The axiom of choiceHow (not) to choose in�nitely many socks
Regula Krapf
University of Bonn
April 27, 2016
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 1 / 26
Content
1 What is choice and (why) do we need it?
2 Permutation models
3 The second Fraenkel model
4 Homework
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 2 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Motivation
The axiom of choice is necessary to select a set from an in�nite number of
socks but not an in�nite number of shoes.
Bertrand Russell
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 3 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
The axiom of choice
The axiom of choice AC states the following:
∀x [∅ /∈ x → ∃f : x →⋃
x (∀y ∈ x(f (y) ∈ y))].
Or, in a less cryptic way,
If (Xi )i∈I is a family of non-empty sets, then there is a family (yi )i∈I suchthat yi ∈ Xi for every i ∈ I .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 4 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
The axiom of choice
The axiom of choice AC states the following:
∀x [∅ /∈ x → ∃f : x →⋃
x (∀y ∈ x(f (y) ∈ y))].
Or, in a less cryptic way,
If (Xi )i∈I is a family of non-empty sets, then there is a family (yi )i∈I suchthat yi ∈ Xi for every i ∈ I .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 4 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
The axiom of choice
The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the well-ordering principle obviously
false, and who can tell about Zorn's lemma?
Jerry Bona
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 5 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Some equivalences of the axiom of choice
Theorem
The following statements are equivalent.
1 The axiom of choice.
2 The well-ordering principle.
3 Zorn's lemma.
4 Every vector space has a basis.
5 Every non-trivial unital ring has a maximal ideal.
6 Tychono�'s theorem.
7 Every connected graph has a spanning tree.
8 Every surjective map has a right inverse.
Proof.
Left as an excercise.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 6 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Some equivalences of the axiom of choice
Theorem
The following statements are equivalent.
1 The axiom of choice.
2 The well-ordering principle.
3 Zorn's lemma.
4 Every vector space has a basis.
5 Every non-trivial unital ring has a maximal ideal.
6 Tychono�'s theorem.
7 Every connected graph has a spanning tree.
8 Every surjective map has a right inverse.
Proof.
Left as an excercise.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 6 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
But the axiom of choice implies weird things...
... so maybe it would be nice to have a weaker choice principle?
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 7 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
But the axiom of choice implies weird things...
... so maybe it would be nice to have a weaker choice principle?
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 7 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Weaker forms of choice
The following choice principles are strictly weaker then AC.
ACℵ0 Every countable family of non-empty sets has a choice
function (Axiom of countable choice).
AC<ℵ0ℵ0 Every countable family of non-empty �nite sets has a choice
function.
ACnℵ0 Every family of countably many n-element sets has a choice
function.
KL König's lemma
RPP Ramsey's partition principle
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 8 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
König's lemma
Theorem (Dénes König, 1927)
Every �nitely branching tree that contains in�nitely many vertices has an
in�nte branch.
It was shown by Pincus in 1972 that König's lemma is equivalent to the
axiom AC<ℵ0ℵ0 .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 9 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
König's lemma
Theorem (Dénes König, 1927)
Every �nitely branching tree that contains in�nitely many vertices has an
in�nte branch.
It was shown by Pincus in 1972 that König's lemma is equivalent to the
axiom AC<ℵ0ℵ0 .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 9 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Ramsey's partition principle
A 2-coloring of a set X is a map f : [X ]2 → {0, 1}. A subset Y of X is
said to be monochromatic (or homogeneous) with resprect to f , if
f � [Y ]2 is constant.
Theorem (Ramsey's partition principle)
If f : [X ]→ {0, 1} is a 2-coloring of an in�nite set X , then there is an
in�nite subset Y of X which is monochromatic.
It holds that ACℵ0 ⇒ RPP⇒ KL.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 10 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Ramsey's partition principle
A 2-coloring of a set X is a map f : [X ]2 → {0, 1}. A subset Y of X is
said to be monochromatic (or homogeneous) with resprect to f , if
f � [Y ]2 is constant.
Theorem (Ramsey's partition principle)
If f : [X ]→ {0, 1} is a 2-coloring of an in�nite set X , then there is an
in�nite subset Y of X which is monochromatic.
It holds that ACℵ0 ⇒ RPP⇒ KL.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 10 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Ramsey's partition principle
A 2-coloring of a set X is a map f : [X ]2 → {0, 1}. A subset Y of X is
said to be monochromatic (or homogeneous) with resprect to f , if
f � [Y ]2 is constant.
Theorem (Ramsey's partition principle)
If f : [X ]→ {0, 1} is a 2-coloring of an in�nite set X , then there is an
in�nite subset Y of X which is monochromatic.
It holds that ACℵ0 ⇒ RPP⇒ KL.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 10 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Stronger forms of choice
In class theory, one often uses the axiom of global choice:
There is a class function F : V \ {∅} → V such that F (x) ∈ x for every set
x ∈ V \ ∅.
This is equivalent to postulating that there is a global well-order of the
set-theoretic universe V.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 11 / 26
What is choice and (why) do we need it?
Stronger forms of choice
In class theory, one often uses the axiom of global choice:
There is a class function F : V \ {∅} → V such that F (x) ∈ x for every set
x ∈ V \ ∅.
This is equivalent to postulating that there is a global well-order of the
set-theoretic universe V.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 11 / 26
Permutation models
Set theory with atoms (ZFA)
The language of ZFA is given by {∈,A}. The axioms are given by the
axioms of ZF with a modi�ed version of the axiom of the empty set andthe extensionality axiom
∃x [x /∈ A ∧ ∀y(y /∈ x)]
∀x , y [(x , y /∈ A)→ ∀z(z ∈ x ↔ z ∈ y)→ x = y ]
and the additional axiom of atoms given by
∀x [x ∈ A↔ (x 6= ∅ ∧ ¬∃y(y ∈ x))].
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 12 / 26
Permutation models
Models of set theory with atoms
For a set S we de�ne a hierarchy by
P0(S) = S
Pα+1(S) = P(Pα(S))
Pα(S) =⋃β<α
Pβ(S), β limit
P∞(S) =⋃
α∈OrdPα(S).
Then V = P∞(A) is a model of ZFA, V̂ = P∞(∅) is a model of ZF.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 13 / 26
Permutation models
Models of set theory with atoms
For a set S we de�ne a hierarchy by
P0(S) = S
Pα+1(S) = P(Pα(S))
Pα(S) =⋃β<α
Pβ(S), β limit
P∞(S) =⋃
α∈OrdPα(S).
Then V = P∞(A) is a model of ZFA, V̂ = P∞(∅) is a model of ZF.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 13 / 26
Permutation models
Normal �lters of permutation groups
Let G be a group of permutations of A.
De�nition
Let F be a set of subgroups of G . Then F is said to be a normal �lter onG , if for all subgroups H,K of G the following statements hold.
(A) G ∈ F(B) H ∈ F and H ⊆ K ⇒ K ∈ F(C) H,K ∈ F ⇒ H ∩ K ∈ F(D) π ∈ G and H ∈ F ⇒ πHπ−1 ∈ F(E) for all a ∈ A, {π ∈ G | πa = a} ∈ F .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 14 / 26
Permutation models
Normal �lters of permutation groups
De�nition
For a subset E ⊆ A we de�ne
�xG (E ) = {π ∈ G | πa = a for all a ∈ E}.
Then the �lter F generated by {�xG (E ) | E ⊆ A �nite}, i.e.
H ∈ F ⇐⇒ ∃E ⊆ A �nite such that �xG (E ) ⊆ H
is a normal �lter on G , denoted F�n.
From now on, let F = F�n.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 15 / 26
Permutation models
Normal �lters of permutation groups
De�nition
For a subset E ⊆ A we de�ne
�xG (E ) = {π ∈ G | πa = a for all a ∈ E}.
Then the �lter F generated by {�xG (E ) | E ⊆ A �nite}, i.e.
H ∈ F ⇐⇒ ∃E ⊆ A �nite such that �xG (E ) ⊆ H
is a normal �lter on G , denoted F�n.
From now on, let F = F�n.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 15 / 26
Permutation models
By trans�nite induction we de�ne for every set x and for every π ∈ G the
set πx by
πx =
∅ if x = ∅,πx if x ∈ A,
{πy | y ∈ x} otherwise.
For every set x we de�ne
symG (x) = {π ∈ G | πx = x}.
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on G . A set x is said to be
symmetric, if symG (x) ∈ F .hereditarily symmetric, if x is symmetric and every element of x is
hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 16 / 26
Permutation models
By trans�nite induction we de�ne for every set x and for every π ∈ G the
set πx by
πx =
∅ if x = ∅,πx if x ∈ A,
{πy | y ∈ x} otherwise.
For every set x we de�ne
symG (x) = {π ∈ G | πx = x}.
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on G . A set x is said to be
symmetric, if symG (x) ∈ F .hereditarily symmetric, if x is symmetric and every element of x is
hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 16 / 26
Permutation models
By trans�nite induction we de�ne for every set x and for every π ∈ G the
set πx by
πx =
∅ if x = ∅,πx if x ∈ A,
{πy | y ∈ x} otherwise.
For every set x we de�ne
symG (x) = {π ∈ G | πx = x}.
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on G . A set x is said to be
symmetric, if symG (x) ∈ F .hereditarily symmetric, if x is symmetric and every element of x is
hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 16 / 26
Permutation models
Symmetric sets
Lemma
The following statements hold.
1 Every atom a ∈ A is symmetric.
2 A set x is hereditarily symmetric if and only if for every π ∈ G, πx is
hereditarily symmetric.
3 For every set x ∈ V̂ and for every π ∈ G, πx = x.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 17 / 26
Permutation models
Symmetric sets
Lemma
A set x is symmetric if and only if there is a �nite set E ⊆ A such that
�xG (E ) ⊆ symG (x). Such a set E is said to be a support of x.
Note that if E is a support of x then every �nite set F with E ⊆ F ⊆ A is
also a support of x .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 18 / 26
Permutation models
Permutation models
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on a group G of permutations of A. Then the
class VF of all hereditarily symmetric sets in V = P∞(A) is a model of
ZFA called a permutation model.
We have A ∈ VF and V̂ ⊆ VF .
Theorem (Jech-Sochor)
Permutation models can always be embedded into models of ZF.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 19 / 26
Permutation models
Permutation models
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on a group G of permutations of A. Then the
class VF of all hereditarily symmetric sets in V = P∞(A) is a model of
ZFA called a permutation model.
We have A ∈ VF and V̂ ⊆ VF .
Theorem (Jech-Sochor)
Permutation models can always be embedded into models of ZF.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 19 / 26
Permutation models
Permutation models
De�nition
Let F be a normal �lter on a group G of permutations of A. Then the
class VF of all hereditarily symmetric sets in V = P∞(A) is a model of
ZFA called a permutation model.
We have A ∈ VF and V̂ ⊆ VF .
Theorem (Jech-Sochor)
Permutation models can always be embedded into models of ZF.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 19 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
The second Fraenkel model
We now construct a speci�c permutation model with atoms given by
A =⋃n∈ω
Pn,
where Pn = {an, bn} consists of two elements for all n ∈ ω and
Pn ∩ Pm = ∅ for n 6= m.
Let G be the group of all permutations π of A such that πPn = Pn for all
n ∈ ω, and let F = F�n. We call the corresponding permutation model the
second Fraenkel model VF2 .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 20 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
The second Fraenkel model
We now construct a speci�c permutation model with atoms given by
A =⋃n∈ω
Pn,
where Pn = {an, bn} consists of two elements for all n ∈ ω and
Pn ∩ Pm = ∅ for n 6= m.
Let G be the group of all permutations π of A such that πPn = Pn for all
n ∈ ω, and let F = F�n. We call the corresponding permutation model the
second Fraenkel model VF2 .
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 20 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
The second Fraenkel model
Lemma
The following statements hold in VF2 .
1 For all n ∈ ω, Pn ∈ VF2 .
2 {Pn | n ∈ ω} ∈ VF2 .
Proof.
1 By de�nition we have πPn = Pn for all π ∈ G , so Pn is symmetric. SincesymG (an), symG (bn) ∈ F , Pn is also hereditarily symmetric.
2 For every π ∈ G we have
π{Pn | n ∈ ω} = {πPn | n ∈ ω} = {Pn | n ∈ ω},
so {Pn | n ∈ ω} is symmetric and by (1) also hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 21 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
The second Fraenkel model
Lemma
The following statements hold in VF2 .
1 For all n ∈ ω, Pn ∈ VF2 .
2 {Pn | n ∈ ω} ∈ VF2 .
Proof.
1 By de�nition we have πPn = Pn for all π ∈ G , so Pn is symmetric. SincesymG (an), symG (bn) ∈ F , Pn is also hereditarily symmetric.
2 For every π ∈ G we have
π{Pn | n ∈ ω} = {πPn | n ∈ ω} = {Pn | n ∈ ω},
so {Pn | n ∈ ω} is symmetric and by (1) also hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 21 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
The second Fraenkel model
Lemma
The following statements hold in VF2 .
1 For all n ∈ ω, Pn ∈ VF2 .
2 {Pn | n ∈ ω} ∈ VF2 .
Proof.
1 By de�nition we have πPn = Pn for all π ∈ G , so Pn is symmetric. SincesymG (an), symG (bn) ∈ F , Pn is also hereditarily symmetric.
2 For every π ∈ G we have
π{Pn | n ∈ ω} = {πPn | n ∈ ω} = {Pn | n ∈ ω},
so {Pn | n ∈ ω} is symmetric and by (1) also hereditarily symmetric.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 21 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of AC2ℵ0
Theorem
In VF2 the axiom AC2ℵ0 fails.
Proof.
We show that there is no choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}. Suppose for a
contradiction that f : ω →⋃
n∈ω Pn is a choice function, i.e. f (n) ∈ Pn for
all n ∈ ω. Let Ef be a support of f . WLOG we may assume that E is of
the form E = {a0, b0, . . . , ak , bk} for some k ∈ ω. Let π ∈ �xG (E ) withπak+1 = bk+1. Since π ∈ �xG (E ) ⊆ symG (f ) we have πf = f and hence
π〈k + 1, f (k + 1)〉 = 〈π(k + 1), πf (k + 1)〉 = 〈k + 1, πf (k + 1)〉 ∈ f ,
so f (k + 1) = πf (k + 1), a contradiction.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 22 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of AC2ℵ0
Theorem
In VF2 the axiom AC2ℵ0 fails.
Proof.
We show that there is no choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}. Suppose for a
contradiction that f : ω →⋃
n∈ω Pn is a choice function, i.e. f (n) ∈ Pn for
all n ∈ ω. Let Ef be a support of f . WLOG we may assume that E is of
the form E = {a0, b0, . . . , ak , bk} for some k ∈ ω. Let π ∈ �xG (E ) withπak+1 = bk+1. Since π ∈ �xG (E ) ⊆ symG (f ) we have πf = f and hence
π〈k + 1, f (k + 1)〉 = 〈π(k + 1), πf (k + 1)〉 = 〈k + 1, πf (k + 1)〉 ∈ f ,
so f (k + 1) = πf (k + 1), a contradiction.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 22 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of AC2ℵ0
Theorem
In VF2 the axiom AC2ℵ0 fails.
Proof.
We show that there is no choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}. Suppose for a
contradiction that f : ω →⋃
n∈ω Pn is a choice function, i.e. f (n) ∈ Pn for
all n ∈ ω. Let Ef be a support of f . WLOG we may assume that E is of
the form E = {a0, b0, . . . , ak , bk} for some k ∈ ω. Let π ∈ �xG (E ) withπak+1 = bk+1. Since π ∈ �xG (E ) ⊆ symG (f ) we have πf = f and hence
π〈k + 1, f (k + 1)〉 = 〈π(k + 1), πf (k + 1)〉 = 〈k + 1, πf (k + 1)〉 ∈ f ,
so f (k + 1) = πf (k + 1), a contradiction.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 22 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of AC2ℵ0
Theorem
In VF2 the axiom AC2ℵ0 fails.
Proof.
We show that there is no choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}. Suppose for a
contradiction that f : ω →⋃
n∈ω Pn is a choice function, i.e. f (n) ∈ Pn for
all n ∈ ω. Let Ef be a support of f . WLOG we may assume that E is of
the form E = {a0, b0, . . . , ak , bk} for some k ∈ ω. Let π ∈ �xG (E ) withπak+1 = bk+1. Since π ∈ �xG (E ) ⊆ symG (f ) we have πf = f and hence
π〈k + 1, f (k + 1)〉 = 〈π(k + 1), πf (k + 1)〉 = 〈k + 1, πf (k + 1)〉 ∈ f ,
so f (k + 1) = πf (k + 1), a contradiction.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 22 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of König's lemma
Theorem
In VF2 there is an in�nite binary tree which does not have an in�nite
branch. In particular, in VF2 König's lemma fails.
Proof.
For every n ∈ ω consider
Vn = {s : {0, . . . , n − 1} → A | ∀i < n [s(i) ∈ Pi ]}.
The vertices are given by V =⋃
n∈ω Vn. Furthermore, we de�ne s ≺ t i� there isn ∈ ω such that s ∈ Vn, t ∈ Vn+1 and t extends s. Then T = 〈V ,≺〉 is an in�nitebinary tree with the property that if s ∈ V , then s ∪ {〈n, an〉}, s ∪ {〈n, bn〉} ∈ V .
But every in�nite branch through T would give a choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}contradicting our previous theorem.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 23 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of König's lemma
Theorem
In VF2 there is an in�nite binary tree which does not have an in�nite
branch. In particular, in VF2 König's lemma fails.
Proof.
For every n ∈ ω consider
Vn = {s : {0, . . . , n − 1} → A | ∀i < n [s(i) ∈ Pi ]}.
The vertices are given by V =⋃
n∈ω Vn. Furthermore, we de�ne s ≺ t i� there isn ∈ ω such that s ∈ Vn, t ∈ Vn+1 and t extends s. Then T = 〈V ,≺〉 is an in�nitebinary tree with the property that if s ∈ V , then s ∪ {〈n, an〉}, s ∪ {〈n, bn〉} ∈ V .
But every in�nite branch through T would give a choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}contradicting our previous theorem.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 23 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of König's lemma
Theorem
In VF2 there is an in�nite binary tree which does not have an in�nite
branch. In particular, in VF2 König's lemma fails.
Proof.
For every n ∈ ω consider
Vn = {s : {0, . . . , n − 1} → A | ∀i < n [s(i) ∈ Pi ]}.
The vertices are given by V =⋃
n∈ω Vn. Furthermore, we de�ne s ≺ t i� there isn ∈ ω such that s ∈ Vn, t ∈ Vn+1 and t extends s. Then T = 〈V ,≺〉 is an in�nitebinary tree with the property that if s ∈ V , then s ∪ {〈n, an〉}, s ∪ {〈n, bn〉} ∈ V .
But every in�nite branch through T would give a choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}contradicting our previous theorem.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 23 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of König's lemma
Theorem
In VF2 there is an in�nite binary tree which does not have an in�nite
branch. In particular, in VF2 König's lemma fails.
Proof.
For every n ∈ ω consider
Vn = {s : {0, . . . , n − 1} → A | ∀i < n [s(i) ∈ Pi ]}.
The vertices are given by V =⋃
n∈ω Vn. Furthermore, we de�ne s ≺ t i� there isn ∈ ω such that s ∈ Vn, t ∈ Vn+1 and t extends s. Then T = 〈V ,≺〉 is an in�nitebinary tree with the property that if s ∈ V , then s ∪ {〈n, an〉}, s ∪ {〈n, bn〉} ∈ V .
But every in�nite branch through T would give a choice function on {Pn | n ∈ ω}contradicting our previous theorem.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 23 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of the partition principle
Theorem
In VF2 there is a 2-coloring of [A]2 such that no in�nite subset of A is
homogeneous.
Proof.
Consider f : [A]2 → {0, 1} given by
f ({a, b}) =
{1 if {a, b} = Pn for some n ∈ ω,0 otherwise.
Suppose that B ⊆ A is an in�nite homogeneous set. Clearly, f � [B]2 ≡ 0.
Let E be a support of B and let k ∈ ω be such that E ∩ Pk = ∅ andB ∩ Pk 6= ∅. Then there is π ∈ �xG (E ) such that πak = bk . But then
π /∈ symG (B).
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 24 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of the partition principle
Theorem
In VF2 there is a 2-coloring of [A]2 such that no in�nite subset of A is
homogeneous.
Proof.
Consider f : [A]2 → {0, 1} given by
f ({a, b}) =
{1 if {a, b} = Pn for some n ∈ ω,0 otherwise.
Suppose that B ⊆ A is an in�nite homogeneous set. Clearly, f � [B]2 ≡ 0.
Let E be a support of B and let k ∈ ω be such that E ∩ Pk = ∅ andB ∩ Pk 6= ∅. Then there is π ∈ �xG (E ) such that πak = bk . But then
π /∈ symG (B).
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 24 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
A failure of the partition principle
Theorem
In VF2 there is a 2-coloring of [A]2 such that no in�nite subset of A is
homogeneous.
Proof.
Consider f : [A]2 → {0, 1} given by
f ({a, b}) =
{1 if {a, b} = Pn for some n ∈ ω,0 otherwise.
Suppose that B ⊆ A is an in�nite homogeneous set. Clearly, f � [B]2 ≡ 0.
Let E be a support of B and let k ∈ ω be such that E ∩ Pk = ∅ andB ∩ Pk 6= ∅. Then there is π ∈ �xG (E ) such that πak = bk . But then
π /∈ symG (B).
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 24 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
Further statements that are consistent in the absence of AC
All sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable.
There is a countable union of countable sets which is not countable.
The reals cannot be well-ordered.
The Baire category theorem fails.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 25 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
Further statements that are consistent in the absence of AC
All sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable.
There is a countable union of countable sets which is not countable.
The reals cannot be well-ordered.
The Baire category theorem fails.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 25 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
Further statements that are consistent in the absence of AC
All sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable.
There is a countable union of countable sets which is not countable.
The reals cannot be well-ordered.
The Baire category theorem fails.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 25 / 26
The second Fraenkel model
Further statements that are consistent in the absence of AC
All sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable.
There is a countable union of countable sets which is not countable.
The reals cannot be well-ordered.
The Baire category theorem fails.
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 25 / 26
Homework
Homework
In�nitely many dwarves are standing in a straight line. Every dwarf wears a
hat of color either red or blue and sees the color of the hats of all the
dwarves standing in front of him. There is explicitly a �rst dwarf, who has
to start guessing the color of his hat and then the guessing proceeds with
the next one in the line.
If a dwarf guessed correctly, it is freed; if he guessed wrong, it is fried.
Every dwarf can hear the voice of all other dwarves without a problem.
Everybody is only allowed to speak out either the color red or blue, but no
further information.
Is there a possibility for (almost) all dwarves to be freed?
Regula Krapf (University of Bonn) The axiom of choice April 27, 2016 26 / 26