte, and prone Lo d,efecte, olivewood iaofLen uaedto produce emallLurned or cawed qoodefor sale in EuroVe'e trourisl market', anA iT' ie aomef imeecul inLo veneer.Otcher Namet lNalian olivewood.1ourcee; ltaly and, eouthern Europe, Califarnia.Characteristicat 9Ir aiqhl' to irreqular qraiw fine r'ex-f,ure; liqhL Lo d ark brown b ackqround wit'h d, arker eNr e ake.UeeetTurninq, carving and lnlay work.W orkabilityr G ener ally goo d, t'houqh rel ativ ely difficult'to oaw.Finiohinq AcceVto finiehee well.Weight :5& lb. lcu. f t .Tricet Expeneive

I

{i

_r_-1

l il i

PADAUK, AFRICAN N(H)Ootanical Name: ?t;erocarpue ooyauxiiAfrican padauk ie exf,remely 6f,ronq, durable and slable.Thouqh leea wellknown than f,he rare Andaman padauk,iL comparee well, is much more available ana i6 Lruly ahandaome wood in iNe own riqhL. ln eome Varte of lheworld African padauk ie commonly ueed for f loorinq,whereif, iE coneidered, of excepLional qualiNy: pad,aukveneera are no leas valued for their beauty.Olher Namest 7ad,ouk, barwood, camwood.1ourcetWeet Africa.Characleristiaet )traiqht' xo intrerlocked, gr ain; moder'alely coaroe lexfrorei deep red to purple-brown wif'hred et"reake.U e est F ur nilu r e, c abin etm akin g, join e ry, lur nin g, h a n -

dles and veneerg.WorkabiliNyz Good: dulls cuttere eliqhlly.Finiohiny Acceple finishee very well.Weight :45lb. /cu. tL.?riaet Moderate.

WOOD DIRECTORY

ttr

T

xI

\ t t ) t ) l ) I ) l l i l t ' l r l l i \

f

I

I

I

I

rI

I

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

T

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

Dtr(- A h..|! j . - \ ; l \ 1 \

( H )boLan ica l Nanf e : , i r ' ! I : , : r . r1 . , . I : r l - i r : t : : f ' .1 r . . : ; r ' ; : ; i i i i l l i . t i : , ' i . , ]. , , 1 r t t , i , ; . t i , " ' ' ' , ' . , . . i , r 1 . , r , : . l a f . t t : , . r , ; , t r j _ i r , L n t - ; , ' , 1 ' , j a i : ) a : i ' a j l '

. : r: . l .\, ;r111t.1 ,, i , ,111,, ;,,.,,., ' i '-: i ) l)a'a:t.a.t. at: ' i .. i t,a.,.,,, ' , l .,f iaa: t",,t: i tt)' : ' ,

f , i l .al ' t t l ' t ...1-lt ' l . t ' . j \, ' , , i1..: j t:t l ' .),tft aa. l r itr f i lklt i . ' i i tr:

. f ' , ' ' r . ' . . . : l ' : ,1 . t t - t l l , t . l t , ) i t . , ' a ) \ \ t \ t ' . \ . : t : r r ' . t r ) - l . l ra : d t . t . , : , f t , J : , t

i -tt)f i i).r, -rf ,rr,.r 'a':.1i, l:- i t ' l ,: i t--;f 'a:t ' t) i: ' .a)l:..\,\ iaoa1

,17,11 j ' ,, ,1,, ' t- ,al:f.

r i ' r i ; i . . / , i l f ' , , ; : , , ; i , i r l t , ' :a ' , , i ! : . ' . l f t lL r , r l t 1 l te t t . )a la t \ , ,a t . ) t : ) , .

I , " r . . : : i i l i r , l ' i ' l i r ' . : l f l , i - : i l : , t . , . . l , " i l - . r1 . t - . , - , t la : : l ] r : :aa . i 'a a f i . i , , " , aO ' l ', . , . i . . : , : t , . : . - l , , r : . . : , - r . r . r t ra r . . l . ia : : i l i t ,2L t r r ' . ̂r r : i Of l i_ r , . t t - l r c . i i . r

i i r i ,- '1-.1. ' t | .2t:) aari-,t l)1.. a); 't l):, qi.,t)t. i l , t.. al at.i.:. l tqr.l.,.

Ot rher Nameg ' i t i , : : ' . t l l . ' r ; ' , [ l , t t . . \ , \aaL )a :a ,aa , ' , ^ , ,1Lar

I : . i i . , r - \ / . i ) ' j . . ' , . t t ) i :a .2 i . . i , ' l ,1 , f l tL t l . i t t [ .O1" r .

Sourceg: '

Characteristics: !:t.r: tt'i;. qt a -lct.l i,ltoito,rt bi.:rfitl t1t t, . . , ,_ - l f r i l . i r j . , , . ,a i r l

) / : : , ( ) i . ) i . t ta , t ,a i r f , . t fa : l . , r : .a f r .1 t , ' i ; t ; ,4 ,U

'- ::,:.t, :1 : ' ,. l '-) t ' t ) ' r t l ' , . ),) l.rt,. a,'. i i ai r{ ' i t i t,at.

Uses : I l r t . , i f t rJ . i ' r . r l i . i I . r ) t .a . , i . . )a ) ' t i , , : .n ) ' te : t . rpor ' l .e' :

I

Workability: iztr: i.:ar, )t.tt,t. t:.t-'f,,rta, eiqe!, ee',,t:rt.-lyt iadtae

, . ' . . ' ; i t r . , , : t , . )atA t : \ , \ , , , ) t . . . l t . ; t , , : r , i r ,q or 1| : l ; tp:nq t . re! ' . t ar o,r ' , ; in

i t t 'a i - . ) . . i . : i : : t r : i l t t r j ; ' , ,11i" ' , , 1,a: . : l l : t : ,n) inq 2rOpei iee.F i n i e h i n g : r : .

W eiqht : I ( , . ' i . , i r - ' . r : . ' i . .

7 ri c e'. i',,1 o ri : r' ial r:.

_t_

I

I

-

125

PERSIMMON( H )Bo lan ica l Narne: ., ' : , t , i r i r L , 4 r t . r i a a t 1 a , , ' ) 1 t 1 . " I ' i , i t t l: . t Zt i :1. t ' ,1, . , , f r . i , r r i l i ' : . ' l i . , i r , , l r i l t " ! , : r i r r , , ' . , . ' ,1 , r I . f : ,

- , : r i l i '

: . . f i i ; , t1 r i l 1 i , r j i , i t ' r t : r t i l i f l t : r l - , , , i r l : j r ' f ' r ,a. , . , , , , i t . t i i : : . i I r I

: . f fa t heal-1. ' ,^ , , i - ,a, ! . . ' , aa: t : aN) . , iJ tat ] ' : . i ' : l l r ' - r : 1, i i r '

i , ,a i , - r ;1r ' , ' .a l .af , Inr-- r i i ' ] i - - , ' l . . r r r l i r , . , i . i ' . : . : : : i ' : ,1 ) l ' - t t ) . . ' : l r / ] l , i ' : l

, za ) l ' i r , i " ; , t i na r L r ; ; l i t , ' : , i , . [ . r ' r i : l ' i - l ] i r . l , t 1 , , ' , ; t t 1 : i ; , 1 ' 1

l :ea,) . . i , ) , : t - ,a=i ; r1; l ly . , ;1.1. , . . ' . r . . I ' i ' . l '

c2rt ltit,,it .ia all.,t a)aIt\.,a, IirJLrrr.

Olher Nameg l : ,ot t . ,ool , . ' r rar ; r - ; , ; r ; , t . r - . r i r : .1.ar ' , { " r , r . , . ' r r . , l , 1, . : I r

l . ) J l l1, \ ' l . lq i f , t .a; l ; f .c f L; t r . f l r : r i t t l l f l r | i r i - 1. / . f l l / j : ' : i ' j l t i f ' r , l ' ' . . '

9ourceg: i . , - ' . r . " ; ra ;nr ' i : , r - r r t l r i : . l ' ,1. :p. . i i .

Characler is t ics: ' : i ra 'a l : i . . at a at i ' i l ' . t . . a i ! 'a i f l i 1-r i . r r t ' / : : I f t . r !

la're lar'r. t:'of,\/N Or i:'rt:,t.|.:,' i..rt ,,k:,.,'.t),,j1)\\(.)t)) ir, r;ii-;' ',1' ;. .

U s e s : G o l ' t . . t b l ' , r a l z . : . 1 , t ' i t I i , l - ' l l r r r ' . r j r , ,

I oolrq atd 1't.r'r,ii,t.,r"e.

Workabi l i ty : ( ior , t : : ra| ' 1 r l t t t . tA: r - . l l : - , a, l t i . 1. . !a c, : .1r1r : , , . i t , . , .1r ' r

a- ta { , radJat . c t r i . r . . inq anql t v ' , | - ' tn , : ) . }1 t1a. i : )p5 l rpr ' . , ; f r i , l '

nar inq: n,ct i i t , r^a- , .c l t t i t ; \nq ?ia i ) . i r i . . . : : . . ' , i t ( l ' t i , f i i . i . r - r , : r i :' . . . t . | .

F i ni ohi n 6 : i', r: r: t-, 1t L.. "' :,t i ", r, t a r., !/a r r'v f r/r'

W ei7ht: 7:2. :1. I ct. i..? rice: n ev.o en ai\t a I.i.) ft1odat' a i,r:).

, t

: i I

, ' 11

PINE, PONDEROSA(e)Ootanical Name: Finue ponderoeaOne of the mo6L af,f,racf,ive pinee, t"he ponderoea qroweacroea wegtern Norf,h America and eometimee makeoiLe home atr elevaf,ions of more than 1O,OOO feeL in theKockiee. Decauee of iLs resemblance in color andtexLure lo whiLe pine, ponderoea has increaeingly beenused as a eL)boLiLute for that wood, Tonderoea pine ieeornetiffie. eliced inLo knoLIy pine veneer, buL i|e primaryuee is in conelruclion and ae inLerior frim.Oth er N am ee: 3i q Vin e, bir d' e - ey e pin e, kn otty pin e,pole pine, prickly pine,weoLern yellow pine.Sources: Canada and wesLern U,3.A.Characteristics: Wide liqhi-y ellow sapwood; darkeryellow to reddieh-brown hearLwood: qenerally eilraight,qrain: even texture.Usea Furnit,ure,turninq ani cawinq (eapwood): joineryan d qen er al c o nelr u cLi o n (h e arLw o o d ) : o c c a ei o n auypanelinq and veneers.Workability: Good; blunLs cuLLinq ed4ee aliqhr,ly: ooorbendinq properl, iee.Finiohinq AcceVLo finiehee well,but does not etainae well ae whibe pine.tNeighfr 32\b./cu.tL.Tricez lnexpeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

126

PINE, SOUTHERN YELLOW(e)Dotanical Name: Finue aoo.7ouf,hern yellow pine ie Lhe heavieet commercial eofL-wood and cerLainly of foremoetr im?o-ance for theconef,rucf,ion and pulp induef,nee. 7ut, becauee of thedecreaeing oupVly of whi t re p ine, i lhae recent ly bequnto be used exleneively in veneere,which are darker and,marked by dieLincl growLh rinqe. Theee Lreeo aleosupVly lurVenLine, p ine o i l and reein ueed in lhe coe-meNice induetry.Other Namea ?il,ch pine, shorL leaf pine,long leafpine,loblolly pine and several of,her tree namee.5 ourcet I outhe aetern \J.3. A,Characteristics: SLraighL qr ain: co aree Nexf,ure;y ellow-brown to reddieh-brown hearLwood.Uses: FurniNure, conetrucf,ion, plywood and veneers.Workabil ityr Fair;high reein contentwil l cauae qummybuild-up on Loolo: Lende Lo Lear when crooecut..Finiohing: AccepLo finishee fairly well; becauee ofhi7h reein conhenL, finishee eomelimee bubble up, eeVe-c ia l ly aroundknole.Weight: 3O-3B lb./ cu. lt .?riae: lnexoeneive,

tI

I

tttIIItI

I

I

ttItIItIIIIIII

II

I

I

I

tIIIIrI

I

I

I

tIIItttIIIIItI

PINE, WHITE(e)9otanical Name: Ftnue eLrobueWhiLe Vine'e vereali l i ty, workabil i ly and non-reeinouenature made if, a preferred wood for both conolruclionand woodworking lor cenf,uriee. Early American seLlleroolLen honored, Nhe whibe pine, puNtinq it, on the coloniee'f la4 dur inq Ihe Amencan Kevolut ion and on ot rherflaqe and coine throuqh Lhe yeare. l-)nforf"unalely,becauae of iLe wideeVread uee, white pine hae becomeecarcer , a l thouqh becona qenerat ion gt ranig arepreeently maLlrinq.Olher Namee: EaeLern whiLe pine, norLhern whiLe pine,norLhern pine, Quebec Vine, sofl pine,baleam pine,Canadian whif,e pine.1ources: Canada and, U.3.4.Characterielicet )Lraiqht grain; even t exLure: liqht-y ellow lo r eddiah-b r ow n he arLw ood.Uses': FurniLure, joinery, boat buildinq, conef,ruclion,plywood and veneere.Workability: Good; blunt e cuLf,ere eliqhf,ly; poor bendinqpropertieg; too sofL for some furnilure uses.Finiehing: Accepte finiehes well.Weight:28 lb.lcu.ft.Triaet lnexpenetve.

WOOD DIRECTORY

-

127II

POPLAR, YELLOW(H)9otanical Namesz Lr riodend ron tuli piferaMuch of the remaininq eupply of thie wood, reqarded aoone of lhe moeL valuable timbere in Ihe eaelern U.3.4.l iee in the Appalachian Mounlaine. l-)eed, ex\eneively inEurope tn f,he early l9OOs,Loday |,he wood ie ueed,mainly in the l-).3. for a ranqe of woodworking applica-Nione and for Vulp. The eapwood ie eometimes calledwhilewood.Olh er Nam e s; C a n o e w o o d, xuliV p o pl a r, tuliplr e e.Souraet U.3.4.Characterieliaa: Straiqht qrain; fine, even LeKLoreiwhif,e oapwood Lo pale-brown hearLwood wiLh greenor darkbrown ef,reake.U aeoz J oin e ry, f urnilu r e, c abin elw o rk, m uei c al ineLr u'rYtent7, cawing and veneerg.Workabilityt Good: dulle cu+vLere only eltqhtly.Finiehingz Accepbe finiehee w ell.Weight:, 30-35 lb.Icu. ft.Trice: lnexpeneive.

WOOD DIRE,CTORY

PRIMAVERA N(H )Dotanioal Name* Cybiotax donnell-emit hii,eyn. Tabebu ia do n nell - a mith tiSomelimee wronqly referred Lo ae"while mahoqany,"Vrimavera ie one of the fineetr "blond" cabineL woode inthe world. Secauee of the depleLion of oupply,however,today iN io relatively hard to geL The wood ie well knownfor ile beautiful liqht-colored veneere. OfIen Lhey areelriped or have a handeome moLLled fiqure.Olher Nameo: Duranqa (Mexlco);)an Juan (Hondurae):

V al o bl a n c o (G u atem al a); c ortez, c o rLez bl anc o(El Salvador).Source: CenLral America.Charaateristiae; SLraiqht to irregular qrain; medium Loco ar ee tefrure: y ellowieh-white to y ellowieh-brown,Ueeq Cabinet work, fine furniture and veneero.W o rkabilityt V ery go o d: m o d e r ale b en di n g pr op erLi ee.Finishingl. AccepLe finiehee very well.W ei6ht: 3O -bB lb./ cu. fL?riaez Expeneive.

It

PURPLEHEART(H)gotaniaal Name: Feltogyne epp.A uniquely altraclive and durable hardwood and a chal-lenge Lo workwiLh. Cuttinq can be hampered by qumdepoeiLe, which wil l eeep ouL of Lhe wood if i I io heaheiwiLh blunt cuttinq ed,geo. Sladee, Lherelore, mueN bekeVN exlremely eharp, and wood ehould be run elowlythrouqh machines. While Lhe wood ie purple,lheee qumdeposiLs can ranqe from coal blackto while, and oltenetreakthe wood.Ot,h er N a m ee: Am ar ant h, violelw o o d ( U. 3. A. ); e ak av all i ,oaka, koroboreli (Guyana); ?au roxo, nazareno (Venezuela):?au roxo, amaranNe (Orazil): Lananeo (Colombia).5ouraeet CenLral and 9ouLh America.Charaateristiaet StraiqhL qrain; moderate to coaraeLerture: deep purVle, maburinq Lo a rich brown afLerlonq expoeure.Uses: Veneers, turninq, indoor and out door, furniture,tool ehafls and handlee, and butls of bil l iard cues.Workabilibyt )ifficult: moderaLe t o eevere bluntin4; pre-bore for nail inq; moderaLe bending propertiee.Finiohing; Accepte finiehes well:lacoruer ?reoeNeo pur-ple color: alcoholbased finiEhee remove lhe color.Weightz 54lb./cu. fL.Trice: Moderate.

IItIrIIIIIIIIrIIIttIIIIII

I

I

I

ttIIIIIIIIIIIII

ilil

WOOD DIRECTORY

REDWOOD, CALIFORNIA(e)gotanical Name: I equoi a ee m pervi ren eThe tascinalinq California redwood qrowo to an incredi-ble eize. NaIive to coaslal California and )reqon, it iocapable of reachinq well over 3OO feex in heiqhN andone Lree may yield lhoueande of board feet of lumber,Allhouqh euppliee of this wood have been eeriouelydepleted, redwood can eomelimes still be acquired inertremely wide planko. The wood ie not ed for ito stabili-Iy, durabiliLy and resisLance to decay: ito larqe burleare cul inlo veneers.Olher Namet Redwood,SouraetWest coast of U.9,A.Charaoteriatioez ?traight qraini fine, even texf,uret aeepreddish-brown.Ueea Joinery,furniture, Vooto, panelin4, ?lwood andveneere, and much liqht ouldoor con;lruction.Workabiliiy: Good: dulls cuttera only sli4htly:moAeratebendin7 properliee.F iniehin 6z Ac c egta fi nish e e w ell.Wei6ht;26lb./cu. ft,?ricet lnexpengive to moAerale,

ROSEWOOD, HONDURAS N)(H)6otanical Name; D a I berqi a eteve n eo n i iThie hard, heavy, durable rosewood ie primarily valuedin lhe makinq of marimba bare and qrows only ln Selize,lhe former Drit ish Hondurae. Ao euppliee are very l imit-ed, iLs other main usee are confined to fine cabinelwork,marquelry andlurned iteme.1ome epecimene are veryoily and wil l nottake a hiqh natural polieh.Other Namet Naqaed.5ourcet 1elize.Characteristicst 3t r aiqhL Io somewhal, streaked6rain: moderately fine texLurct pinkieh-brown t o purplewith dark,irre4ular 6rain l inee,Uaes: Mueical ineNruments, veneero for fine aabinet-work and Lurning,Workability. Fair,tough lo machine becauee of hard-nesai severely dullo cuLting edqee: poor bendinq ?ro?er-tiea.Finiahin1z Accepto finishes well, Vrovided the woodio nottroo oily.Weight :60 lb./cu.fL.?rlcet Exoensive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

trtI

I

rtI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tII

tItItIIItI

SASSAFRAS( H )7otanioal Name: 7aeeafrae albidumSaseaf raa . a member o l Lhe eame lami ly ae c innamon,ie beel known for i t e fraqranl oi l , ueed lor f lavorinqand ocentinq, and Lhe Nea made from iLe roof, barK.\Nh i le e tmi la r in co lo r , q ra tn and LexLure to b lack aoh,aaeealrae Limber ie briLt le an), aoft and ie ee dornavai lab)e in larqe aizee. ILe decay reeietance and reao-nance rnake iL an alLractive choice for eorne epeciA-tzed app l ica t ione.Olher Names: Cinnamon wood, red aasaafrae, qumbo f i le.Source: EaeLern U.e.A.Char act eriei ice: 7Xr ai qht. qr ain; co ar ee f,ext ur e: l j qhLio darkbrown.Uees: Aoar" bui ldinq, kayak Vad,dleo, conlainere, furni-tJre and, mueical ineLrarYentg.Workability: Fair: wood is briLLle and eofL, oo keep tooledges very eharV: pre-borefor nai l inqLo avoid epl i t t inq:qood bendinq properLiee,Finishing: AccepLe f iniehee well .Weight:2b lb, lcu, f t .Tricet lnexpeneive f,o moderate.

WOOD DIRECTORY

-

13r

-l--

I

I

SATINWOOD, CEYLON .,( H )O otanical Nam e: Ch I o roxy I o n ew i eLe n t aIhouqh Lhe name eaLinvtood hae been qiven t"o manyworld Limbero, Ceylon eaLinwood le one ol very few thathave found o iqn i f i canL uae in Nor th Amer ica . ) l haebeen aeed in f ine woodwork inq and cab ineLmak inq fo rcen lu r iee , buL Loday ta va lued main ly fo r i te e t lnn inqveneere-ea?ecial ly Ihe f amoue bee'o-winq rnot;Lle. )naol iA forrn i t qeneral ly ie ueed lor f ine Lurned qoodeeuch ae brush backa, reaordere and inlay v' ,ark.Olher Names: Eaet lndian eattnwood.'yeltow eanAere;b i l lu , maahwal ( lnd ia ) : Cey lon oaL inwood ( .3 r i Lanka) .Sources : lnd ia and 3r i Lanka.Ch ar a cterieli cs : I nle d o ck e d qr ai n ; f i n e, ev e n *' exLLl r e il i qh tye l lowLo qo ld .Ueeat Cab ineLmak inq , fu rn i tu re , Lurn inq , jo inery anddecoral ive veneere.Workabil i ty: ) i f f icult : qrain lende ta tear in planingquarLerb awn maLerial: qood bending grapert iea.Finiehinq AccepLo f iniehee well when f i l led,Weightt 6l lb.lcu. ft.Tricet Expeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

I

t

SNAKEWOOD ,N(H)

J \:X

gotanical Names: Fiet inera 7uianenoio.eyn. Droeimum 4uianenbiolLo marktnqo, which reeemble thoee on enakeektn, qiver.hte emall, relaLively rare timber i le name. Found in l im-iNed quantit iee in Guyana and Surirtarn, it. ie predomi-nanlly ueed in Lurned items and carries a cerLain cachel .A enakewood cane ar umbrella,lor insf,ance, miqhL beconsidered a orecioue poeseeeion. Secause of iLs hard-nese, enakewood, ie very diff icultto work.Olher Namee: Lelterwood, leopardwood, epeckled wooa.SouraetSouLh America.Characteristiaot Straiqh| qraln; fine, even Lextrure;deep red Lo reddieh-brown wiLh irreqular, horizonLalblack markinqe.Usesz Fine turned qood,e, violin bowe, knife handlee,marquetry and veneers.W orkabilityz Difficult: d,ullo cutt inq ed,qee.Finiehinq Accepr"o finiahes well.Weight ; B1lb. /cu. fL.TricetVerv exzenoive.

SPANISH CEDAR(H )Ootanical Name: Cedrela eoo.

N) II

A.lLhouqh many opecieo are markeled unAer f,he nameSpanieh cedar, the moel imporLanL in Lhe NorLh Americanwood Lrade, Cedrela mexicana, qrowe in Cenlral America andMexico. Exlremely Vrized in iLe native region lor ito eLabiliby,weatrhering qualitiee and relatrive eLrenqth, iN ie expor1ed ona very limiLed, scale. Like olher "cedare," this hardwood willarouoe Lhe senses with a pleaeanl, aroma.Olher Names; Srazil ian cedar, Hondurae cedar, cedro,ced,ro rouqe.Sourcesz Mexico, Central and South America.Charaat eristiae; )tr aiqht, o cc aeion ally inf,erl o cke d, qr ain:fine Lo coarse, uneven Lexf,urei pinkieh-to reddtsh-brownhearLwood, darkene wif,h expoaure lo a deeeer red, occa-eionally wilh a purple Nint: eaVwood ia whit,e f,o Vink.Usea: Furniture, cabinef,work, joinery, boal building, muaicalinetrruntente,lead pencile, ciqar boxee, plywood, and decora-T,Me veneere.Workability: Generally good: difficulttro bore and veneere maytend to be woolly in cuLLing; good bendinq properLiee.FiniehinryFaicwood conlaine oils and qumwhich may betrou-bleeome,bu|if filled, rt can bebroughtto a emoothfrniah,Weight t 3O lb.lcu. fL.

IIIItI

tI

I

Tricez VoderaLe.tt

:ir'i$ri l .

$.1kiffi*

IIIIIItItIrt

I

I

I

I

WOOD DIRECTORY

I

tItIIIIttIIIIIIIIIIIIItI

SPRUCE, SITKA(e)Ootanical Name: Ttcea eitchenatoC , i V a a n r r e l h e l a r n e a l a n e e i e a a f a a . t e e r a n ,- - ' - - r - - ' , r o wmare than ZaO feeL high wiLh d,iametera exceed,inq eixfeet,. Albhouqh it. ie probably mooL valued lor newepaperprod,ucLion becauee of iLe whiLeneee,ite etrenqth andworkabil iLy rnake iL a favorile in wood,workinq an) con-oLrucLion.lL io aloo a very rezonant wood and ie widelyueed tn all typeo of otrinq and keyboard inef,rumenls.SiLka eoruce ie olLen auarLereawn.Other Namesz 1ilver e?ruce, eeq,-toia eilver ep'uce, t ide-)and e2ruce, Menzies o?ruce, coael, g?ruce, we6f,erng?ruce andwesl coaoL o?ruce.5ources: Canada. U.K. and U.9.4.Characteriaticot SLraiqhL qrain; med,ium, even lexfure:whibe Lo yellowieh-brown wiNh a eliqhL Vinkioh tinge.Veryhi qh etr en qth - t o - w ei qht, r abi o.Uaeat lnNerior 1oinery, muaical ineNrumenr,a, boat build-inq, oare, rowing eculla, qlidero, plywood, conotrucLionand veneers.Workability: Good: ver! qood, bendinq propertiee.Finiehinq Accepte finiehee well.Weight ;2b lb . lcu. f t .?riaet Mod,eraf,e.

l-

tI

SYCAMORE, AMERICAN(H )O otanical Name: F I aLa n u o o cc t d e nLa I t eArowing to heighle lhat trop ZaO fuet, thie opeciea andf,ulip 2oplar are r.he largeol hard,woode in eaelern Nor|hAmerica.With iIE l iqh| qreenleh-gray bark, AmericanlycarAore ie a prominentr ?reeence in any foreoi, and ieeomeLimes called the qhoal lree. When quarLereawn,Lhie timber ?abaeaoee a d,iolinctive fleck fiqure. Ueed, toa qrear eKterL in furnilure, Arnericar gycaorcre occa6 oa-ally ia roLary culfor veneer6.Other Nameet American planeNree, buLLonwood, planef,ree, water beech.9ouraeet Easf,ern and central U ,3.4.Characterieliaa Ueually etraiqhl qrain:fine, even f,ex-ture: p ale reddieh-brown.Ueea Furnibure, 1oinery, buXcher's blacke, and, veneere,Workabililoyt Generally qood: may bind on eaws', mainlainvery oharp cut t inq edgee:h i7h ohr inkaqewi lh atenden-cy to war?.Finiohin1 AccepNo finiehee well.tNeightt 35lb./cu.fL.Tricet lnexVeneive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

tI

tIIIIIttIIIII

n..,..],}

WOOD DIRECTORY

TULIPWOOD(H)Ootanical Na me: Dalberqia fruteacenaThie ie an extremely valuable limber,liqhter in color lhanany olher rosewood, normally availablein small cultinqoonly. Like all rosewoods, it qrow6 very olowly and needscenNurieo for the heaibwood io develoV r,op-quality color.1ecauee of ita poor availability,tulipwood i6 not, uouallyueed in eolid form, bul ae veneer for inlay on frne pieaeo.When it, is worked, this wood t ends tn oplinf,er antd,likemany of the rosewood^, qiveo off afraqirant'aroma.Ath er N amea b r azili an pinkw o o d, pinkw o o d ( U. 9. A,);pau de fuoo, jacaranda rosa (Orazil),9ourae:5outh America.Charao't'enetlcat lrre4ular 4raint meAium-frne t*xhure:rich qolden-pinkioh hue with salmon to red otripeo.Uaeal Turnin6, brush backs, woodware, j;auelry boxeo,cabinztwork, inlay work, inlaid bandin1o, marimba koyo,decorative veneers for inlay work and marquetry andantioLue reVaire.Workablf fty: Difficult; extreme dullinq of cuttnr6: ?reborefor nailinq.Finfahing: As6ePo frniahes very walli cah be brouqbbw ahigh natural polloh.WeQltu65lb./cu.fr,

WALNUT, BLACK(H)6otanical namet Juglane niqraOwin4to itre qreatbeauty and 4ood workinq characler-isLice, black walnutr is one ol Lhe mool valuable naLivewoode in Norbh America, 1ince colonial t imes, it e wideranqe of figurea has qraced Lhe finee| American cabi-network. Alxhouqh known for iLe workability, walnut doeeaontain juqlone, a chernical believed to cauee dermatitiein gomewoodworkerg.OI,her Nameet American black walnut, American walnul,Virqinia walnut (U.K.); walnui, Canadian walnuf.5ources; EaeNern U,9.4. and Ontario, Canada.Characterielicsl T ouqh wood of rnedium deneity; 4ener-ally oiraiqht qrain: medium coaree Nexlure; dark browntn purVliahblack.Uaeot Fine furnil,ure, qunof,ocke, interior joinery, cabi-nobmakinq, t urninq, boai buildinq, muoical inslrumenls,clock caeee, carving, ?Wood, panelinq and veneere.Workabif iiy: Good; blunts cuttere moderaNely; qoodbendinq properlieo,Flniehingz Accefio nal,ural wood frnishes ee?ecially well.WeQhtl 40 lb.lcu.ft.?naezModerata

N)

WOOD DIRECTORY

I

I

WE,NGE, "..( H )9otanical Name: Mil leLl, ta elp,t ' , eLronq. l teavy", lara vtrtod, vtenqe offere a f amil iar com-binati :n lo Lle vtoodvtorV.er. )L ie dif f icl lL Lo work, bulAet iqh l fu lo oo?. aL . a r iq ina t tnq f rom aLree o f moder -a"te . ize, Lh e dee2 crovn and black wood can offer dis-t incLive veneer. vt i t"h characleriot ic I tqhL etreake of

2arenchyrna, a -"ree l ieeae involved in food eLoraqe and,con6um?Lio.. For beoL reautLe, wenqe ehoula be workedV'/ia.t), very 'f)ar? Cl,Ller7,Other Namee: Dikela, mibotu, Afr ican pal ieander.9 o u r c ee: 7 oru aio r t al Al r i c a (C a rn e r o o n, G ab o n, Zai r e).Characterist ico: Heavy, denee wood: etratqht 7rain;coarae LextJre: dark brown wiLh blackieh veino and,eomel i f f iee eLreaked w iLh f ine . l iqhL brown 1 inea.Uaee: Twninq, inLerior and exLerior joinery, cabinef,rnak-' .1q.

ear'e irq atd deco'ar. lve ve('eerq.Workabil i tyt General ly qoad; blunte cuLtinq edqeo rapid,1y: pre-bore lor nai l inq; poor bending proVerLiee.Finiohing: SatielacLoryt mu.JL be f i l led lor qood reeulto.WeighL:55 lb . l cu , tL .

WILLOW(H )gotanical Name: )alix ni7raWhi le i Ie Euro2ean couain ie ueed moef , noLably tncr ickeL baLe, b lack wi l low is moeL f requent ly ueed inNorLh America by echool woodworkinq ehope: iL ie LAemoel commercially valuab)e of lhe more Lhan 1Oa typeeof nal ive NorLh Amer ican wi l lowe. Wi l low'e eLrenqLhand, re lat ive l iqhtneee make i t , Lhe c lear choice f orar t i f ic ia l l imbe.Other N ame: 3l ack W il low.Sources Canad,a, Eaef,ern U.9.A, and Mexico.Characteristiaer Liqht, Louqh wood; otraiqht, grain; f inet eKLu r e; q r ayi eh - b r ow n with r e d di eh - b r ow n eNr e aks.U e ea ArLifi ci al li mb a, t oy e, wi cke rw o rk, b a skete, b oxe e,cr af,eo, decor aLiv e v en e ero.Workability: SaLief actory: mainLain ehar? cLtttera f.o? r ev ent, f r ayi n q: p o o r b en din q p r o p e rf,i e e : ofLen c o nL ai n ereacLion waod.Finiahinq Accepte finishee wel|Weight :26lb, /cu. f t .?ricet lnexpeneive.

IIIII

III

I

I?rice: l loderaLe. I

I

I

rIttI

trIII

I

I

I

I

r36

IIIItItIIttItIIIIItII

Ilf,r

WOOD DIRECTORY

ZEBRAWOOD N)(H)9 otaniaal Na me: M i c ro b e rl i n i a b razzavi | | en ai eOiehincLive in appearance, zebrawood comee from Lwoopeciee of larqe Nreee found mainly in Cameroon andG ab on, W es| Af rica. Whil e il ie ueu ally e een a6 a veneerir North America, when quarLersawn lhis Nimber cangive beauliful resulte in eolid form. kbrawood iedifficult No work, however, and veneers tend No be fragile.Other Names: Zinqana (France, Gabon): Allen ele,amouk (Camercon): zebrano.Source;West Africa.Charao.t erietiaoz W avy to interlocked gr ain; medium t ocoa?oe teKVurei hearLwood, pale yellow brown wilh lhindarker streaks; eapwood white.Uoeoz Turninq, tool handles, ekio, inlay, furniLure,cabineLwork and decorativ e v enee(6.Workabili?y: Fair: dulls cuttinq edqeo moderately:interlocked {ain will tend to leari suffers from hiqhohrinkaqe and may be unslable in use. Flal-aut boardehardlo dry.Finiahingz Faic may be difficult, to finieh because ofinLerlocked 6rain.W eightz 45-50 lb,/ cu. fL,?ficetExoensiva.

ZIRICOTE(H)Ootanical Name; Cordia dodecandraA ehunninq, dark wood, ziricole io eaey tro work anI canbe broughtto a very emooLh finieh,fhough diff iculLNodry, once Nhis ie achieved it ia relabively etable and hiqhlydurable. Like bocote, ziricote ie a Cenbral Americanmember of the cordias. The two woodo are, in f act, quit eeimilar, differing mainly in color,Olher Name: Cordia,5 ourcesz B elize, M exi co.Characteristiaa: Sbraight qrain, medium No moderatelyfine texlure; black, gray or dark brown with black ebreake.U s est F ur n i t u r e , c abin eIw o rk , i n ter i o r jo in e ryand veneers.W orkabilityr V ery qood: liLlle blunting of cutLers.Finiohingl Accepte tinieh well.W eightz 45-50 lb./ cu. fN.Tricet Expenaive.

GLOSSARY

A-BAbsolute humiditv: A measure of theweight of water vairor per unit volumeofair, usually expressed as grains percubic foot; see relative humidity.

Air-dried lumber: Dried lumber thathas reached its equilibrium moisturecontent by exposure to the air.

Angiosperm: Belonging to the botani-cal sub-phylum or group ofwoodyplants that have encapsulated seedssuch as a walnut or acorn: includes allhardwood tree species.

Annual growth ring: The visible layerof growth that a tree puts on in a singleyear, including the earlywood and thelatewood; seen in the end grain ofwood.

Bark The outermost layer of a tree'strunk that protects the inner woodand cambium from the elements;composed of the outer, dead corkand the inner, living phloem.

Bird's-eye figure Figure on plainsawnand rotary-cut surfaces ofa fewspecies of wood-most commonlymaple-exhibiting numerous small,rounded areas resembling birds' eyes;caused by local fiber distortions.

Blister figure: Figure on plainsawnor rotary-cut surfaces that looks likevarious-sized elevated and depressedareas of rounded contour.

Board foot A unit of wood volumemeasurement equivalent to a piece ofwood I inch thick, 12 inches wide and12 inches long.

Bookmatch: In veneering, a decorativepattern in which successive veneersin a flitch are arranged side-by-side ina mirror formation, like pages of anopened book.

Boundwater: Moisture present inwood found within the cell walls;see free water.

Bow: A lumber defect in which a boardis not flat along its length.

Bucking: Crosscutting a tree into logsofa desired length.

Burl veneer: Highly decorative veneertaken from bulges or irregular growthsthat form on the trunks of somespecies and on the roots ofothers.

Butt veneer: Veneer cut from the areain a tree's trunk just above the roots;also known as stump veneer.

CCambium: A layer of actively growingtissue, one cell thick, between thephloem and the sapwood, whichrepeatedly divides itselfto form newcells of both.

Cant A log that has been debarkedand sawn square in preparation forfurther cutting.

Case hardening: A lumber defectresulting from drying a board toorapidly; the outer layers ofa boardare in compression while the innerlayers are in tension.

Celft The smallest unit of wood struc-ture, each with its own specializedfunction; cells include vessels, fibers,rays, and tracheids.

Chedc A lumber defect in whichsplits develop lengthwise across thegrowth rings during seasoningbecause of uneven shrinkage of wood.

Clear: Describes a board face that isfree of defects.

Common grade lumber: In softwood,lumber with conspicuous defects suchas red or black knots and pith.

Compression wood: Reaction woodformed on the undersides ofbranchesand leaning or crooked stems of soft-wood trees.

Conifer: Any of several families ofsoftwood trdes that bear cones; seesoftwood.

Crook A lumber defect where there isan edgewise deviation from end-to-endstraightness in a board.

Crossband: In plywood with morethan three plies, the veneers immedi-ately beneath the surface plies areoriented with a grain direction per-pendicular to that of the surface plies.

Cross grain: Generally, lumber inwhich the wood fibers deviate fromthe longitudinal axis of the board;see spiral grain.

Cross section: A viewing plane inwood identification seen in the endgrain of lumber, cut perpendicular tothe axis of the tree trunk: also knownas a transyerse section.

Crotchveneer: Veneer cut from thefork ofa tree trunk.

Crown-cut veneer: Decorative veneerthat is cut from flitches using the flat-slicing method.

Cup: A lumber defect in which theface of a board warps and assumesa cupJike shape.

Curlygrain: See wavy grain.

Cuttinglish A list of the sizes of lum-ber needed for a specific project.

D-EDeciduous: Any of several families oftrees that shed their foliage annually;see hardwood.

Defech Any abnormality or irregulari-ty that lowers the commercial value ofwood.by decreasing its strength orattectrng rts appearance; see warp.

Dendrochronology: The science ofdating past events and changes inenvironmental conditions by compar-ative study of annual growth rings.

Diamond match: In veneering, a dec-orative pattern formed when succes-sive veneers from the same flitch,usually with a diagonal stripe figure,are arranged in a diamond shape.

Diffuse-porous wood: Hardwoods inwhich the pores tend to be uniform insize and distribution throughout eachannual growth ring.

tIIItIIIttItItItIIIIIItIIItIIIIt

138

GLOSSARY

tI

tIItIIttIItIIIIIIIItItIIItIItI

Earlywood: The portion of the annualgrowth ring formed in the early partof the growing season; see latetuood.

Equilibrium moisture content Themoisture content that wood eventual-ly reaches when it is exposed to a giv-en level of relative humidity andtemperature.

Extractive: Resins and other sub-stances deposited in the heartwoodduring a tree's growth that impartboth color and resistance to decay.

F-GFace veneer: Veneer used for theexposed surfaces in hardwood andsoftwood plywood.

Fiber: A specific hardwood cell type,elongated with narrow ends and thickwalls; contributes to the strength ofthe wood.

Fiber saturation point (FSP): A con-dition in which wood cell cavities arefree of all water, yet the cell wallsremain fully saturated.

Fiddlebadc An attractive figure result-ing when wood with curly or wavy grainis quartersawn; commonly used in themanufacture of stringed instruments.

Figure In the broadest sense, the dis-tinctive pattern produced in a woodsurface bv the combination of annualgrowth rings, deviations from regulargrain, rays, knots, and coloration.

Finish gradelumber: Softwood lum-ber graded for appearance, notstrength, seasoned to a moisture con-tent of 15 percent or less; includessuperior and prime categories.

Firsts and seconds: The top or premi-um grade ofhardwood.

Flat-slicedveneer: Veneer that is slicedoffa log or a flitch with a veneer slicer.

Flitch: A section ofa log cut to extractthe best figure and yield ofveneersfrom a log; also known as a cant.

Free water: Moisture present in woodfound inside the cell cavities; seebound water.

Grade stamp: A stamp applied to mostsoftwood and some hardwood lumberindicating the grade, strength proper-ties, species of wood and the mill thatmanufactured it.

Grain: Generally, the direction, size,arrangement, appearance, or qualityof the elements in wood or lumber;specifically, the alignment of woodfibers with respect to the axis of thetree trunk.

Green lumber: Freshly sawn, unsea-soned lumber having a moisture con-tent above the fiber saturation point.

Gymnosperm: A botanical sub-phy-lum or group of woody plants thathave exposed seeds like a pine seed;includes all softwood tree species.

H-r-J-K-rHardboard: A type of manufacturedboard with smoother surfaces thanparticleboard, made by breaking wastewood down into its individual fibers,mixing them with adhesives, and mat-forming them into a strong, homoge-nous panel.

Hardwood: Generally, wood fromangiosperm tree species.

Headsaw: The large bandsaw or circu-lar saw at a mill that cuts logs intolarge slabs of timber for resawing; alsoknown as headrig.

Heartwood: The dead, inner core ofa tree extending from the pith to thesapwood, usually distinguishablefrom sapwood by its darker color.

Herringbone match: In veneers, adecorative match created when suc-cessive veneers from one flitch, usuallywith a diagonal stripe, are arranged toform a herringbone pattern.

Humbolt undercut: A method offelling trees where a wedge is cut inthe stump of a tree rather than in theupper log before it is felled.

Hygroscopicity: The ability of a sub-stance to readily absorb, retain, anddesorb moisture.

Interlocked grain: Wood that featuresrepeated alternation ofleft- and right-hand deviations of fibers from the axisofthe tree trunk, usually over severalgrowth rings; results in ribbon figureon quarter-sawn surfaces.

Key: A master list of wood speciesused in identification, ordered by cri-teria such as gross anatomical features,macroscopic features, or microscopicteatures.

IGln: A heated chamber used in dry-ing lumber, veneer, or wood productswhere temperature, humiditS andair circulation are controlled.

IGln-dried lumber: Lumber thathas been dried to a specific moisturecontent.

Knot: The base of a branch or limbthat has been overgrown by theexpanding girth of the trunk or otherportion ofthe tree.

Latewood: The portion of the annualgrowth ring formed in the latter partof the growing season; see earlywood.

ksser-known species (LKS) : Woodsrecently introduced to the market,such as chactacote, tornillo and chon-taquiro amarillo, many of which comefrom sources that practice sustainabletorest management.

Linear foot A measurement referringonly to the length of a piece of wood;see board foot.

Lumber: Logs that have been roughlysawn into timbers, resawn, planedand sawn to length.

Lumber-core plywood: Plywood inwhich softwood and hardwood veneersare glued to a core of narrow, sawedlumber.

Lumber ruler: A tool used to measurethe board-foot volume of a piece oflumber with a flexible wooden shaftand a hook for turning boards.

r39

GLOSSARY

Luthier: A builder of stringed musicalinstruments such as violins and guitars.

M-N-OMacroscopic features: Referring toanatomical features of wood identifi-cation visible with low-power magni-fication, typically a 10x hand lens.

Marquetry: Decorative inlay workdone with veneers, metals or othermaterials.

Medium density fiberboard (MDF) :A tFpe of tempered hardboard with afine texture used in cabinetmaking.

Moisture content: The amount ofwater contained in wood, expressed asa percentage ofthe weight ofthe oven-dried wood.

Mottled figure: A type of broken stripefigure with occasional interruptions ofcurly figure.

Nominal sizs The rough-sawn com-mercial size bywhich lumber is knownand sold.

Non-porouswood: Wood devoid ofvessels, or pores; softwood.

Oven-dried weighfi The constantweight of wood that has been dried inan oven at temperatures between 2l4oand22l" F. to a point where it nolonger contains moisture.

P-QParenchvma: Thin-walled cells inwood; reiponsible for the storageof carbohydr ates. See ray.

Particleboard: A tyoe of manufac-tured board made by breaking wastewood down into small particles, mix-ing them with adhesives, and extrud-ing or mat-forming them into panelsofvarying thickness.

Particleboard-core p\nuood:Plywood in which hardwood and soft-wood veneers are glued to a particle-board core for added strength.

Phloem: The inner bark. which dis-tributes nutrients derived from photo-synthesis in the leaves.

Photosynthesis: A process by whichplants synthesize carbohydrates andother nutrients from water and min-erals in the presence ofcholorphylland sunlight.

Phylum: A botanical group or classofplants.

Pitch pockeh A pocket found withinthe grain of some conifers, containingan accumulation of liquid or solidrestn.

Pith: The small, soft core occurring inthe structural center ofa tree trunk.

Plain-sawn lumber: Lumber that hasbeen sawn so that the wide surfacesare tangential to the growth rings; alsoknown as flat-sawn lumber whenreferring tb softwood; see quartersawnlumber.

Plywood: A manufactured board con-sisting of an odd number of layersor Dlies of softwood or hardwoodveneer; may also be made with a solidcore, see lumber-core plywood.

Pors A cross-section of a vessel as itappears on a transverse section ofwood; see ?esseL

Porouswood: Wood that has vessels.or pores, large enough to be seen witha hand lens; hardwood.

Quarter-cut veneer: A veneer createdby slicing a flitch to expose the quar-tersawn surface of the wood.

Quarter match: A decorative veneerpattern created by arranging successiveveneers from the same flitch, usuallywith a burl or crotch figure in a circularor oval formation; also known as four-way center and butt.

Quartersawn lumber: Lumber thathas been sawn so that the wide sur-faces intersect the growth rings, atangles between 45o and 90o; alsoknown as vertical-grained lumberwhen referring to softwood; see alsoplain-sawn lumber.

Quilted figure: A distinctive, blister-like figure found in bigleaf maple.

RRadial section: A viewing plane inwood identification cut across thegrain perpendicular to the growthrings and parallel to the wood rays;the plane that extends along the axisof the tree trunk from pith to bark.

Radial shrinkage Shrinkage thatoccurs across the growth rings aswood dries.

Ray: A ribbon-shaped strand of cellsextending across the grain from pith tobark that appear as streal$ on quarter-sawn surfaces: sometimes referred to asmedullary ray.

Reaction wood: A lumber defectcaused by stresses in leaning treetrunks and limbs; known as compres-sion wood in softwood, and tensionwood in hardwood; characterized bycompressed growth rings and silvery,lifeless color.

Relative humidity: The ratio of thewater vapor present in the air to theamount that the air would hold at itssaturation point, usually expressed as apercentage figure; see absolute humidity.

Resin canat Vertical passages betweenwood cells in conifers that conductnatural resins and pitch.

Ribbon figure: Distinctive verticalbands ofvarying luster found onquartersawn boards of wood withinterlocked grain.

Riftsawn lumber: Lumber whosegrowth rings are at angles between 30oand 60" to the board face; also knownas bastard-sawn lumber.

tIIIIItItIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

140

GLOSSARY

IttItIIIIIIIIIIItItIII

ItIIIIIrII

Ring-porous wood: Hardwoods inwhich the pores are comparativelylarge at the beginning ofeach annualgrowth ring, and decrease in sizetoward the outer section of the ring,forming distinct zones of earlywoodand latewood.

Roe figure: Figure formed by shortstripes less than I foot in length,found on quartersawn surfaces ofwoods with interlocked grain.

Rotary-cut veneer: A continuous sheetpeeled from a log or flitch by rotatingit on a lathe against a stationary knife.

S-T-USap: The water in a tree, including anydissolved nutrients and extractives.

Sapwood: The outer portion of a tree'strunk extending from the heartwoodto the cambium; distinguishable fromthe heartwood by its lighter color.

Sawyer: The person at a sawmillwhose job it is to "read" a log before itis cut and select the appropriate cut-ting patterns.

Seasoning: The.process or technique .of removing moisture from green woodto improve its workability.

Selects: In softwood, defect-free lum-ber graded for clear appearance ratherthan strength, separated into firsts andsecond, C select and D select grades.In hardwood, selects is one gradebelow firsts and seconds.

Semi-diffuse porous wood: Woodwith pores exhibiting the clear distinc-tion between earlywood and latewoodthat is lacking in diffrrse-porous wood,yet not so pronounced a difference asthat shown by ring-porous wood; alsoknown as semi-ring porous wood.

Slipmatch: In veneering, a repeateddecorative pattern created by layingsuccessive sheets ofveneer from aflitch side-by-side.

Softwood: Generally, species from thefamilies of trees that have a orimitivecell structure, bear cones and for themost part have needle-like leaves;wood produced by softwood trees.

Solar kiln: A kiln that dries lumberwith solar energy.

Sound: Describes a board face free ofdefects that would weaken the wood.

Specific gravity: The ratio of theweight of a wood sample to that of anequal volume of water.

Spermatophyte: Any of a phylum orgroup ofhigher plants that reproduceby seed; includes almost all tree species.

Spiral grain: A form of cross graincaused by the spiral alienment of woodfibers in a staniing trei.

Stain: A discoloration in wood causedby fungi, metals, or chemicals.

Sticker: A piece of wood, usually 3/+-to l-inch thick, used to separate boardsof lumber in a drying stack to permitarr crrculatron.

Substrate A piece of plywood, soft-wood or hardwood used in veneeringas a core.

Surfacing: The way lumber has beenprepared at a mill before it goes to alumberyard. Also known as dressing.

Sustainable forest management Theprocess of managing forest land toensure future productivity and maxi-mize the flow of forest products with-out placing undue strain on the phys-ical and social environment.

Thngential section: A viewing plane inwood identification cut along the graintangential to the growth rings; plain-sawn lumber is sawn tangentially.

Tangential shrinkage: Wood shrink-age that occurs tangentially to thegrowth rrngs.

Tensionwood: Reaction wood formedoccasionaly on the upper side ofbranches dnd leanin!br crookedstems of hardwood trees.

Texture: Refers to the size ofthecells in wood, indicated by adjectivesfrom fine to coarse; often'confusedwith grain.

Tiacheid: Long, fibrous cells that con-duct sap and help support the tree.

Twist A defect caused by the turningor winding of the edges of the board,so that one corner twists out of plane.

V-W-X-Y-ZVeneer: A thin layer or sheet of woodsawn, sliced or rotary cut from a logor flitch.

Veneer-core plywood: Plywoodthat consists of three or more pliesofveneers, each laid at right anglesto each other with respect to gralndirection.

Veneerpress: A commercial or shop-built press used to apply veneers tosubstrates.

Vesseh Wood cells of comparativelylarge diameter found in hirdwoodi,set one atop the other to form a con-tinuous tube for conducting waterand sap up the trunk; when viewed incross-section, vessels appear as pores.

Warp: A lumber defect or distortionof a piece of wood; see bow, croolg cup,and, twtst.

Wavy grain: Grain resulting fromrepeated, undulating right and leftdeviations in the alignment of woodfibers from the axis 6f a tree's trunk;also known as cuily grain.

t41

INDEX

Page references in lralics indicatean illustration of subiect matter.Page references in bold indicatea Build It Yourself project.

A B CAir-dried (AD) lumber, 43, 79, 87- 88American Lumber Standards

Committee,48Arno, Jon, l0-llAversdon, Sven,45Bark, 15Bird's-eye figxe,27, 59Blue stain (wood defect), 50, 5lBoard-foot measurement, 42, 43, 44Botanical names, 17,98Build It Yourself:

Log crosscutting jigs, 39Solar kilns, 84-85Veneer-trimming jigs, 66

Burlfigure,27Burl veneers, 59Butt veneers, 59Cambium, 14, i5Cant,37-38Center for Wood Anatomy Research, 34Common grade lumber, 45, 46, 47 ,

48,49Crotch veneers, 59Cutting lists, 44

D E F GDefective lumber, 20-21, 50- 52

See alsoWarped stockDensity. See Specific gravityDiffirse-porous woods, 16Dowels,95Drfttg processes, 43,50, 78-79

Air drying, 43,79,87-88Solar kilns, 84-85

Earlywood, 15, L6, 37Edge banding:

Plvwood,74shop-made edge banding

(ShopTip),75Veneers, 64

trimming edge banding(Shop Tip), 64

Edge-grain sawn lumber. SeeQuartersawn lumber

Edgemarks, T2Endangered species, 98FAS grade lumber,46,47Fiberboard, 56,77Fiber saturation point (FSP), 80Fiddleback figur e, 26, 27Figure,2G27

Veneers, 59Finish grade lumber, 48,49Flat-cut veneers, 59Flat-grained lumber. See Plain-

sawn lumber

Grade stamps,48, 49PIywood, T2

Grading. See Lumber: Grades; Plywood:Grades

Grain,26,28-29Growth rings, .15, 24,25,33Gum (wood defect), 5O 51

H I I KHardboard,56,77Hardwood, 16,98

Grades,46-47Identification, 33Plywood, 70,71,72,73

Heartwood, 14, 15,25Identification keys, 34 35International Wood Collectors

Sociery 34figs:

Log crosscutting jigs, 39Veneer-trimming jigs, 66

Jointing,53Concave/convex surfaces, 55

Kiln-dried (KD) lumber, 43,78-79Solar kilns, 84-85

Knots (wood defect), 20, 50

t M N OLandscape fr9ure,26,27Latewood, 15, 16,31Leaves, 16Linear-foot measurement, 42Linnaeus, Carl,17Logs, 13

Sawing into lumber, 22-25,36-39Squaring,37-38

log crosscutting jigs, 39Storage, 87Veneer-cutting, 59, 60-61

Lumber:Abbreviations, back endpaperCarrying lumber by car (Shop Tip), 42Defects, 20-2I,50-52Grades, 40, 41,42, 45

hardwood,46-47softwood,48-49

Measurement, 42, 43cutting lists, 44

Moisture content, 43,49,79, 80-83making a moisture indicator

(Shop Tip), 86reading moisture content in thick

stock (Shop Tip)83storing wood to preserve its mois-

ture content (Shop Tip), 89Purchasing, 42-43Recycled,4lSawing from logs, 24-25, 3G39Seasoning, 43,50, 7&79

air drying, 43,79,87-88solar kilns, 84-85

Selection,4lShrinkage/swelling, 24, 80- 82, 8 6

Sizes,42,48Storage, 79

racks, 89-92, 95-97storing wood to preserve its mois-

ture content (Shop Tip), 89Surfacing/dressing, 43, 53-55See abo Manufactured boards; Plywood

Lumberyards,4lMachine burn (wood defect), 5lManufactured boards, 56,57, 76-77

See alsoPlywoodMicroscopic examination, 3I-33Mottle figure, 26National Hardwood Lumber Association

(NHLA),46,47Newsprint, 17

P Q R SParticleboard, 56, 76Phloem, 15Pith, 15,25Plain-sawn lumbet 24- 2 5

Shrinkage,24, 86Planing,54

Grain,29Plywood,56,57,70-71

Edge concealm ent, 74- 75shop-made edge banding (Shop

Tip),75Grades,72-73Plywood carrier (Shop Tip),73Storage

holding plywood panels againsta wall (Shop Tip), 93

racks,92-94Temporary plywood pallet (Shop

Tip),94Types,71

Poynter, Andrew, 8-9Quartersawn lumber, 24-25, 37

Shrinkage,24, 86Rays, 15,25,31Reaction wood,50, 52Resin canals, 3.1, 33Ribbon frgtre,27Ring-porous woods, 16, 33Safety precautions, front endpaper:

Chain saws, front endpaper, 36Sapwood, 14, -15Sawmills, 22-23,4lSelect grade lumber, 46,47,48,49Sharp, ]ohn, 6-7Shop Tips:

Lumbercarrying lumber by cat,42checking lumber for twist, 52making a moisture indicator, 86reading moisture content in

thick stock 83storing wood to preserve its mois-

ture content, 89straightening out an uneven

edge,55

IIttrttItIItIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIIItI

r42

tI

tIttII

IIIItIttttIIIttIIItIaIII

Plywoodholding plywood panels against

a wall, 93plywood carriet, T3shop-made edge banding, 75temporary plywo od pallet, 94

Veneerssalvaging warped veneer, 62trimming edge banding, 64veneering a curved surface (Shop

Tip) ,68Softwood, 16,33,98

Grades,4&49Plywood, 70,71,72,73

Specific graity,27,28Splits (wood defect), 51Striped veneers, 59

T UThrough-and-through sawn lumber,

24,37Tools:

Chain saws, 36Lumber mills, 36Moisture meters,79,83

reading moisture content in thickstock (Shop Tip) 83

Veneering, 63Wood identification, 30See alsoligs

Tracheids, 16, 3lTrees:

Anatomy, 14-15Botanical names, 17,98Conservation, 7,98Felling, front endpaper, I8-22Industrial uses, l7

Twisting. SeeWarped stock

V W X Y ZVeneers, 57-58

Application, 63-68trimming edge banding (Shop

Tip),64veneering a curved surface (Shop

Tip) ,68veneer-trimming jigs, 65

Cuttingbandsaws,6l-62from logs, 59, 60-6I

Decorative patterns, 69Salvaging warped veneer (Shop

Tip),62Warped stock, 50, 5l

Checking lumber for twist (ShopTip),52

Salvaging, 53,54-55salvaging warped veneer (Shop

Tip),62straightening out an uneven edge

(Shop Tip), 55Woods, 13

Color,26,33Figure,27

Grain,26,28-29Identification, 7, 30- 35Luster, 33Odot27,33Species

African mahogany, 27, 120African padauk, 123afrormosia, 99agba,99Alaska yellow cedar, 82, 107alder, 100amburana, 100American chestnut, /I0American sycamore, 82,87, 133aromatic cedar, 107ash,82, 87, 101avodir6, 58, 102bald cypress, 111balsa, 102basswood, 82,87, 103bayo,103beech,59, 82,87, 104birch, 104blackash, I0Iblack cherry, 82,87 , 109black walnut, 58,82,87, 135blackwillow, 82, 136bocote, I05Brazlian rosewood, I 7, 58, 98bubinga, 105butternut, 82,87, 106California r edw ood., 1 29Carpathian elm, 27,58, 59catalpa, 82, 106cedar,82, 107- 108, 132Ceylon satinwood, 58, l3Ichactacote, 109cherry 82,87, 109chestnut, I l0chontaquiro amarillo, I.l0cocobolo, IIlqpress, IllDouglas-fir, 12, 18, 82, 87, 112East Indian rosewood, 59ebony,112-1lje lm,58, 59,82,87,113European beech, 59goncalo alves, .l14gray elm, 87hackberry 82, 114hard maple, I2Ihickory 82,87,115holly,82, I15Honduras rosewood, 129imbuia, 58, 116Indonesian rosewood, 130iroko,.l16jatoba,1l7kingwood, -117koa, l18lacewood,58, 118lignumvitae, i19macassar ebony, l.l3madrone, 82, 119

mahogann 58,59,82, 120maple, 27, 58, 59, 82, 87, 1 21movingue,26myrtle, 58, 121oak, 82, 87, 122olivewood, 58, 123padavk,123paper birch, 104pauferro, 124pear,58,124pecan, 125peroba rosa,26persimmon,35,82, 125pine, 31, 82, 87, 126- 127ponderosa pine, 126poplar, 127primavera, 128purpleheart, 58, 128red alder, 100redcedar, l08red oak, 82, 87, 122red spruce, 87redwood, 87, 129rosewood, 17, 58, 59, 129- 130sapele, 58, 130sassafras, 10,82,131satinwood, 58, 131sitka spruce, 133snakewood, 132South American mahogann 82, i20southern yellow pine, /26Spanish cedar,132spruce, 87, 133sugar maple, 82, 87sugar pine, 87sycamore, 82,87, 133teak,82, 134tornillo, 134tulipwood, 135walnut, 58, 59, 82, 87, 135wenge, 136western red cedar, 82, 108white ash, 82, 87, 101white birch,26white cedar, 108white elm, .l13white oak, 82, 122white pine, 31, 82, 87, 127willow,82, 136yelTow cedag 107yellow poplar, 127yew,58zebrawood, 58, 137ziricote, 137

Texture,26Weight,27,28See also Hardwood; Logs; Lumber;

Manufactured boardi; Plywood;Softwood; Trees; Veneers

Wood samples,30,34Woodworkers Alliance for Rainforest

Protection (WARP),8

r43

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The editors wish to thank the foUowing

UNDERSTANDINGWOODDelta International Machinery, Guelph, Ont.; Sheila Foley, Council of Forest Industries of B.C., Vancouver, B.C.;

fim Gundy, Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers Assn., High Point, NC; Haddon Tool, Chicago, IL;Richard fagels, Dept. of Forest Biology, University of Maine, Orono, ME; Lee Valley Tools Ltd., Ottawa, Ont.;

Doug MacCleery Forest Inventory and Planning, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC; DuncanMcTaggert, MacMillan Bloedel, Vancouver, BC; David Mitchell, Centennial Academy, Montreal, Que.;Jack Pitcher, National Hardwood Lumber Assn., Memphis, TN; Woodcraft Supply, Parkersburg, WV

SELECTINGLUMBERLes Bois M & M lt6e., St-Mathieu, Que.; fim Carse, A & M Wood Specialty Inc., Cambridge, Ont.;

Communication Masters, Norcross, GA; Delta International Machinery, Guelph, Ont.; Dave Doucette,Highland Hardwoods, Brenfivood, NH; Hitachi Power Tools U.S.A. Ltd., Norcross, GA;

Roger Landreville, Montreal, Que.; Jack Pitcher, National Hardwood Lumber Assn., Memphis, TN;Bob Sabastina, National Hardwood Lumber Assn., Memphis, TN; Tom Searles, American

Lumber Standards Committee, Germantown, MD.; Shopsmith, Inc., Montreal, Que.

VENEBRS AND MANUFACTI.]RED BOARDSAdjustable Clamp Co., Chicago, IL; Delta International Machinery/Porter Cable, Guelph, Ont.;

Lee Valley Tools Ltd., Ottawa, Ont.

DRYINGAND STORINGWOODLee Valley Tools, Ottawa, Ont.; Bill Simpson, U.S. Forest Products Lab, Madison, WI;

WOODDIRECTORYA & M Wood Specialty Inc., Cambridge, Ont.; Pete Atkinson, World Conservation Monitoring Centre,Cambridge, England; R.S. Bacon Veneer Co., Hillside, IL Tom Barrett, General Woods and Veneers,

Montreal, Que.; Jim Carse, A & M Wood Specialty Inc., Cambridge, Ont.; Iohn Curtis, The Luthier's Mercantile,Healdsburg, CA; Michael Fortune, Toronto, Ont.; R€jean Garand enr., St-R6mi, Que.; Debbie Hammel, Scientific

Certification Systems, Inc., Oakland, CA; Bruce MacBryde, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of theInterior, Washington, DC; Gary Meixner, Pittsford Lumber, Pittsford, N.Y; Mark Platin, Wildwoods Co.,

Arcata, CA; John Shipstad, Woodworkers Alliance for Rainforest Protection, Coos Bay, OR

The following persons also assisted in the preparation of this book:

Adrienne Bertrand, Elizabeth Cameron, Donna Curtis, Lorraine Dor€, Graphor Consultation,Marie-Jos6e Harcc, Carolyn Jackson, Leonard Lee, Edna and William Mills, Brian Parsons, Maryo Proulx

PICTURE CREDITSCover Robert Chartier

5,7 Mark Tucker8,9 Bob Anderson

10, 11 Bob Anderson12 Courtesy Western Wood Products Association

13 Gloria H. Chomica/Masterfile17 Bob Anderson/Masterfile

18 Ed Gifford/Masterfile19 Erik Borg

20 Al Harvey/Masterfile21 Courtesy Western Wood Products Association

22 Erik Borg23 Erik Borg (2)

33 Courtesy U.S. Forest Products Laboratory (2)36 Courtesy Better Built Corporation

a0 Philip C. Jackson60 Courtesy David R. Webb Co., Inc.

78 Erik Borg

IrIIIIIIIIIIIItIItIIIIIIIIIttIII

r44

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

\lI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

tI

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

WORKSHOP GUIDEUSEFUL LUMBER ABBREVIATI()NS

AD Air dr ied LIN FT

BD Board MC

BD FT Board foot 0C

CLR Clear - 0G

COM Common P

CU FT Cubic feet PAD

DIM Dimens ion PC

E Edge " RDM

FAS Firsts and seconds REG

FT Foot RGH

FT SM Surface measure ( in feet) RIP

GR Green RL

HDWD Hardwood RND

HRTWD Heartwood SAP

lN lnches SD

JTD Jointed SE

KD K i ln d r ied SEL

LBR Lumber SFLGTH Length SMLIN L inear o r l inea l S0

Linear, or l rneal, foot

Moisture content

0n center

Ogee

Planed

Part ial ly air dr ied

Piece

Random

Regu lar

Rough

R i pped

Random lengths

Rou nd

Sapwood

Seasoned

Square edge

Select

Surface foot (1 square foot)

Surface measure

Sq uare

Standard

Stock' Foot or feet" Inch or inchesx b y ( a s i n 2 x 4 )a/q 6h.8h (and so on) '

Rough th ickness i nf ract ions of an inch

Q i d p : n d o d o p

S r r r f a c o d n n c p d o o

Q r r r f a n o d t u i n p d o e s

Surfaced one s ide

Surfaced two sides

Surfaced four s ides

Surfaced one s ide, one edge

Surfaced one s ide, two edges

Tnns r rp and s rnnvp

V lo rn tWider

Weight

w id th

STD

STK

SYMBOLS

S&E

S I E

s2E

s l ss2ss4ss 1 s l Es1szET&G

VJ

WDR

WT

WTH

REC()MMENDED MOISTURE C()NTENT FOR CABINETMAKING LUMBER

Ave"ane mnia f . t t re rnn f .en l B% As this map provided by the U.S.Forest Products Lab shows, the idealmoisture content for wood used tob u i l d i n d o o r f u r n i t u r e d e p e n d s o nthe reg ion fo r wh ich the f in ishedar t i c le i s in tended. In the re la t i ve lydry Southwestern states, for example,lumber should be dr ied to a moisturecontent of 4 to 9 nercent. A level of8 to 13 percent would be better forthe Southeastern region of the countrywhere humid i ty i s genera l l y h igher .The nat ional average fal ls between5 and 10 percent moisture content.

, J

\

Average motetureconl;enL 6%

Average moteLurecontenL 11%