DAVIDASTLE

THEBABYLONIANWOEAStudyoftheOriginofCertainBankingPractices,andoftheireffectontheeventsofAncientHistory,

writteninthelightofthePresentDay.

THEBABYLONIANWOE

BYDAVIDASTLE

AStudyoftheOriginofCertainBankingPractices,andoftheireffectontheeventsofAncientHistory,writteninthelightofthePresentDay.

FirstEdition-1975

PublishedbyOmniaVeritasLtd

www.omnia-veritas.com

The intellectual faculties however are not of themselves sufficient to produceexternal action; they require the aid of physical force, the direction andcombinationofwhicharewhollyatthedisposalofmoney,thatmightyspringbywhichthetotalforceofhumanenergiesissetinmotion.

AugustusBoeckh;Translated;ThePublicEconomyofAthens,p.7;BookI.London,1828.

TABLEOFCONTENTSFOREWORD……………………………………………….....

INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORD…………………….

THETEMPLEANDTHECOUNTINGHOUSE……………..

PERMEDEIREGNANT!....................................................

THELEFTHANDOFDAWN………………………………

BLOOD,SORROW,ANDSILVER…………………………..

BABYLON,BANKING,ANDBULLION…………………….

PHRYGIA,FINANCE,ANDFRONTMAN………………….

TYRANTANDRAPEZITAE…………………………..…….

POTSHERDSANDOTHERRAGMENTS……………..……..

PERGAMUMANDITANE…………………………….……

VOICESFROMTHEDUST………………………………...

SPARTA,THEPELANORS,WEALTH,ANDWOMEN……...

MONEYCREATORSANDTHEPOLITICALCONTROL……

MANPROPOSESBUTGODDISPOSES…………………….

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………

W

FOREWORD

“FormoneyhasbeentheruinofmanyandhasmisledthemindsofKings.”–Ecclesiacticus8,Verse2.

henIoriginallyapproachedmystudyasbestasImight,dealingwiththe growth in pre-antiquity and antiquity of what is known as theInternational Money Power, and the particular derivative of the

money creative activities of such International Money Power that might bedefinedastheLifeAlternativeFactor,Ididsowithsomediffidence.PerhapsIwas overly conscious of what seemed to be the inadequateness of mypreliminarytraininginthesemattersandthatinnowaycouldIdescribemyselfas deeply conversant with the languages of ancient times, or, in the case ofMesopotamia,theirscripts.However,inmypreliminarystudiesinvolvingcheckingthroughtheindicesofanumber of those standard books of reference dealing with the ancientcivilizations, I soon found that any feelings of inferiority in so far as theadequacy of my scholarship relative to my particular subject was concernedwereunwarranted,andthatqualmsintheserespectswerebynomeansjustified.Inalmostallofsuchbooksofreference,exceptthosethatclassifiedthemselvesas economic or monetary histories, was practically no clear approach to thesubject of money and finance, or to those exchange systems that must haveexistedinorderthattheso-calledcivilizationsmightcometobe.Intheoddcasewherethetranslationsofthetextsmightrevealsomekeyclue,nomorespecialemphasiswas placedherein thanmight have beenplacedon thementionof agoldcup,aring,aseal,orsomeexquisitepieceofstonework.In Jastrow’s Assyria there was no reference to money at all; in Breasted’sHistory of Egypt a volume of six hundred pages or so, only briefmention onpages 97-98. InAHistory of Egypt by SirWilliamM. Flinders-Petrie, in therecords of Sir JohnMarshall and E.J.C.McKay in respect to the diggings atMohenjo-Daro,andinthewritingsofSirCharlesL.WoolleyandothersontheirfindingsfromtheirstudiesoftheexhumedarchivesofthecitystatesofancientMesopotamia,littleenoughinformationexistsonthemattersreferredtoabove.InChristopherDawsonwhowrotewidelyonancient times,particularly in theAgeoftheGodswhichdealtwithmostculturesuntilthecommencementofthatperiodknownasantiquity,thereisonlyonereferencetomoney,casualandnotconveyingmuchtotheaveragereader;thisreferencetobefoundonpage131.In

King’sHistoryofBabylontherewaspracticallynothingonthesematters.Thus in almost all of the works of the great archaeologists and scholarsspecializing in the ancient civilizations, there is a virtual silence on that allimportantmatter, thesystemofdistributionoffoodsurpluses,andsurplusesofallthoseitemsneededtowardsthemaintenanceofagoodandcontinuinglifesofaraswererequiredbyclimateandcustom.In all the writings of these great and practical scholars, the workings of thatmighty engine which injects the unit of exchange amongst the peoples, andwithoutwhichnocivilizationasweknowitcancometobe,isonlyindicatedbyaprofoundsilence.Ofthesystemsofexchanges,oftheunitofexchangeanditsissue by private individuals, as distinct from its issue as by the authority ofsovereign rule, on this all important matter governing in such totality theconditionsofprogressionintothefutureofthesepeoples,notawordtospeakof.Whileitistruethattheaveragearchaeologist,inbeingprimarilyconcernedwiththe results of the forces that gave rise to the human accretions known ascivilizations, has little enough time to meditate on these forces themselves,especially since so little evidence exists ofwhat created them, or of how theyprovidedguidance tomen in the earlier days, thewidespread character of thisomissionborderson themystifying.Virtual failure to speculateon thosemostimportant matters of all: the structure of the machinery of the systems ofexchangeswhichundoubtedlyhadgivenrisetotheancientcitycivilizations,andthe true nature of the energy source by which such machinery was driven,whetherbyinjectionsofmoneyasknownthislastthreethousandyearsorso,orby injections of an exchange medium of which little significant evidence ormemory remains, is cause for concern.The truthof the lines as quotedhereinfromBoeckh’sPublic Economy of Athens (p.ii, present work) is immediatelycleartoallandthatthephysicalforceunderlyingallcivilizationsmusthavebeenthe systemwhereby surpluses were allocated to the people according to theirplaceinthepyramidoflifeandtotheirneed;thus,whenbeingcontrolledbythebenevolentlawofadedicatedruler,maintainingatalltimesthetrueandnaturalorderoflife.It must not be supposed, therefore, that there is lack of understanding of theimportanceofthesematters;northatthereisanyspecialconspiracyofsilence,eventhoughtheremightindeedbetemptationtoarriveatsuchaconclusion.[1]Rather it were better to accept things as they appear, and assume that thesescholars merely present the fragments of fact as they unearth them; leavingspeculationof the true significanceof such fragmentsof fact in relation to theweft andwarpof life, to those considered to beparticularly specialized in the

various fields represented. In the case of money and finance, the scholarsconcernedwouldbeclassifiedaseconomicormonetaryhistorians.Thuslittleenoughseemstobeavailableonthesubjectofmoneyandfinanceinancientdays.Norseemstoexistexaminationofthesignificanceofsuchmoneyand finance relative to the progress aboutwhich somuch has beenwritten inmodern times.Apart from that ofAlexanderDelMarwhowrote in relativelyrecentdays,andapart fromthatof thephilosophersofantiquitysuchasPlato,Aristotle,Socrates,Zeno,etc.,almostnospeculationseemstobeavailablefromscholarlysourcesinregardstotheunprejudicedPHILOSOPHYofmoney,inancienttimes. On the all important subject of the consequences of the creation andissuance ofmoney by private persons as opposed to its creation and issuanceaccordingtothewillofabenevolent, instructedanddedicatedruler,almostnospeculation seems to exist in ancient or inmodern times.Of those forces thatsoughtthroughouthistorytoundermineanyrulerwhomayhavebeenfirmlyinthesaddlebecauseofhisexerciseofthatprerogativewhichisthefoundationoftheStatePowerorGod-Willofwhichheisthelivingevincement,insomuchashemaintained firm control of the original issuance ofmoney and its injectionintocirculationamongstthepeopleasagainstStateexpenditures,almostnothingseemstobeknown.Verylittleinformationisavailableofthemeansthoseforcesemployed towards this purpose through injection into circulation amongst thepeoplesofsilverandgold,andofinstrumentsindicatingpossessionofthesame.Practically no information seems to exist of the growth of private moneycreationinthedaysoftheancientcitystatesofMesopotamia,ofwhich,becauseoftheirrecordsbeingpreservedonfire-bakedclay,moreisknownthanofmorerecentcivilizations;andthegapmustnecessarilybefilledbyacertainamountofspeculation. Little is known of the beginnings of the fraudulent issuance byprivatepersonsoftheunitofexchange,asinoppositiontothelawofthegodsfromwhomkings inancient timesclaimed toderive theirdivineorigin;nor isthere any information on the significance of such practice relative to thecontinued stability of the natural order of life in which obtained that systemwhereinthefountofallpowerwastheGod;suchpowerdescendingtomanbyway of king and priesthood and directing him as he proceeded about hiseverydayaffairs,contentthatGod’sinHisHeavenandall’srightwiththeworld.TheuseoftoolsofhardenedironintheminingindustryaboutthebeginningofthefirstmillenniumB.C.,togetherwithachangedattitudetowardsslavelabourinwhichtheslave,sofarasminingwasconcerned,wasassessedatcostperlife,must have brought relatively a very flood of silver into the circulation of thecitiesoftheNearEast.

Such flood of silver injected into the circulation largely by private businesshouseswhonodoubtcontrolledthemines,howeverdistant,especiallyaftertheinstitutionofcoinage inwhichapieceof silverofknownweightand finenesspassedfromhandtohand,mustfinallyandforeverhavebrokenthatcontrolofexchangespreviouslyexercisedby thegodof thecity throughpriestking,andpriest.Thus all, priest-kings and priests, came to forget that the foundations of thepowergiventothemfromonHightowardsthemaintenanceoftherightlivingand tranquil procession through life, of their peoples, were the laws ofdistributionof surpluses aswrittenon the scribes tablet; laws institutedby thegod himself each ordering a specified dispensation from the surpluses in hiswarehouses in the Ziggurat, to the holder of the tablet. They too fell into theerrorofbelievingthatsilverwithvaluecreatedasaresultofitsbeingusedasabalancingfactorininternationalexchangecouldbecomeaperpetualstorehouseofvalue.Theythemselvesbecameconsumedinthescrambleforthisgleamingmetal, so conceding it, through its controllers the power to set itself up inoppositiontothelawofthegods;toraiseitselfupinitsownright,godinitself.In its exercise, the fiat of the internationally minded group of merchants orbullionbrokersthatarbitrarilydictatedtheexchangevalueofsuchsilver,beingin actuality determination internationally of the value of money, placed suchgroupscontrollingsilverexchangesaboveandbeyondlocallawandthelawofthe local god, and indeed conferred on them the power to influence kinglyappointment. Itmadeof themtheservantsofaonegod,agodaboveallgods;thereby somewhat relegating the godwhose order on the state warehouses asinscribedonclaybyscribeorpriest,hadbeenthelawgoverningexchanges,totheplaceoftheirservant,theinstrument.“Ihavehowever,keptbeforemeasaguidingprinciple,inthisasotherhistoricalworks I have written, the maxim that the complexity of life should never beforgotten, and that no single feature should be regarded as basic anddecisive,”[2] wrote Professor Rostovtsev, scholar and Economic Historian ofrenown.It is true that while no single feature in the progression of history might beregardedasbasicanddecisive,itiscertainthatneithermoneynortreasurewillprotecttheweakanddisarmedinthefaceofabrutalanddeterminedconquerorbeyondwhosesuccessfulachievements,canbenodecisionmorefinal.Itisalsocertain that themoneyaccumulationmania injectedby fame into themindsofthe people as a replacement to their concern with those natural qualitiesendeavouring tocolour thecurrentofhumanlife through time,amongstwhich

are numbered virtue, honour, and godliness, destroys equally as any otherdebilitating disease, and will surely and speedily drag any people down todegeneracyanddecay.Agreatarmycouldnotbemoreefficientinitspowerofdestruction.Themaindiscussionof theArtha-SastraofKautilya,Hinduclassic instructingkingsandrulersastotheirproperconducttowardsgoodgovernment,wasastowhetherfinancialormilitaryorganizationcamefirstofallastherootofstrengthandpowerinanyorganizedstate.[3]Clearlyinthatdaynolessthaninthisday,financial organization preceded military organization; therefore there is notmuchpointreallyindiscussionofsoobviousafactandtruth.Whileaneffetepeople,thoughmoneyasitisknown,isintheirhands,soongiveway to vigour; nevertheless vigour,without strict organization of its finances,which, while constituting strict organization of its labour, also enables it tocreate,or toobtainbypurchasefromelsewherethefinestofweapons,willnotmuchavail.Thus, and ithasbeendemonstrated throughhistoryoverandoveragain, it is clear there is one feature basic and decisive in the progression ofhuman life; certainly during the latter years of which memory exists. Thatfeature,particularlyinrelativelymodernsocietiesfromthebronzeageonwards,andduringthatperiodoftherapidperfectionofthemassproductionofweapons,ismonetaryorganization,andwhatpreciousmetalsareavailableforpurposesofinternational exchange as against the purchase of those finest ofweapons andessential materials of war only obtainable abroad, and as wages for the mostskilledmenatarmsfromwhereverobtainable,abroadorotherwise.ThegatesofEgyptstandfastlikeInmutetTheyopennottotheWesterners,TheyopennottotheEasterners,TheyopennottotheNortherners,TheyopennottotheSoutherners,Theyopennottotheenemywhodwellswithin.[4]Muchofhistoryasweknowitistherecordofcivilizationstocounterandevadedestructionofthemselvesfromwithoutorwithin,oristherecordoftheireffortsto destroy other seemingly competing civilizations or peoples attacking themfromwithoutorwithin.Warisasinevitableasispeaceastheresultoftheexhaustionofwar,andtherearefewpeoples thatescape;butwarsof the last three thousandyearshavenotbeen relatively infrequent occurrences, and have been an incessantly recurringevil.Itisnochancethat;thegrowthofwarfareintoaverycancereatingintothevitalsofmankind,andmoreparticularlythewhiteracesisparalleltothegrowthofthatothercancerwhichisprivate,andthereforeirresponsible,moneycreationandemission.

Itseemsthatalmostnoneofthescholarsmakeanyseriousefforttothrowlighton the real meaning of this matter of private monetary emission, and thedisastrouseffectsthatithashad,andinfinality,willhave,towardsthedefiningof the remaining period of time of man upon this earth, as being brief anduncertain.Thosestrangedecisionsofkingssignallingtheopeningofwarsasfrightfulanddisastrous to the European peoples, as the last two so-called “World Wars,”decisions so abnegatory of self, but more than that, abnegatory of the bestinterests of the peoples they represented before God, far from being thedirectivesofbenevolentforce,arethedirectivesofaforcewhichcannotbutbedescribedinanywaybutasbeingwhollymalevolent.[5]The great enginewhich is the international control ofmonetary emission andregulation,drivenas itwasuntil recentlybythecatalyticfuelofgoldalone, isnowalmostworldembracinginthescopeofitsoperations.Itseemsthereisnochangeintheattitudeofthoseitsguides,noranyadmissionofthefollyoftheirmisuseofthisGod-Powerwhichtheydirecttowardsthegoodofthemselvesandtheir friends. Their obsession, despite ruin for all looming on every horizon,seems to remain the same narrow vision of the day of their own worldsupremacywhereintheywillruleasabsolutelordsoverall;althoughbynowitshould be apparent to them, no less than to all thinking people, that if thismadnessconcealedwithinthemuchtalkedaboutconceptionknownasprogressis not brought to a complete arrestment, nothing remains but an end whereinshallbesilenceandnosong,forindeedtherewillbenosinger,noranytosingto.As it looks today, it may be the end for the Indo-European peoples whosediligent laboursmadesomuchof thisworldof today. Itmaybe theend, finalandabsoluteforallmenforthatmatter.itmaybetheendforthisourEarth,ouronlyplaceandhomeandhopeintheawfulendlessnessofspaceandtime.Itshouldbemorethanapparentthatintherelativelyrecentdaywhenkingshipandgod-shipwereone,sofarasthesimplesoulswereconcerned,andthegodand his viceroy on earth, the priest-king, were creators and controllers of theeconomic good, exchangeswere created in order that the peoplemight live afuller life, and not somuch to benefit any secret society or interlocked groupstandingasidefromthemainpathsofmankind,but tobenefitallwhokneeledhumblybeforetheAlmighty,eachfully inacceptanceofhimselfaspartof thegod-wish, eternal and infinite; each one in his time an integral unit carefullyplacedinthepyramidoflifeitself.

History over these last three thousand years particularly, has largely been theinterweavingofbothawitting,andanunwittingdistortionofthetruth,withallthe inevitable consequences which have been expected[6] and now are but alittlewayahead.Kingslargelybecamethemouthpieceandswordarmofthosesemi-secret societies that controlled thematerial ofmoney as its outward andvisiblesymbolscametoberestrictedtogold,silver,andcopper.Thefiatofthegod in heaven which had been the decisive force behind that which broughtabout an equitable exchange, was replaced by the will of those classescontrolling theundertonesofcivilization, leadersof theworldofslavedrivers,caravaneers, outcasts, and criminals generally, such aswas to be discernedontheedgesoftheancientcitycivilizations,andfollowedthetraderoutesbetweenthem. The instrument of this will was precious metal, whose supply wascontrolledbytheleadersoftheseclassesthroughtheircontroloftheslavetrade,sinceminingwasrarelyprofitableinthecaseofthepreciousmetals,exceptwithslave labour, even after the development of hardened iron tools and efficientmethodsofsmelting.The power of these men, indifferent and alien to most cities as they were,relativetothatpoweritwasreplacing,whichwasthewillofthebenevolentgodof the city, had beenmade absolute by sowing in theminds ofmen over thethousandsofyears,theideaofsuchmetalshavingaspeciallyhighvaluerelativetoothergoods and servicesbeingoffered for exchange; indeed that theywereveritablestorehouseofvalue.Thelawoftherulerpreviouslyexercisedtowardsthewellbeingofthepeopleinthattheymightliveagoodandhonourablelifeaccordinglybecamecorrupted.Itbecamemerelya symbol raisedbefore theirgaze, inorder that theymightnotlookdownandseetheevilgnawingawayattherootsoftheTreeofLifeitself,destroying all peace and goodness. Nor could those semi-secret groups ofpersons be seen who so often were the sources of such evil. In theircontemptuous indifference to themen of the state who foundmeaningfulnessandtranquillitythroughlifelivedinnaturalorderunderthelawoftheKing,theyconstitutedhiddenforcedeeplyinimicaltothebestinterestsofmankind.Through stealthy issue of precious metal commodity money into circulationamongstthepeoples,replacingthatmoneywhichrepresentedthefiatorwillofthe god of the city and which was merely an order on the state warehousesthroughhisscribes, this internationallymindedgroupfromthesecrecyof theirchamberswereabletomakeamockeryofthefaithandbeliefofsimplepeople.Thelineofcommunicationfromgodtomanthroughpriest-kingandpriestwascut, being replaced by their own twisted purposes such as they were; not

however guidingmankind into the heaven that could havebeen andwhere allwouldbelife,andlight,andhope,butintosuchahellastoescapefromwhichmenmightgladlycometoaccepttheideaofMassSuicide.Mysincereacknowledgementsaredueto:1. ProfessorFritzHeichelheim,and Sijthoff International Publishing Company, Leyden, for their very kindpermission to use the short extracts from Professor Heichelheim’s work: AnAncientEconomicHistory.

2.ProfessorW.F.Albright,andCambridgeUniversityPressfortheirverykind permission to use the short extracts from Professor Albright’s workTheAmarna Letters from Palestine; the same being found in Volume II of theCambridgeAncientHistory.

3. G.R.DriverandJohnC.Miles,andtheClarendonPress,Oxford,fortheirverykindpermissiontousetherenderingofHammurabai’sLawNo.7,asgivenbyG.R.DriverandJohnC.Milesintheirjointwork:AncientCodesandLawsoftheNearEast.

4. Dr.T.B.L.WebsterandMessrs.MethuenPublications for theirverykind permission to use the short extracts from Dr. Webster’s work: FromMycenaetoHomer.

5. SirCharlesLeonardWoolleyandMessrs.Faber&FaberLtd.fortheirvery kind permission to use the short extracts from Sir Charles LeonardWoolley’swork:Abraham.

6. SirCharlesLeonardWoolleyandMessrs.ErnestBennfor theirverykind permission to use the short extracts fromSirCharlesLeonardWoolley’swork:ExcavationsatUr.

7. ChristopherDawson&JohnMurrayPublishingHousefor theirkindpermission touseanextract fromChristopherDawson’swork:TheAgeof theGods.

8. DrWilliamLangerandTheHoughtonMifflinCompanyfortheirverykin permission to use the short extracts from the Encyclopaedia of WorldHistory.

9.Dr.CharlesSeltsmanandtheAssociatedBookPublishersfortheirverykindpermissiontousetheshortextractsfromGreekCoins.

My sincere acknowledgements are also due to all those friends andacquaintanceswhoinanywayhaveassistedmeinthepresentwork.

EINTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORD

very conclusion arrived at as a result of study of the fragments ofinformationavailableinrespecttomoneyanditscreatorsintheworldofthe Ancient Civilizations, indicates the existence of a far reaching

conspiracyinrespecttomonetaryissuanceinfluencingtheprogressionofman’shistory in the earliest times of which written record exists. It is alsooutstandingly clear that it was parent to that acknowledged andmost obviousconspiracysuchasexiststoday.[7]The whole notion of the institution of preciousmetals by weight as commondenominatorofexchanges,internationallyandnationally,cannotbuthavebeendisseminated by a conspiratorial organization fully aware of the extent of thepower to which it would accede, could it but maintain control over bullionsuppliesandtheminingwhichbroughtthemintobeinginthefirstplace.Clearlysuchnotionhadoriginallycomeintobeingduringthathistoricallydistantperiodwhen first of all free silver began to be extensively used as a convenient andhighly portable commodity in settlement of balances outstanding in foreigntrade; certainly as far back asNeolithic times. This factwas indicated by theevidenceexistingthatvalues(andbyinferencemoney)werealreadyexpressedin terms of silver by weight at the time of the Azag-BauDynasty at Kish inMesopotamia(3268-2897B.C.);althoughinasenseperhapsnarrowandstrictlynational.Accordingtotabletsunearthedrecordingasaleofland,thesellerswereknownas “The eaters of the silver of the field.”[8]This expression clearly showed aconnectionbetween theconceptionofmoneyasanabstractunit incirculation,andsilver,thetangiblematerialonwhichthesymbolsofthismoneywerelaterrecorded.Suchsilverwouldthenbevaluedaccordingtotheancientcustomsoftheinternationaltraderouteswhichweremanifestedintherulesofthetravellingmerchantswhocontrolledtheseroutes;theserulesbeingestablishedtowardsthebetterregulationofexchangesbetweenthemselves.Inotherwords, as a result of the establishmentof the customof settlementofbalancesinexternaltradebysilverbullionbyweight,itseemsthatasystemofvalueshadgrownup in thecitiesofMesopotamia,overwhatperiodof time itwouldbeimpossibletosayforsure,intermsofthoseacceptedvaluesofdefinite

weights of silver bullion in such external trade, relative to the staples of life:barley,dates,etc.Thatsalesarerecordedinthe4thMillenniumB.C.meansthatevenatthattimetherewas a clear conception of the significance of the abstractmonetary unit,whichisinitselfanintegralpartofthelawstructureofanystate,forsuchsaleswere in terms of money. The true meaning of such a concept being largelyincomprehensible to most even as in this day, except they were the trulyinitiated, those controlling the internal exchanges, namely the priesthood andscribes, might well be excused if they early fell into the error of expressingvaluesintermsofthestandardofvaluesininternationaltrade.Thisseriouserrorbrought about finally, not only the collapse of that power through whosemediumthegodkingswerebestabletoservetheirpeoples,butalsoasafurtherconsequence,thecollapseandfadingofthemeaningandbenevolentpurposeofthegodkingsthemselves.With silver bullion controlled by an international and conspiratorial mindedgroup,asindeeditisobviousitmusthavebeen,consideringthemainsourcesofsilversupplyasbeingfarawayfromthosecentresofcivilizationwhosemoneydependedonitandyetwithpeoplecomingtoequatemoney,inactualitythelawof the ruler, with value according to the law created in the exchanges by thecustomoftheuseofthatsameprivatelycontrolledcommodity,thenitbecomesquiteclearthatscarcityorplentyinmoney,whateverwayitwasevincedinthecirculation, depended on the manipulations internationally of that groupcontrollingthedistributionofpreciousmetalbullion,andtheplentyorscarcitytheycreated,aswasconvenienttothem.Iftherewasnosilver,whythen!therewasnomoney,andpricesfell.Substitutegoldforsilver,andhistoryseemingtofastrepeatitself,wehavetheconditionoftheEuropeanworldofthelast2000years.Iftherewasnogold,Whythenagain!Therewasnomoney!Hencewasabletodevelopthatconspiracyagainstmankindmostexemplifiedbya continuous propaganda of hate against all authority: in pre-antiquity andantiquityagainstthemanycitygods,andinrelativelymoderntimesagainstthekingsthatroseoutoftheruinsofthatwhichhadbeenRome.As those controlling totally the economic life of a state through monetarycreation and emission, must have felt that kings and gods were more of anuisancethananythingelse,theinstigatorsofthisconspiracyinwhateverplaceand era, obviously were those who first did the business of bankers; thecontrollersofvalues,andconsequentlytheeconomiclifeofthestateswherever

thepreciousmetalstandardwasused.According to SirCharlesL.Woolley, excavator of the city ofUr in SouthernMesopotamia, the unit of exchange in the days of the great city states ofMesopotamia of the third and fourth Millennium B.C., and which served,therefore,ascommondenominatorof thevalueofgoodsandservices,was themeasureofbarley.Whilehoweverpointingoutthatgoldandsilvercametopassfrom hand to hand,with a value dictated by their valuewith reference to theconstantvalueofameasureofbarley,heassertsthatthesalariesofgovernmentofficials at the time of Hammurabai (about the beginning of the secondmillenniumB.C.)wereassessedinbarleybutpaidinsilver,suchsilverhavingneitherstampnorgovernmentguarantee.[9]Thenotionthereforehereinimplied,ofthenumerousofficialsandlabourersofHammurabaiofBabylonwaiting in line tohavesilvercutoff fromthebullionbar,andweighedasagainstpayfor theday,or theweek,or themonth,as thecasemighthavebeen,althoughofferedwithsincerity,patentlyisaserroneousasthatconceptionoftheeverydayuseintheexchangesoftheaesrudeinasimilarway, inwhich the classical scholars and numismatistswould have us believe;andwhich implied that the foreman and his labourers in ancientRome of thedaysofthekingsalsowaitedinlineaftertheirday’slabour,say,ontheCircusMaximus, tohaveafragmentofcoppercutoffandweighedinorder that theirwivesmightbeabletogotothemarkettopurchasetheeveningmeal.[10]Clearly the word silver in the texts means no more than the word Plata inmodern day Spanish, or Argent in modern day French. These words literallytranslateassilver,butasmoneywhichtheyaremostusedtoindicate,theymaybeanythingfromgrimytatteredpapernote,toasilverpeso,ortothebrasscoinwhich may function as divisible thereof. Similarly the word from the textsdenotingsilvermaybesafelysaidtohavemeantthatwhichpassedformoney,perhapsexchangeableinthetempleorthemoneyshopsforsilver,butbeinginitself anything which circulated, denoting multiple or divisible of the unit oexchange;beitclayorwoodorglass[11]orleatherorpapyrusorstone.Thus,aswasthecaseinSumeriaindeed,long,longbeforethetimeofthegreatHammurabai oncemoneyhad come to bemore of an abstract unit of accountbased for its value in desirable goods and services, on the barter power of acertainweightofsilverbullionrelatedtotheconstantvalueofbarley,[12]itwasnomajoradvanceforthosewhobenefitedmostfromthisconception,namelythebullion brokers and their satellites, the money changers or barkers, to find aweakkingandacorruptiblepriesthood,whocouldbebrought to lose sightofthetotalcontrolofthecitywhichwastherightofthegodtheyserved;andwho

mightturnablindeyetothoseothermoresinisteractivitiesbywhichthepoweroftheZigguratwasfurtherundermined.OfthosetimeDawsonintheAgeoftheGodsremarks:“Originally the state and the temple corporations were the only bodies whichpossessed the necessary stability and resources for establishing widespreadcommercial relations.Temple servantswere sentondistantmissions,providedwith letters of credit which enabled them to obtain supplies in other cities.Moreover the temple was the bank of the community through which moneycouldbelentatinterestandadvancesmadetothefarmeronthesecurityofhiscrop.Thusinthecourseofthe3rdmillenniumtheregrewupinMesopotamiaaregular money economy based on precious metals as standards of exchange,which stimulated private wealth and enterprise and led to real capitalistdevelopment.The templeand thepalace remained thecentresof theeconomiclifeofthecommunitybutbytheirsideandundertheirsheltertheredevelopedamanysidedactivitywhichfoundexpressionin theguildsof thefreecraftsmenandthemerchants,andtheprivateenterpriseoftheindividualcapitalist.”[13]This information from Christopher Dawson with the translation of the tabletsbeforehim,andeveryassistancenodoubtfromthosestudentsinthatparticularfield,ismostilluminating;butoftheundertonesofthosehighlysignificantyearsinman’sperioduponthisearth,heseemstoseelittle,orhejustdoesnotchoosetospeculateastotheirnature.Principal amongst those undertones, and quite possibly the force that broughtthese changes about, may safely be assumed to be the secret and privateexpansion of the total money supply effected primarily by the issuance intocirculationoffalsereceiptsforsilverandothervaluablessupposedlybeingheldondepositinthiefproofvaults,orotherwise,forsafecustody.Suchreceiptswouldbeacceptedbymerchants insteadof theactualmetal,andwouldfunctionasmoney,andwouldbeanadditiontothetotalmoneysupply,thoughnotunderstoodassuchbytherulerswhowouldthuseasilybeinveigledinto lending their sanction to seemingly harmless practices; or at least intoturningablindeye;especiallyifpriesthoodandscribessoadvised.Withthatgrowthoftheconceptionofprivatewealthwhichwouldautomaticallyfollowontheacceptanceoftheideaofbuyingandselling,orperhapsbetterput,preceded such idea of buying and selling as according to a silver standardinternationally accepted, such involvement of priesthood and scribewould notbehard toachieve.According toSirCharlesWoolley, trade seemed toextendfrom the city of Ur, particularly during the so-called IIIrd. Dynasty, over the

wholeknownworldwhich certainly reached as far afield asEurope[14] beingcarriedonbymeansoflettersofcredit,billsofexchange,and“promisestopay”(cheques),madeoutintermsofstaplenecessities;oflifeexpressedintermsofsilveratvaluationofbarley(probablyatagivenseasonoftheyear).[15]Therealsoisnodoubtthatthemerchantasrepresentativeofthegodofthecityfromwhichhe journeyed, loanedmoneybywhichhis customerswere able tomaketheirpurchases,suchmoneymerelybeinganabstractionindicatedbythefigureson theclay tablet; inearlierdaysbeingbackedby thewill-forceof thegodofthecity,andinlatterdaysbythepromisesofsilverissuedbyonewhoatthattimewouldbetheequivalentoftoday’sbanker,andwho,shouldsuchneedarise, such aswould be occasioned by the templewithdrawing its sanction orpermissiveness towards his activities would be able to partially back his self-created abstract money which was the reality of such promises, with actualsilver.Thusthecaravaneerortravellingmerchantgavecredit.Whetherhisownorthatof the merchant for whom he was agent, or direct; from the Ziggurat itself,dwellingplaceof thegod, it functionedasa formof foreignaidsimilar to theforeignaidoftoday.Consideringthatthemerchantinearliertimesoperatedsolelywiththecreditofthetemplethatraisedhimup,whilethetempleremainedsupreme,suchforeignaid was instrument of state policy, maintaining the servility of lesser states,while at the same timemaintaining the steady working capacity of the homemanufactures,andcontentedpeopleinconsequence.Theclassesofthedominantpower were content that the manufacturies gave them daily labour, and theclassesofthesubordinatepowerwereabletobuytheluxuriestheycraved,andthenecessities theyneededasagainstmoneydeducted from thecredits loanedby thedominantpower.Repaymentof thesecredits,as in today,wasmadebyway of return shipment of raw materials such as were needed for themanufacturiesof thedominant state.That such rawmaterialswereassessed invalue as according to the international value of silver related to the nationalvalueofbarleyinthedominantstateseemsmostlikely.Howeveritisclearthatwiththegrowthofsilverincirculationbetweenprivatepersons, and between private persons and states, as now would become aninevitability,thatwhichhadbeentotaleconomiccontrolfromthegodsthroughhisservantsintheZiggurat,wasbypassed,andmerchantswerenowabletodealprivately using their own credit, or powers of abstract money creation. Theywere also able, through their control of distantmining operations, to afflict apreviously dedicated priesthood with thought of personal possession; and

throughthecontrolof themanufactureofweaponsindistantplaces, theywereable to armwarlike peoples towards the destruction ofwhosoever theymightchoose.Those merchants of whatever race they may have been, who voyaged to thecitiesofSumeriafromplacesasfardistantasthegreatcitiesoftheIndusvalleycivilization known today as Mohenjo-Daro and Harrapa, as is clearlydemonstrated by the Sumerian seals found atMohenjo-Daro[16] and the sealsfromMohenjo-DarofoundatUr,[17]andwhowerewithoutadoubtoneofthemainsourcesofpreciousmetalsupplyinSumeria,[18]cametorealizethattheycouldactuallycreatethatwhichfunctionedasmoneywithbuttherecordincisedbythestylusontheclaytabletpromisingmetalormoney.Obviously,asaresultofthisdiscoverywhichdependedontheconfidencetheywereabletocreateinthe minds of the peoples of their integrity, provided they banded themselvestogetherwithanabsolutesecrecy thatexcludedallother than theirprovenandchosenbrethren,theycouldreplacethegodofthecityhimselfasthegiverofall.Ifsobetheycouldinstituteaconceptionofaonegod,theirgod,aspecialgodoftheworld, a god above all gods, thennotmerely the city, be itUr orKishorLagash orUruk, but theworld itself could be theirs, and all that in itwas.Astrangedream!Onewhosefulfilmenttheyneverreallyexpected!Some evidence of the knowledge and previous existence of such practice ofissuance of false receipts as against supposed valuables on deposit for safe-keepingclearlyexists in theLawNo.7of thegreatHammurabai,whichsamelaw was undoubtedly intended as a preventative to this sickness in society,which,evenatthatday,mayverywellhavebeenthecancerthatdestroyedmuchthathasbeenbefore.According toProfessorBright, theCodeofHammurabaiwasbuta revisionoftwo legal codes promulgated in Sumerian by Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, and inAkkadianby theKingofEshnummuaduring theperiodof thebreakupof thatpowerformerlywieldedbytheGodatUr,thatis,ataboutthesametimethatUrwas sacked by the Elamites in 1950 B.C., and Amorite and Elamite politicalpowerwas established overNorthern andSouthernMesopotamia.[19]Both ofthesecodes arewellbefore theCodeofHammurabai, andare evidenceof thelatterbeingbutarevisionoflawcodesexistinginthedaysofUR-NAMMU,orbefore,UR-NAMMUbeingthatmostoutstandingrulerwhoreignedfrom2278B.C.to2260B.C.duringthethirddynastyatUr.[20]Theseverityofthepenaltyandtheplacingofthelawsohighinthecodeleaveslittledoubtthat itwasdirectedagainstanevil thatwasbynomeansnew,and,whoknows,mayhavebeenoneofthedeepseatedcausesoftheinvasionsthat

devastated Ur, both from the Gutim,[21] the Elamites, the Amorites, and theHittites;fornodoubtofold,justastoday,MoneyPowerwasasbusyarmingtheenemiesofthepeopleamongstwhomitsojourned,asthatpeoplethemselves.While the scholars do not appear to have paid any special attention to thisparticular law,or tohaveattached to it any special significance, its true intentand purpose is clear to anyone conversant with the origins of private moneyissuance inmodern times,as indicatedby the familiarstoryof thegoldsmith’smultiplereceipts.[22]If aman buys silver or gold or slave, or slave girl, or ox or sheep or ass oranythingelsewhatsoeverfroma[free]man’ssonorafreeman’sslaveorhasreceivedthemforsafecustodywithoutwitnessorcontract, thatmanisathief:heshallbeputtodeath.[23]Therequisiteofwitnessesandcontractattestingtothetruefactsofvaluablesondeposit,wouldtosomeextentobviatethedangerofthegoldsmiths,silversmithsortraders, involvedinatransaction,creatingreceiptsforvaluablesthatdidnotexist, in safe custodyor otherwise. Itwas equallypossible in ancient times asmuchasinmoderntimestocirculatesuchreceiptsasmoneylawfullyinstituted.Provided a corruptedpriesthood turned ablind eye to this practice and loanedtheir sanction thereto, such fraudulentmoneyor, in themisleadingeuphemismofacorruptedworld,“credit,”wouldbeequallyeffectiveinforeignmarketsasinthehomemarkets,ifnotmoresobecauseofthegreaterdangerofexposureofthe criminal nature of this activity that would undoubtedly exist in the homemarket.The severity of the penalty required by this Law Number 7 of the Code ofHammurabai, exercised by a strong and dedicated ruler, would have been anabsolute deterrent to suchpractice that since that time, andmore especially inmoderntimessincethe16thCenturyA.D.,hasbecomesoinduratedtoafixture.Its results are tobe seenoneveryhand,not to speakof the final resultwhichthoughnotyetarrived,elsethisbookwouldnotbeinexistence,isclear.TheLawsofHammurabai,KingofBabylon,justthesameasthosemoreancientcodesofwhichtheywererevision,weredirectedtowardstheregulationoflifeofnobleman,aswellasfreeman,merchant,orslave,andnospecialconcessionsweregiven to eitherof these stations in life, even if such stations in lifewereaccepted as integral part of the structure of the state life. Euphemistic andmisleadingwords such as “businessman” or “financier” had not yet, it seems,beenplantedinthevocabulary.Byandlarge,thekingstillruledinabsolute,andhislawgivingjusticetoallwascarvedinstone,andplacedinthemarketplace

for thehighest or the lowest tounderstandclearly the rulesbywhichhemustlive. Merchants were unequivocally described as such, and law ruthlesslyprescribedseverepenaltiesfortheircorruptconduct.Theywerekeptinplaceasacaste,notof thehighestorder,and, itwouldappear,somewhatsimilar totheHindu system, they served the priesthood and nobility, and were conceded aplace in lifeasan instrumentwhereby thepeoplegenerallymight liveabetterlife.TheCode ofHammurabai, revision ofmore ancient codes as itwas, does notreveal anyparticular regard towards this caste of persons.However, as by thetimeofitspromulgation,bothprivetpropertyandprivatelyissuedmoneyseemtohavebeenwellestablished,itistobeassumedthattheignorantofnoblecasteorotherwise,werealreadydeferringtothatmagicknownasmoney,inmuchthesamemannerastheydidatalltimesthroughlatterhistorywhenfacedwiththenecessityofcompromisewithprivetmoneycreativepower,whoseactivitieshadbeenpermittedby foolishkings,and towhomsuchkingshadevencommittedthefinancesoftherealm.Suchwasmostclearlyillustratedduringthelastfourhundredyears inEngland;perhapsmore so thanatanyother time in recordedhistory.In the time of Hammurabai, King of Babylon, matters were by no means asdesperateastheyaretoday.Merchandisingwasbynomeansregardedasanendin itself, and ameanswhereby itwas the right of ignoblemen to proffer anycorruptiontothepeoplesolongasitmade“profit”forthem,and“interest”forthe so-calledbarkerwho supplied theoriginal “finances”outofhis secret andcostless money-creative processes. Money lending and merchandising as it isknown, still had not come to be a means whereby man-hating and thereforecorrupt secret societiesmight seek tooverturn the treeof life itself bywayofsowingtheseedsofdecayinthattrueandnaturalorderoflifewhichhadbeenordainedfromtimeimmemorial.Privatemoneycreatorsandthemerchantstheirsatellites,hadatthattimebynomeans arrived at that point when they might conspire to present completedefiance to the gods and their appointed, and as a smallmatter in theway oftheir business, install jackasses, or whatever might be, in the places of themighty,astoooftenwasthecaseinthelatterdays.

OTHETEMPLEANDTHECOUNTINGHOUSE

utofthosevagueshadowsofwarandpowerandpeaceandsettlementofancient strife thatdriftedoutof the fadedmemoryofman’s formerabidingontheAnatolianplateausandthroughouttheNearEastasitis

sodescribedbyus,emergedthatforceknownasClassicalGreece;aforcewhichmaybesaidtoprincipallyderivefromtheunionoftheessentialforwardthrustof the revitalized energies of the god-ruled city, and the political structure bywhich the cattle raising men of the Indo-European warrior nations had beengoverned.Muchoftherevitalizationofsuchenergiesderivedfromincreasingavailabilityofsilverasaresultoftheexpansionoftheminingindustryduetotheincreasinguse of tools of hardened iron, and the consequent expansion of the volumeofmoneyincirculationamongstthepeoples,abstract,orasnowobtained,ofactualpiecesofsilverofknownweightandfinenesscarryingthe identifyingmarkoftheemitter.Thisfloodofthepreciousmetalstowhichthenewmethodsofmininggaverise,withtheconsequentstrengtheningoftheshiftofmoneycreative,ortotalpowercenter, fromthegodand the temple, towhatsomemightdescribeas thedeviland the counting house, enabled those conspiratorial groupswho undoubtedlycontrolledpreciousmetalbullionsupplies,perhapsatthisstagealliancebetweenthepriesthoodofcertaincitieswhosegodwasnotgettingfairacknowledgment,andthosemysteriouspeople,theApiru,who,concernedwiththecarryingtradebetweenthecitiesasisclear,[24]seeminglybelongedtonocity,yetweretobefound in them all, to set up a supra-national god as the fount of their secretpower.Hewouldbeagodwhoshouldbecontemptuousofallothergods;livinginnoidols,hewouldbeinall,andoverall;unseen,butallpervading.Ifthegodofsuchsecretsocietyorconfederacycontrolledmovementsofsilverbullioninternationally,hewellmightbecontemptuousofallcitygodsotherthanhimself,forwhenmoneyvalueswerebasedontheexchangevalueofhissilverin such international exchanges, then he and his acolytes,whoever theywere,knewthatallprosperityinthekingdomsof thosemostancient timesdependedon him, and whether he ordained through his servants that silver should beplentifulorotherwise;whether indeedthereshouldbenomoneyandhardship,

orplentyofmoneyandprosperity.Also it may be assumed in the latter days of the declining temple power,prosperityorotherwisewouldalsodependonwhetherrulersofsuchkingdomsandcities turned ablind eye, as itwere, to that privately created ledger creditpage entry money whose use the international money changers wereundoubtedlypromotingasafacilitationtoexchangesbetweenselectandsecretgroupsofpersons.Itwouldbecompletelyexternaltothemoneycreativepowerof the temple even if clandestinely linked thereto, and so would strengthenthemselvesandtheirone-God,all-powerful,allomnipotent.The ruthless and stern edicts of such princes as Hammurabai of Babylon,previously quoted, while perhaps effective in Babylon, would not avail in allthosecitiesorstatestowhichthemoneychangersundoubtedlycarriedtheirarts,especially if theywerenotsubject to theruleofBabylon.Whoknowstowhatextent theseizureofUrbyHammurabaiwas the resultofhisdetermination tototally extirpate the source of this attack on kingly power, undoubtedlysanctioned, if not connived at by a cynical priesthood who were largely therulers, in thismostancientcity.Thatclose to the throneand therefore thegodhimself,were thosewhosecretlyheld incontempt thegod-king, and towhomtheutter devotionof thepeople, evenuntodeath,wasof nomeaning, is clearfrom the following excerpt from Sir Charles L. Woolley in respect to hisdiscoveryofthetombsofthekingsoftheIIIrddynastyatUr:“Whenwedugawaythefillingwefoundthatintheupperpartoftheblockingofthedoorofeachofthetombchambers,therehadbeenmadeasmallbreachjustlargeenoughforamantogetthrough;thedislodgedbrickswerelyinginfrontof the door covered by the clean earth imported for the filling.The tomb hadbeen robbed, and obviously just as the earth was about to be put in; nobodywouldhavedaredtorobthemwhenthepitwasstillinuse,nor,ifsuchsacrilegehad been done,would the bricks have been left scattered on the floor and thebreachunfilled;therobbersmusthavechosentheirmomentwhentheinviolableearthwould at once hide all traces of their crime and they could afford to becareless.”[25]AccordingtothedescriptionoftheburialscenebyCharlesL.Woolleyonpage72ofExcavationsatUr,on therampleadingdownto theking’s tomb,wouldhavelainthebodiesofthosewhohadelectedtoaccompanytheirLordintotheregionsbeyond,intheorderinwhichtheyhadlaindowntodie;fordeathwasobviously their wish and intention. It would have been almost impossible forsuchcarefully timedrobbery tohave takenplaceover thebodiesof thosewhowouldbeamongstthefirstladiesofthecourtandcertainofficials,militaryand

otherwise,withouttherehavingbeenawellplannedconspiracy;foritwasclear,dressedastheywereintheirfinestclothingofcrimsonandgold,theyhadgladlyandvoluntarilyofferedthemselvesascompanyandcomforttotheirgod-kingatthe commencement of that eternal journey which was his heavenly home.Testimony of their willingness existed in the lethal cup still clutched in theirlongdecayedhands[26]astheylaybeforehistombintheirlastpoisonedsleep.As,whentherobberywaseffected,itiscleartheywerealreadydead,therehadto be the connivance of certain persons in high places to whom this greatdevotionwaswithoutmeaning.Additionally, suchgold and silverwouldhavebeenauselessanddangerouspossession[27]excepttothosewhoselivessofarasordinarymenwereconcernedweresecretfromfirsttolast;suchastowhomitmeantmoneyandpowerinternationally,andbywhomitcouldbemeltedandrapidlytransferredabroad.Speculating on the functions of the famous temple of Solomon, similar to thetemplesofEgyptandtheSumeriancitystates,althoughaccordingtoprofessorPaul Einzig little information exists as to how the evolution of the monetarysystem of the Jews, prior to the adoption of coinage, affected the Hebreweconomicsystemoritspricelevels,itseemsthatthistempleintheearlierdayswasnotonlyusedasatreasury,but,asinBabylonia,asabank.Thusitreceivedmoneyondeposit(forsafekeeping).Professor Einzig informs us that the gold lavishly adorning the temple fordecorative purposes, existed at the same time, as a monetary reserve. WhenHezekiahhadpaidatributeofthreehundredtalentsofsilverandthirtytalentsofgoldtothekingofAssyria(around700B.C.),he“cutthegoldfromthedoorsoftheTempleoftheLordandfromthePillars;”(IIKings;18,16).[28]The arts of banking were, however, in no way as developed as they were inBabylonia andAssyria.Amongst the ‘Apiru,’ undoubtedly confederates of theIsraelites in later times, were clearly many refugees[29] from the cruel debtslavery existing inBabylonia and its outposts during the2ndMillenniumB.C.,andlater.Apartfromthefirmlawsinrespecttothetakingofinterest,theJubileeof the 50th year (Leviticus25.II), if fully enforced,would render any effort tocreatemonopolyineffective.ThusitcanbeseenthattheGodinhisholyshrineruledinthesamewayinthatancientHebrewkingdom,somuchbetterknowntomostthanperhapsthetemplecitiesofancientSumeria;manyofwhich,untilrelativelyrecently,werenotevennames,andwerenomorethanfaintlydiscerniblemoundsonthedesert.TheGreeksanctuaryowedexistencetosimilarforcesthathadgivenrisetothe

temples of Mesopotamia and to the temple of Solomon above mentioned.Functioning in likemanner, inmodified form, clearly it originated from thosedistantdayswhentheshrineofthemothergoddessofthecitiesoftheAnatolianplateau and the Persian highlands such as Catal Huyuk,[30] Hacilar, Dorak,Susa,etc.,wasthepointfromwhichthepeopledrewspiritualguidance,andthenucleusaroundwhich thesehumanaccretionsgathered inancient times.Theseshrinesgaveforcetothosemysterieswhoseexistenceandpurposetowardsthecontinuityandgoodinlife,drewthedevotionofall.TheTempleofArtemisatEphesus,theTempleofAphroditeatCorinth,theTempleofAtheneatAthens,all obviously owed their origin to the ancientworship of theMotherGoddesswho,throughthewonderandurgeinherbody,consumedthewholelifeforceofman. The controllers of the healthy continuance of life in these cities were apriesthood who considered themselves as the direct representatives of thegoddessonearth,theshepherdsappointedtotheflock.The temple states that existed to a relatively late date such as those ofCappadocia,wereindeedthedirectprojectionforwardintotimeofthistraditionofgovernmentof the cityby thegoddess inherholy shrine, asmuchaswerethoseofthecitystatesofearlySumeria.InGreecetoo,inearliertimes,suchruleexisted beyond much doubt, and during that period when Cretan civilizationextendedtothemainland,andwhenpowerstemmedfromthehallsofCnossus,andthemysticplaceofmythologywhereonceuponatimelivedtheMinotaur,itwould be an absolute certainty. It would not bear much difference to thosesystemsofgodcontrolbywhichall thoserulersof theAncientOrient[31]hadgoverned,andwhichhadguidedthecalmandblessedprocessionofthepeoplesthroughtimeandunderthesun.The templeofeachsmallcitystate inGreeceduring theearlierdaysofGreekindustrymayhavefunctionedtosomeextentasdidthegreattemplesorzigguratofthepowerfulcitystatesofSumeriaofmuchearlierdays,andmoney,thatisthelawcontrollingexchangesastoacommondenominatorofvalues,mayhavecomeintoexistenceasentry in the templeledger,althoughhowrepresentedinthe circulation does not seem to be clearly known. The notion of exchangesbeing conducted in terms of cattle, one animal representing the unit, even ifhaving existed in large scale business in ancient timesof thewandering Indo-EuropeancattleraisingtribesoftheScythianplains,cannotbeacceptedasthatwhichcreatedanexchangeamongstthecommonpeopleofthecitycivilizations.True,thewordforcattlemayhavecontinuedinsomeareastohavebeenusedtoindicate money, but, as previously pointed out, certainly bearing no morereferencetocattlethandoestheFrenchwordArgent,ortheSpanishwordPlata

bearreferencetosilverinacontextwheremoneyisdefinitelyreferredto.Itisclearthatlocaltribes,suchastheBushmenofSouthAfrica,[32]thenativesof Melanesia and Micronesia,[33] whose way of life obviously derives, withlittlechange,fromthewayoflifeoftheracesthatonceoccupiedSouthChina,Annam,[34] India, and Ceylon, in the very ancient times of the tertiary agesprevious to the ice ages, long since have been conversant, with the basicprincipleofmoney.Intheircasemoneywasanabstractunitcirculatingamongstthepeoplewith tangibility evincedbypiecesof certain shell, cut according astraditiondemanded;andofvaluederivingfromcustom,which,insuchsocieties,islaw.Therefore it may reasonably be expected that the intelligent Indo-EuropeansfromwhomstemmedtheGreeks,wereequallyconversantwithsuchprinciples;even if later they came to forget them. According to the Cambridge AncientHistory: “Ivory beads in country nowdevoid of elephants suggest eitherwiderangeofmovementorsomeformofexchange.”[35]WhentheCambridgeAncientHistoryspeculatedasabovethat theivorybeadsoftheSolutreandepositsofNorthernFrancerepresentedsomeformofexchangemedium, the graves of Sungir which reveal similar mammoth ivory beads,proventobe23,000yearsoldormore,hadnotbeenopened[36].DuringtheOldKingdominEgyptandduringtheearliestyearsofthecitiesofBabylonia,when“numberings” of all accepted aswealth and possession,were taken every twoyears, and therefore books kept,[37] a most refined system of distribution ofsurpluses and therefore creation of exchanges, must have existed. Theconnectionbetweensuchsystemand thescarabs[38] in thecaseofEgypt,andtheseals in thecaseofMesopotamia,seems tohavebeengenerallydismissed.Thefactthatthescarabshavebeenfoundintheirhundredsinplacesfarremovedfrom Egypt, from Palestine, to Crete, to Etruria, indicates significance farremovedfromtheiruseasornaments.The agents of the Babylonian Money Power as it existed previous to theextensivegrowthofcoinedmoneyasabaseforthatcirculation,seenorabstract,which drove the trade and industry of the Greek industrial revolution, wouldthemselves have promoted and encouraged the establishment of the templenucleustothecitystate.Itwastheformofgovernmenttheyunderstoodbestandwhoseessentialpowerstheyknew,fromexperiencenowgrownancient,howtocontrolandsubvertifnecessary.Justasthesimilarsecretmoneycreativeforceheadsdirectlyfortheseatofgovernmentitselfinthisdayandage,andonceitbecomes fully lodged and acknowledged, in the same way as with theestablishment of the Bank of England in 1694 and the establishment of the

FederalReserveBankoftheUnitedStatesin1913,twoinstanceswithwhichwearemostfamiliar,itpenetratesrightintotheheartofthetreasury,[39]soitwasinthatday.InthelittlecitiesofearlyGreekindustrialrevolution,perhapsnolessslyamongstthissturdypeople,butclearlydiscernibleitwas.Asamongst theoriginal aristocracyofGreeceowing itsorigin to thoseheroicdays of the Homeric Sagas, would be little enough sympathy for the smoothsubtleties of those newcomers originating from the counting houses of thePhoenician, Aramean, or Babylonian Cities, it would not be to the naturalpolitical leaders that these newcomers would address themselves in the firstplace,buttothepriesthood,thosewhocontrolledshrineandtemple,theadvisorsandguidestosuchrulers.Justasintodaysuchpriesthoodistoooftencomposedofmenoflittleunderstandingoftherealitiesoffinanciallife,andwhowilllendthemselvesalmosteagerlytoanypowerthatmayapproachthemwithsufficientfront to convince them that they are being offered more than the god theyrepresentisalreadypossessedof,soitwasinthatday.Thisvillagepriesthood,conductingthesimpleritessuchasmayhavebeenduringtheperiodknownasthedarkages,andbeforetheadventofthecitystatesofhistoricalrecord,whenwasbreathedintotheirearsthepossibilitiesofmagnificenttemplessuchasweretobefoundinEgypt,andtheextentofthecontroltheywouldexercisethroughthe oracles,whosewisdomwould be spread by fame across thewholeworld,wouldeasilybegained.Thus the cities that roseout of the industrial awakeningofGreecehad all theappurtenances of the sacred city state ofmore ancient days.However, just assacredkingshipexistingastheprojectionoftheguidingwilloftheAlmightyontothisearth,toooftenduringthelastthreehundredyearshasbecomelittlemorethana frontgiving legality to suchmoneyas circulatesbearingas it does, theprofile of the rulerwho so often has been unwitting co-conspirator, if only asessential instrument,with thatmoney power, totally international in character,whichhasnowadays largely replacedkinglypoweras the true ruler, so itwasthatthetemplethatshouldowefealtytothegodsalone,becameafrontfortheinternationalmoneycreative forceof thatdayandage;connectedcloselywiththetradeinpreciousmetalsandslavesasitmusthavebeen.The temple of the Sumerian city state had been palace, temple, warehouse,government offices and central bank in one, and its servants[40] hadadministereditinthesecapacitiescertainlyuntiltheendofwhatisknownastheDynasticperiod (in thecaseof thecityofUr),andwithdecliningstrength forlongafterwards; and thekingof the city statehadbeen sufficiently asgodonearth,that,aspreviouslyhasbeendescribed,therewerethoseofhiswivesand

concubinesandofficialswhogladlywentdowntothegravewithhim.[41]Thus, as the distant heir, in some degree, to this temple of ancient days, thetempleoftheGreekcitystateinthe1stMillenniumB.C.was still a place lookedup to as the abodeof the gods, andwherein thesacred rites were conducted; even if that economic power, by which, as theexpressionofthebenevolentwillofthegod,ithadcontrolledthetotalexistenceofmen, and their comings and goings,was now exercised by an external andindifferent force, alien to Greece in thought and character, and with whom itconnivedagainstitsownadherents.Inthesamewaythepriesthoodorlaymenthatpromote,wittinglyorunwittingly,the elements of decay penetrating the church of today, connive blindly orotherwisewiththosewhosestatedandclearplanhasneverbeenotherthanthedisintegration of this selfsame church, and who have always had in mind nomorethanitsultimatedestruction.Inalatterperioditistrue,butstillwithinthefirstmillenniumB.C.,thesituationat the Temple of Apollo at Delos, and of which some proof exists, clearlyillustratesthisconditionofthetemple:stillascontrollerofthemysteries,andtherecipient of the bounty of devoted souls, but no longer the centre and controlpoint of the god owned state. It had becomemerely a front for the economicpurposes of a secret fraternity whose concern was money changing, silverbullion, thegrain trade,andtheslavetrade.Thesepersonshadconductedtheirbusinessintheshadeofthetemplecourtyardsfromancientdaysas,andiftheycould,inorderthatthepowerormysteryaslocallywasheldinawe,mightgivesanctitytotheiractivitieswhichsooftenwereexercisedagainst thewellbeingof the people who sheltered them. Such activities were frequently concernedwithmovements of bullion, the factormost of all giving rise to instability ofprices,andmovementsof labourwhichthenwasslaves,hardlylessafactor insuchinstabilityofprices,andthereforesonecessarytothefullexploitationofagivenpeople.TheislandofDelos,althoughvirtuallyinfertileandwithoutspecialadvantagessuch as natural harbours of any particular excellence, due to the contributionsandgiftsof thepilgrimsvisitingtheTempleofApollo,andthedepositsof thecities, trapezitae and leading citizens, in preciousmetals andmoney, for suchwereesteemedtobesafeintheTempleoftheGod,becameveryrich;acentreoftradeandbanking, andaboveall, a centre for the area slave trade fromwhichalmostnoneweresafe.[42]Ofthecommercialactivitiesofthegreatsanctuaries,OskarSeffert,theGerman

antiquarianofthelastcenturyhadtosay,(ADictionaryofClassicalAntiquities,p.91.):“WehearinisolatedcasesofStateBanks,butthisbusinesswascarriedoninthevastmajorityofcases,bytheGreatSanctuaries,suchasthoseofDelphi,Delos,Ephesus, and Samos, which weremuch used as banks for loans and depositsbothbyindividualsandgovernments.”In other words, therefore, the great sanctuary functioned verymuch the sameway,fromtheeconomicstandpoint,asthecentralbankinthisday.TheagentsofInternationalMoneyPower,asusedbythepriesthoodoftheTempleofApolloto take care of the fiscal or financial dealings of the temple, and to whomundoubtedlywasfarmedoutthecreditofthetemple,musthavefullyunderstoodthat the priesthood had betrayed their high calling, and thereby had betrayedthosedevotedsoulswhocontinuedtobelievethesoleconcernofthetemplewas,asformerly,fortheirspiritualguidanceandthattheyshouldlivegood,virtuousandpiouslives.Theseagentswouldhavelurkedasonlyfaintlydiscernibleshadowsbehindthetemple facade, although they instigated much of what came to pass in thosedays,ifthemselvessolittleseen.Offirstconcerntothemwouldhavebeenthereputationoftheirmasters,thepriesthood,forpiety,probity,andgodliness,insofarasappearancewent.Forbymaintainingthepositionofthepriesthood,theymaintained themselves and their secret power; yet for whatever they broughtabout, especially if of evil, itmay safely be assumed, a nevertheless inviolatepriesthoodwouldbeheldresponsible.Hencethepeopleneverquestionedtheexistenceofthetemplebutastheplacewherethewillofthegodwasexercisedthroughhisservants.Thatithadcometofunction more as instrument in the capacity of sanctifying front for aninternationalpowerconcernedlargelywithmoneycreationandthecontroloftheslave trade, itself mainly of criminal antecedents, was something they nevercame to fully understand; nor that this whole thing of prayer, worship, anddevotion was dangerously near to becoming a cruel hoax manipulated by ahandful of aliens, who looked at them and their fervour and belief with deadeyes.Nomore in thisdaydo thosewho toilon through the fewyearsof theirlivesrealizethatthegovernmentsthattheysonaivelybelievearetheirs,arebuta wavering shadow. The absolute reality of sovereign power only obtainablethrough total control overmonetary creation and emission and cancellation, isnottheirs.Theybutfunctionasstandardsbywhichinternationalmoneycreativeforcescreatetheworldsmoneyinagivenarea;placeswhereinexponentsofthe“Law”andtalkativeandbynomeanswiseorlearnedmenforegathertodiscuss

roadmindingetc.andtoooftenlittlethingsthatoccupythem,butmatternottoomuch; never looking too closely at the direction from which they came, nortowardthatdirectioninwhichtheygo;nor,aboveall, towardstheplaceofthehandthatfeedsthem.Therefore this economic power apparently centering in the Temple of Apollowould not only derive from those loans in preciousmetals that itwas able togrant,butalsofromthefactthatthoseverysecretfraternitiesunderstandingfullytheprinciplesofLedgerCreditPageEntryMoney,operatedunderitspatronage.Therecanbenodoubt that theprinciplesofmonetary inflation,or, betterput,abstractmoneycreation,werewellunderstoodtothe trapezitaeorprofessionalbankerstowhomtheTempleatDelosapparentlydelegatedthesefunctions;[43]and equally well known was how easily merchants could be trained to makepayments by chequedrawnon account consistingof supposeddepositswith arecognized banker either by signed and witnessed document, by signeddocument,evenbynomore thanverbal instructions.Thus,provided thepayeealso had account atDelos or agency thereof, no transfer of actual silver needhavebeeninvolved,andwhatisnoweuphemisticallydescribedasthefractionalreservesystem,(aswindleinduratedinasystem!)wasoperated.Theenormousvolumeofexchangesabusinessthatcouldbecarriedonwithoutthemovementof one drachma of silver, and consequently the monopolization of trade andindustryandsubsequentcontroloverthewholeworldanditsaffairs thatcouldbe brought about at literally no real cost, provided those dealing in moneychanging and financial matters maintained close solidarity, was known to thebankers.The tremendous entre-pôt trade of Delos, especially in slaves,[44] could notderive from anything else other than the acceptance of the “Credit” of theTemple from the hands of these aliens. These men would be skilled moneychangersbredandtrainedintheancientfinancialsophisticationofthecitiesofBabylonia, Aram, a Phoenicia, etc. They would be fully conversant with thepossibilities inherent in such ledger credit page entry money, and whosesuccessful functioning as an abstract inflation of the number of units of silverthey claimed to control, depended on secrecy, and solidarity amongstthemselves,andaboveall,onthepatronageofthecorruptedtemples.Professor Rostovtsev relates at length the commercial dealings of Apollonius,managerof the economicaffairsof thePtolemicPharaoh,Philadelphus.[45] Ifthe true name of Apollonius or others of that necessarily interlocked moneypower was known, and substituted for that of Antigonus and Demetrius andSoterand,indeedofPhiladelphusandallthoserulersthatsucceededAlexander,

thentheglassthroughwhichthistaleisread,showingbutdarkandinscrutablefigures incomprehensibly moving on the screen of time, becomes clear andmeaningful. For instance it is unthinkable that those soldiers who were thesuccessors to Alexander, probably by no means as instructed as theircommander, should have understood the undercurrents that still supportedenthronedkings,andupheldthembeforethegazeofthosethatyearnedtowardsthemastotheLord’sanointed.When Antigonus Gonatus took over the patronage formerly extended by thePtolemiestoDelos,hemadeitanentre-pôtcentrefortheNorthernAegeantradein thosematerialssonecessary in thebuildingofships;andmoresignificantlyagainforsilver;nodoubtfromtheminesofThraceandbeyond.ThisflowofsilvertoDelosfromtheNorthisofequalinteresttotherestoftheentre-pôt trade. It would have contributed to the augmentation of the templereserves of silver that would have enabled Delos to partially replace Athensduring the3rdCenturyB.C.as thenewcentre fromwhich internationalmoneypowercametocontrolthefinancesoftheEasternMediterraneanasformerly,inthe days of the Athenian Empire; and therefore above all, that grain trade soessential to Athens[46] and mainland Greece. A document mentioned byProfessorM.Rostovtsevrefers toapurchaseofgrain inDelosbyaSitonesofHisticaea, a subject city ofMacedonia inwhich he observes that the purchasewas made out of money advanced by a Rhodian banker. This particular casemightsuggestthatthebankingofRhodeswasinterlockedwiththatofDelosandthatthosesilverreservesoftheTempleofApollofunctionedalsoasreservetoRhodianbanking.Delos,becauseof its sanctitywouldconstitute amuch saferstorehouseforpreciousmetalhoardsthaneverRhodesmightbe.Previous references tobanking in theGreciancentresandsanctuariesasbeingconductedbyaliens,[47]arealsoverifiedbyProfessorM.Rostovtsev.[48]Thequestion therefore arises “What aliens?”Would they bemembers of the samefraternity as the Aramean, Apollonius above mentioned, manager for theeconomic affairs for Ptolemy Philadelphus; men who were standing almostabove and beyond mankind in their manipulation of powers that not so longpreviouslyhadbeen reservedsolely to thegodsandwhichhadbeenexercisedonly by that dedicated priesthood surrounding the king, son of god, on earth?Suchpowerbeinglosttokingsforeverwheninthefirstplacetheypermittedtheinstitution of accounting to a silver standard in ancient times in the Lands ofSumerandAkkad.The latter days of Delos and the Temple ofApollowhen 10,000 slaveswereshipped abroad in one day alone,[49]would certainly suggest the existence at

Delos as controllers of its economic affairs, a class of persons internationallyminded,andutterlycalloustothesufferingsofthemixtureofbrokenracesthatpassedbeforeitthewaytotheslavestockades.Althoughslaveryprevioustothe4thcenturyB.C.hadbeenmore in thenatureofabenigncustomsimilar to thecustom of the bonded servant or apprentice of the 18th and 19th Centuries inNorthernEurope,aftertheMacedonianconquestsitbecameacustominnowayso benign,[50] and herding all kinds of persons formerly free, day in and dayout,ontotheshipsoftheday,couldnothavebeenaccomplishedbutwithwhipandchainandfamiliesbeingtornapartwithoutcompunctionorcompassion,andlittlechildrendefenselessagainsttheabuseofmonsters.WhilethefactsoftheTempleofApolloatDelosarerelativelyclear,suppositionof the existenceof theTempleofAthene, atAthens asbeingunder the secretcontrolofthebankers,whilenotbeingsoclear,islogical.Thereserveof6000talentsofcoinedsilversupposedtohavebeenstoredintheAcropolisatthebeginningofthePeloponnesianWar[51]wouldcertainlyseemto indicate that the Temple loaned itself to that major activity of so-calledbankers,thecreationofabstractmoney,andshieldedthemintheirverycarefullyguardedsecretthatmostmoneycirculatingasbetweenAthenianmerchantsandthosewithwhomtheydidbusinesswithin,orwithouttheAthenianEmpire,wasthatwhichwascreatedasbyledgercreditpageentry.Thesilverreservewouldhavebeenthebanker’swindowdressingandwouldhaveservedtotakecareofsmallerdaytodayexpensesandpaymentstoforeignstateswherenootherformofpaymentwaspossibleoracceptable.ThePeloponnesianWarendednomorethanalittleoverahundredyearsbeforethe time of Alexander. According to A. Andreades in his essay on the warfinancesofAlexander theGreat, totalexpendituresperannumofAlexanderatthetimeofthecrossingoftheHellespontwere5000-7000talents[52].Thiswastheexpensesofanarmyfarfromhome,andtowhich,until theBattleofIssusand the certainty ofMacedonian total victory, little enough creditwould havebeenavailable,andmostofthedisbursementsofwhicharmywouldhavebeeninsolidmetal.Ofsuchmetal,fortunatelyfortheMacedonianRoyalHouse,theminesofPhillipihadcertainlymadesubstantialcontribution.Itisthereforeoutofthequestiontoconsiderwhether6000talentsofsilverwereadequateforthetotalfinancesofthePeloponnesianWarovertenyears,sofarasAthenswasconcerned.Ifalldisbursementstotradersetc.hadbeeninsilver,itisdoubtfulifsuchso-calledreservecouldhavelastedsixmonths.Thissilverwasmerelythefoundationofthatillusionwhichwasnodoubtspread

acrosstheAthenianEmpire,thatthosebakedclayfacsimilesofGreekcoinageswhichcirculatedsowellbetweenmerchantsandgovernments,wereredeemableinsilvercoin;justasforthelastthreehundredyearsintheBritishEmpirealltheQueen’s loyal subjects have believed that every bank note in circulation wasredeemableingold!On the subject of such fiduciary currencies in ancient times, particularly theAthenian,FrançoisLenormant,eminent19thCenturyNumismatistwrote:[53]“CedrenusclaimsthattheRomanshadwoodenmoneyinveryancienttimes.ButthistraditioncanprobablyberelegatedtothedomainoffableswiththeRomanmoney of clay of which Suidas writes. However it could be that this lastinformationisconnectedwithseveral typesofassignatbrieflyusedat thetimeand which could not have been emitted by public authority. Clay moulds ofsilver and gold currencies of various countries, principally belonging to theperiodextendingfromthemiddleofthe5thCenturyB.C.,andamongothers,ofthestatersofCyzique,arefrequentlyfoundatAthens.ThelearnedSicilianNumismatistM.AntonioSalinasduringhisstayinGreece,collecteda largenumberof thesemonuments,eitherasoriginalsormoulds,ordrawings. The purpose of this special class of objects that are of courseconnectedwithnumismatics,isveryobscure.Butitcanbeconjecturedthatsuchpseudo-currenciesofbakedclaymouldedfromexistingtypes(ofmoney)hadafiduciarycirculationofquiteaprivatecharacter,however,similartothatofthecredit notes whose emission is authorized in certain countries by particularinstitutions.”Inotherwords theclayfacsimiles functioned inmuch thesamemannerasdidbank notes over the last three hundred years in the Anglo-Saxon world; theyweremoney,privatelycreatedandemitted.FrançoisLenormant,howeverlivedatatimewhenrelativelylittlewasrealizedbynumismatistsofthefunctionsof“LedgerCreditPageEntryMoney,”oroftenenough ofmoney itself as being somany numbers injected into a circulationamongstthepeople,eitheraspureabstractionandfunctioningasbytransferofsuchledgercreditpageentry,orastangiblerecordonclay,paper,copper,silver,or gold, and functioning as by transfer from hand to hand of those definedcommodities,intrinsicallyvaluelessorotherwise,onwhichitsnumbersweresoimprinted.Thevalueofsuchnumbers ingoodsandservices forsalebeing themostamountofsuchnumbersasthepeopleofferedincompetitivebuyingortheleastastheyacceptedincompetitiveselling.

TPERMEDEIREGNANT!

hecity statesof the rulersofTroy,Orchomenos,Tyryns,Bog-Haz-Koi,Mycenae,Cnossos,andcitiesandstateswithoutnumberandofwhichnoteven the name or memory, now remains, too often, little expectant of

calamity fromwithout, fromwhatever cause, finallywent down into smokingruinbeforethedelugeofwildmen,who,withtheirreekingswordsbroughtallthosegod-orderedagesofancienttimetoabloodyclose;mensuchasthewearerof the golden mask whose grave was opened by Heinrich Schlieman in hisexcavations atMycenae, andwho he believed to beAgamemnon sleeping hiseverlastingsleep.Buriedswordinonehand,withtheotherthisgiantamongstmenstillclutchedindeath as in life, those disks of gold which so obviously were storehouse ofwealthandpower.Thusitisclearthatbypermittinggoldtobeequatedwithwealth,orthatwhichhadbeenmoney,andforgettingthusthetruenatureofmoneyasathingapart,hislawalone,merelyadeviceoftransferablenumberstoassistandgiveordertothe exchanges amongst his people, this god-king from whom descended thelegendof that companyonOlympus,was already surrendering hismight, andthe freedoms of his peoples, to those inscrutable shadows that lurked in thedimnessofthedistantBabyloniancountinghouses.To these rulers, power was already in the merchant’s and master miner’sprecious metal pieces. With such precious metals as they stripped from thebodiesoflivinganddeadinthosecitiestheyhadsogleefullysackedandputtosword,whenpeacecarneagain,theywereabletopurchasethoseitemsofluxurysomuchdesiredbytheirwomen,suchasweremanufacturedinthecitiesoftheMesopotamian plain andEgypt,[54] if not further afield.More important still,theywerethusabletoobtainthefinestofarmsthatskilledcraftsmanshipcouldfashion,suchasthesuitofbronzearmourfoundatMedeainGreece(illustratedonPage135ofDawnof theGods,byJacquettaHawkes); theverybestof themasterarmourer’strade.Thustheyreadiedthemselvesforthenextslaughter.Itmayverywellhavebeenasintoday,whenthenewaggressors,designatedCommunistasaccordingtothemeaningof thatword,mayverywellbepreparing for thedestructionof thoseeasy-going people of the Anglo-Saxon world fromwhose skill and techniquederivethosefinestofarmsthroughwhichtheirworldcouldindeedbethreatened

withtotalobliteration.That in their position as ruler all gold flowed through their hands,whether inthose forms given to it by goldsmith’s art or in those shapesmost convenientfromthepointofviewofitsuseininternationalexchange,thereisnodoubt.Thelattercasewasclearlyshownbytheringsanddisksandthetinydoubleheadedaxes,asfoundatTroy,allofgold,andthefourhundredroundpiecesofgoldandtheonehundred and fiftygoldendisks thatwere found in theRoyal tombsofMycenae (dating from c. 1500 B.C.) by Heinrich Schlieman[55] all of whichclearlyrepresentedsomeformofexchangeormoney.Spiralsofgoldwirealsofound in the grave of one member of the Royal Family of Mycenae aresuggested by Seltsman (GreekCoins, p.5) to be adjusted to the smallAegeangoldtalentof8.5grammeswhichheclassifiesastheAegeangoldunit.Hereinwouldbeimplicationoftheuseofagoldunitininternationalexchangesevenatthat early time. The rings of gold wire of a few grammes weight whichcirculatedinEgypt(Breasted,p.307)inthereignofTahutmesIII(1501B.C.-1447B.C.),wouldappeartoaffordsomeverificationofthisfact.Goldorsilvermoney,whether ringmoneyorother formofmoney, ifofdefiniteweightandfinenesswouldalwaysbedesirableininternationalexchanges.As an interesting and pertinent digression, it also appears that spiral or ringmoneymayhavecometooccupyaplaceintheeconomiclifeofEgypttoo,asearly as the latter years of the so-called Old Kingdom. Its use and abuse,considering theEgyptian trade that existed across theknownworldduring thereign of Pepi pharaoh who reigned 90 years during the 6th Dynasty,[56] mayhave been one of the factors bywhich the InternationalMoney Power of thetime,inwhateverformitexisted,broughtaboutthetotalcollapseofkinglyruleinEgyptintheyearssubsequenttothedeathofthisruler.TheHebrewrecordsalsoappeartoverifythisuseofmetalringsorspiralsbeingusedinsettlementoftradebalancesbetweenforeigners;orofbeingstorehousesof wealth. According to Madden, however,[57] there is no mention of goldmoneyinancientHebrewrecords,thoughgoldconstitutedpartofthewealthofAbraham,undoubtedlyrefugeefromUraboutthetimeofitsdestructionbytheGutim. The six hundred shekels of gold by weight paid by David for thethreshing floor and oxen ofOrnan[58] and the 6000 shekels of gold taken byNaamanonhisjourneytotheKingofIsrael[59]donotimplymoney.Norcanthe passage: “they lavish gold out of the bag and weigh silver in thebalance,”[60] or “Wisdom cannot be gotten for gold neither shall silver beweighedforthepricethereof,”[61]bebroughtforwardinfavourofgoldmoney.Goldwasgenerallyemployed forpersonalornament[62]and foradornmentof

thetemple.Itisprobable,therefore,thatasystemof“jewelcurrency,”or“ringmoney,”wasin use. The case of Rebekah to whom the servant of Abraham gave “a goldearing of half a shekel weight,[63] and two bracelets for her hands of ten(shekels) weight,” proves that the ancient Hebrews made their jewels of aspecificweightsoastoknowthevalueoftheseornamentsinemployingtheminlieuofmoney.That theEgyptianskept theirbullion in jewelsand rings isnotmerely indicated by the scene on themonuments asmentioned byLenormantandMasparo,inwhichtheyarerepresentedasweighingringsofgold,silverandcopper,butalsobythefindingsofarchaeologysuchasthecopperringsfoundatTelAmarnastampedwiththecartoucheofKuen-Aten,Hyksosruler.[64]Theserings would appear to have been retained in the treasury at Tel Amarna, andthereforestillwerecurrenttwohundredyearsaftertheexpulsionofthesocalledHyksos. According to Breasted, gold and copper rings of a fixed weighcirculated in large scale business in the time of the “Old Kingdom,” and(significantlyenoughtothestudentof“banking,”orprivatemoneycreationandregulation, as it might better be known) “stone weights were already markedwith their equivalence in such rings.”[65] The circulation as money of these“promises to pay” recorded on stone, pointedly suggests the likelihood of theactivities of a secret fraternity whose hereditary trade was private moneycreation.Itmayverywellhavebeenthedebilitatingforcethat,withthedeathofPepi II in2476B.C.,broughtaboutending in turmoilandanarchy to theevenflowoftheundeterminableageoverwhichtheGod-Kingsreigninginawesomesplendour, so long had spread their mantle of man-consideration and truebenevolence.Further evidence that the Egyptians kept their bullion in jewels or rings isindicated by the passage from Exodus[66] in which it is related that theIsraelites,previoustotheirdeparturefromEgypt,borrowed“jewelsofsilverandjewelsofgoldandspoiledtheEgyptians.”In consequence itwould appear that themoney used by the children of JacobwhentheywenttopurchasecorninEgyptwasringmoney,theuseofwhichwaspermittedbythePharaohEgyptofthetime;rightlyorwrongly.Theirmoneyisdescribed “bundles of money,” as verified by the authorized translationDeuteronomy. “Then shalt thou turn it intomoney and bind up themoney inthinehandandshallgountotheplacewheretheLordthyGodshallchoose”[67]TheexcavationsofHeinrichSchliemanindicatethatsuchringmoneywasalsousedbytheMycenaeansatperhapsratherlaterdate.ThustheGreekcitystate,owingitsexistencetoanuncertainlongperiodduring

whichtheretookplacethoseeventsthatleduptothefinaldaysofCnossosandMycenae,wastheresultoftheunionoftheforcesoforderinlifeanddeaththatmotivatedthepriest-king,wereheatCnossos,oratThebes,orTelAmarna,orserving the Moon god at Ur, leader amongst the Sumerian cities, and thoseforces that drove on the builders of the battlements first of all unearthed byHeinrichSchliemanatTroyandMycenae.Whetherpriest-kingorpeasant-king,theirwealthwasalreadyassessedintermsoftheweightoftheirstoreofpreciousmetalswhichwouldbesoeagerlyacceptedinexchangefortheproductsofthemaster armourers employed by the bankers who already controlled trade andmoney creation in those cities of the Ancient Orient; from which cities,therefore,thegloryoftotalguidancebythegod-willhadalreadydeparted.He who was literally the Son of God on Earth as he meditated in his islandfastness of Crete, was beholden to none other than the people belowwho heservedfromhisplaceastheapexofthepyramidoflifeitself,andtothewilloftheoneabovewhoappointedhimtoserve.ThepeasantkingatMycenaeorTroyorwhereveritmightbe,forallhisseemingrock-likestrength,andacertaingod-likenessincharacterofthekingshiphebore,aswasindicatedbythetitleWanax,necessarily existed as instrument of those who manipulated gold or silversupplies internationally,andat the same time theslavemarket;menofaclasswho, in that control of prices which they so clearly exercised, were able tocontrol prosperity in all those seeminglypowerful states that had accepted theinternational valuation of silver as the factor determining internal or nationalvalues; suchaswas thecasewithmostof themainlandcities.Theymayhavebeen, as it seems they are today, a close knit conspiratorial group threadedthrough the priest and scholar class of these cities and lards; thought not ofthemselvesofsuchorigin.The answermaybe found to lie in the existence invery ancientSumeriaof aprivilegedclass,who,havingaccesstothe“credit”ofthetemple,thuswereabletocontrolthemastersofthegreatdonkeycaravanswhocarriedsuch“credit,”orwill of the god of the city, from one place of business to the other; incisingrecordontheirtablets,ofloanofsuchcreditmadetoenablepurchase,orinterestoverdue,or repaymentofsuch loanashadbeenmade theprevious trip.Thesepersons, who may be considered themselves to derive from the hereditarycaravaneersandwhomusthavefunctionedasbullionbrokerandbanker,wouldhave been fully clear on the subject of silver and its function in settlement offoreign trade balances and its use as a standard on which to base moneyaccounting.InthelatterdaysofthecitystatesofSumeria,itisreasonablyclearthatduringcertainperiodsofdecay, a languidandcorruptedpriesthoodmight

delegate[68]tothesepersons,notonlymattersoftrade,butalsothosedecisionsrelativetoforeignstatessoessentialtothecontinuanceofthemightandrightofthegodofthecity.Thespecialinternationalcharacteroftheoutlookofthesepeople,sprungastheyundoubtedlywerefromthedonkeycaravaneers,borntobeathomeamongstallpeoples, yet to always bear in mind the peculiar business of the caravanmerchants,theirtradeandprofit,maynothavemadefordecisionsasfromatrueanddedicatedgod-servant.Thus itmayverywellbe thatwemust look to theprofessionalcaravaneers,fromwhomdescendedtheHabiru,[69]forwidespreaddissemination of the knowledge of the possibilities offered to merchants bydevelopmentofthepracticesrelatingtoprivatemoneycreationderivingfromaclearunderstandingofthemeaningofaccountingtoasilverstandard,andlaterthe potentialities towards development of monopoly of trade inherent in theactual use of silver as thematerial onwhich the numbers of the abstract unitwere stamped.The full extent of the possibilities towards the accumulation ofwealththroughexploitationofvaryingratiosbetweensilverandgoldindifferentpartsoftheworld,andthepossibilitiesofaprivateandsecretexpansionofthetotal monetary circulation which was open to those who were held in suchesteeminthecitiesthatpersonsweregladtodeposit theirvaluableswiththemforsafekeeping,mayalsohavebeenknowntothem.As such accounting to a silver standard had long been known in the lands ofSumerandAkkad,andthemainlandgenerally,controlofvalueshadlongsincebeen in the hands of the silver bullion brokers, whoever they were, and themoneylenders,andbankersandtheirsatellitemerchants,withoutreferenceasinformer days, to priesthood and temple scribe.Through bullion they controlledmoney, and through money creation, on that bullion as base, they controlledmanufactures. According to T.B.L. Webster in his book From Mycenae toHomer: “Undoubtedly Ugarit and Alalakh were more concerned withmanufacturesthanKnossosandPylos,andsilverbyweightwasalreadyforthemperforming the function of money, whereas as far as can be seen in theMycenaean centres, no such standard existed”[70]. However the fact that theAchaeansderived their systemofmeasurements fromMesopotamia[71]wouldcertainlysuggestthatthemostimportantmeasurementofall,themonetaryunitwouldequallyoriginate fromsuchsource.Thisopinion is furtherstrengthenedby the collaboration obviously existing in the Mycenaean settlement atUgarit[72]withthatmoneypowerwhichbaseditselfonsilverbyweight,suchasclearlycontrolledthemanufacturiesofUgaritandAlalakh.Furtheraccordingtothesamescholar:

“The Alalakh tablets also record copper distributed to smiths, but note inaddition it is to be used for making baskets or arrowheads; and the King ofAssyria sent copper toMari to be made into nails by the local craftsmen. AreportfromPylosthatthewoodcuttersintwoplacesaredelivering150axlesand150sparsforthechariotfactorymaybecomparedwiththeUgaritictextsonthedeliveryofwood for themakingofarms,andanoteofwooddelivered to thecarpenters for the construction of wagons in Alalakh.We may add here alsofrom Pylos a list of wooden objects made, a list of vessels received by men(perhapsMayors) invariousplacesandanoteofpiecesof ivory; tosetbesidethis rather slender evidence of Mycenaean manufacture, Alalakh provides arecord of sixty four business houses and their produce; they include smiths,leatherworkers,joiners,andcartwrights.”[73]Thusitseemsthatwheretheconceptionofmoneyastoasilverstandardexistedas at Ugarit and Alalakh, so also existed organized industry, includingoutstandinglytheprivatemanufactureofarmsundermethodsthatappear tobethoseofsemi-massproduction.Itisnotwithoutsignificancethatthisearlyeraofprivately issued money (such as was silver money), and consequent privateindustry, particularly that which was devoted to arms manufacture, was incertain areas so coincidentalwith themassivemovements ofwarlike peoples,andthecollapseofancientempiresthathadlivedlongunderthepatternoflifeknown as that of the Ancient Orient. Conquering peoples needed the best ofarms.Itseemsthatthebestofarmswereobtainablefromprivateindustry;andprivateindustryinitsturnneededsilverorgoldorlabourwhichwasslaves,inpayment.Bothwereobtainableas the resultofwar.Thereforeparallel, thoughnotentirelythesameas intoday, themorewar, themoretheindustry,andthemoretheneedfortheproductsofthemoneycreators’ledgers.Hencebecamethemore absolute the control of that which most of all designs industry and itsaccompanying slavery inone formor another, namely,privatemoneycreativepower.Thusregardlessofwhatstrengthstillresidedintheheartofthetemplestatesofthe Ancient Orient, if values were dictated by the international valuation ofsilverbullion, then,aboveall, the internationallydealingsilverbullionbrokerswouldbeinapositiontoseetoitthatmanufactureanddistributionofarmswasunder their control, the factor most important of all in international powerallocation.Theywereinapositiontohavemanufacturedinsomescale,controllinglabouras theyundoubtedlydid throughcontrolof the slave trade, the finestweaponsknowninthatdayfor thoserulerswhocollaboratedwiththemandservedbest

theirpurposes.Clearlyby thesame token,withsuch totalmoneycontrol, theywere in a position towithhold the best ofweapons, or thematerials for suchweapons, from thosewho served them the least. In aworld that had come tobelieve inmoneyasanabsolute, suchwas theposition longago,exactlyas intoday.Thusthestatethatrejectedinternationalmoneypower,asdidSpartaandRome in ancient times, and Russia in modern times, had to be prepared toestablishtotalmilitaryself-sufficiency.The Cretan civilization that communicated its ancient language through thepictograph script known as Linear “A,” which recognizably came tocommunicate Greek through that development of this script known as Linear“B,” about 1500 B.C.,[74] would certainly seem to have been conquered byGreek speaking peoples some reasonable period previously; which wouldsuggestabout1700-1600B.C.Atthesametime,accordingtoBreasted,[75]in1675B.C.,theso-calledHyksos,a Semitic conqueror, entered the Delta regions of Egypt, establishing totalmilitarysupremacythroughtheuseofhorseandchariot,previouslyunknowninEgypt.TheevidencesoftheUgaritandAlalakhtablets,althoughofasubstantiallylaterdate (about three hundred and fifty years) indicating semi-mass production intheseareasofchariotparts,arrowheads,andarmsofvariouskinds,[76]cannotbutsuggestthatitwasfromthisregion,soclosetothecopperofCyprus,andthewoodofAnatoliaandLebanon,thatmoneypowerarmedthoserestlesspeoplesthatmayhaveinundatedCreteinearliertimes,andEgyptsomewhatlater.ThechariotsbymeansofwhichEgypthadbeen subdued,canonlyhavebeenpaidforoutof thebootyofconquest, theplunderof tombandtemple,andthesale of the enslaved peoples. The fact of the persistence of the thrust ofTahutmes III[77] into these regions substantially less than one hundred yearsaftertheevictionoftheHyksosbyAhmoseI(1500B.C.-1557B.C.)fromtheirlast Egyptian stronghold at Avaris[78] on the Eastern marches of the Delta,wouldindicatenoidlepointlessadvance,butdefinitedesigntowardsdestroyingthe heart of the enemy, the elimination of his financial and industrial centres.Whether theywerestill in theregionsofUgaritandAlalakh,ornowshelteredelsewhere behind the Kingdom of Kadesh, perhaps in Mittani, would not beknown.However, that both sides had equal access to the international arms industrywouldcertainlybeindicatedbythespoilinmanufacturesofwarofthebattleofMegiddo(1479B.C.)aswonbyTahutmesIIIagainst theKingofKadeshand

hisallies,amountingtoninehundredandtwenty-fourchariotsandtwohundredsuitsofarmour.[79]Bycorollary,itmayreasonablybeassumedthatopposedtothesechariotsasseizedatMegiddo,wouldhavebeenatleastanotherthousandchariots.AlexanderofMacedoniaventuringfarfromhomeinlatertimes,wasareckless adventurer, considering that at the battle of Issus (October, 333B.C.)thewholeMacedonianarmyamountedtolittlemoreinnumbersthantheGreekmercenary centre of Darius which was but a small part of the Persian’senormous, if undisciplined host.[80] Tahutmes, who ruled Egypt from 1501-1447B.C.wasthegod-kingofagreatandancientstatetowhichoccupationbythe detestedHyksos had so recently taught a severe lesson in thatwhichwasmodernwarfareinthosetimes.Hewasdescendantofalineofkings2000yearsold or more, and it is very doubtful if he would havemoved abroad withoutcareful organization and planning. To build his thousand or so chariots wasneededthewoodofLebanonandSyria,andthosedistrictssurroundingtheGulfofAntioch.[81]Alsowas thecraftsmanshipof its citiesofUgarit andAlalakhneeded,or at least,of that so strategicdistrict,whatever itsnameat that time;also equal financial and industrial organization to that which clearly wasavailabletothekingdomofKadesh,suggestedbyBreastedtobethelastflickerofpoliticalandmilitarypoweroftheHyksos.[82]Thus it would appear that money creative power had definitely reestablishedsome formof agency inEgypt,where, under the conditions of the empire, itsbest interests lay.TheagreementbetweenTahutmesand thePhoeniciancities,particularly Tyre,[83] demonstrates concessions made to traders in order toobtainthesea-powerwhichhesomuchneededforthesuccessofhiscampaignagainst Kadesh. The fact of gold and silver rings of a few grains weightcirculatinginEgyptasagainstday-to-daypurchases,[84]indicatesthenatureofthe concessions byTahutmes to thatmoney creative forcewhich undoubtedlydrove theworld-wide tradeof thePhoeniciancities.Thegifts in silverbullionfromtheKheta(orHittites),[85]naturalenemiesofthekingsofMittani,indicatethat theyknew thatwhichwouldbemostwelcome to thePharaoh,andwouldmostofallweakenhisleaningstowardsfriendshipwithMittani,orotherpeopleslikelytohavebeentheirenemies.ThetemplesofEgyptclearlyretainedimmensewealthandholdingsinland,[86]and still conducted their own trading expeditions.[87] However, from thereckoningofBreastedthatonepersoninfifty,andoneseventhofthelandwasownedbythem,[88]itisclearthatbythetimesofRamesesIII(1198-1167B.C.)andtowhosereignthisestimateisapplicable,thetrueforcebehindkinglyrulewhichisthewillofthegod,sothatkingandtempleneededtoownnothing,as

beingallinall,theyownedallandwereall,hadlongagobeengatheredupbythosepromotingtheconceptionofprivateownership.Suchconceptionofprivateownership would naturally derive from that right these persons had alreadyarrogatedtothemselvestocreateandmanipulatethemonetaryunit,tangibleorabstract,andtherebystimulatethegrowthofaprivateenterpriseforgoodorill.Tosuchanextenthadthischangeinthesubstructureoflifeproceeded,that,bythetimeofSolomon,firstHebrewkinginJerusalem[89](955B.C.approx.),thechroniclerwasabletowrite:“AndachariotcameupandwentoutofEgyptforsixhundredshekelsofsilver”;[90]thereinbeingindicationthattheinternationalmoney power of the day deemed it safe to locate itsmost important industry,whichwasthatofarmaments,inthelandofEgypt;atleastafterthebarbaricbutdefinitelymore“pliable”Libyandynastyhadbecomeestablished.Ancientwaysandancientmoralegavewaytoforeigninfluencesandtheperiodof self-criticismand therefore self-immolation that always seems to follow theadvent of the penetration of international money creative force. Such moneycreativeforceanditskeyarmsmanufacturiessomuchneededbythewarpowersofthatday,wouldalwayscontinuetomaintainitself,comewhatmay.PossiblyitsheartlandwassomeareasuchasSwitzerlandtoday, thatby tacitconsentofallpowers,remainedneutralinallthisstrife,andwhoseneutralitywouldalwaysberespectedbythearmedforceofeachofthestrugglingstates.Kadesh, and its allies,ArvadandSymyra,were themilitary force towards thedestruction ofwhichTahutmes III directed his efforts.[91] Themanufacturingcities of Alalakh andUgarit on the lowerOrontes river and bordering on theGulfofAntioch,respectively,becauseofthewidespreadextentoftheirtradingoperationsduringthe13thCenturyB.C.untilthetimeoftheirdestructionattheendofthatcenturybysearovers,eitherallyorenemyoftheconfederacyknownasthe“PeoplesoftheSea,”mightverywellbesuspectedofbeingheadquartersofamoneymarketat that time,even if thedeepsourceof theirmoneypowerexistedintheBabyloniancities.In being a centre for international trade and armsmanufacture during the 13thcenturyB.C.,thisareamayverywellbeconsideredtohavebeenasimilarcentreduring the 15th Century B.C.: the more especially in consideration of theagreementwhichseemedtohaveexistedbetweentheArameo-Phoeniciancities(excluding Arvad and Symyra) and Tahutmes; at least those who guided hispolicies.While therefore the neutrality of such areas was respected, money power incontrol of themovements of bullion internationally, safe behind this shield ofneutrality as designers of the international money market, would be able to

continuetomanipulatewarindustries;alwaysremaininginapositiontoallocatethe latestofweapons to those stateswhichoffered them thebest advantage inrespecttotheirparticularaffair.TherulersofthatgreatEgyptafterTahutmesIIIand his conquests, although probably completely unaware of the extent of thepowerofthissameinternationalforce,derivingasitdidfromthebazaarsoftheancientcitiesoflowerMesopotamia,obviouslyneededitsgoodgraceswhenitcarne to obtaining thosematerials andweapons so necessary for what in thattimewasmodernwarfare.Asaresult,althoughtheEgyptianempireintheearliestyearsmightverywellbedescribed as a common market existing independent of Babylonian moneypower,andderivingitsstrengthfromthewilltobeofadedicatedandinstructedRuler, thesequenceofeventsshowsthat throughthoseconcessionsitobtainedforitsbestservicesinwar,itwasnotlongbeforeinternationalmoneypowerre-penetratedthesubstructureofEgyptianlifeandestablisheditsusualbehind-the-scenesinfluence,ifnotcontrol,asintheearliertimethatdenotedthecollapseofthe“OldKingdom.”Itmaysafelybeconsideredtohavereassumedthepositionofhiddenpowerithadheldathousandyearsbeforeduringtheclosingyearsofthe 6thDynasty, a period inwhich the stoneweights indicating equivalence inmetal money[92] circulated in much the same way as the clay facsimiles ofcontemporarycoinagescirculated in theEasternMediterraneanareaduring thedays of the Athenian empire, or as circulated the paper notes of today thatformerlyindicatedclaimonpreciousmetal.Furtherindicationoftheactivitiesofprivatemoney creative force in this same period exists in the evidence of anextensiveworld-widetradeonlandandsearevealedbythoseitemsofEgyptianmanufacture discovered at Dorak in Anatolia by JamesMellaart,[93] and thestonevasesandivorysealsthatwerefoundinCrete;[94]allofwhichdatedfromthistime,andborelittleevidencetosuggestthattheywereinthenatureofgiftsbetweenrulers.Through “liberalism,” and so-called “progressive teachings,” its most ancientinstruments, wittingly or otherwise, towards the continuance of its secrethegemony,reinstitutedinternationalmoneycreativeforceseemstohavebroughtthehostlandofEgypttowhereitwasatthetimeofAkhenaton(1375to1358B.C.), and theTelAmarna letterswhich tell of self-destructionanddecay, therejectionofoldvaluesandbeliefs,andtheindifferenceoftheaEgyptianrulerstotheirtrust,andtothecrumblingofEmpire.ThedegeneracyandcomplacenceoftheagewasrevealedbythefruitlessoutcryoutofAsiafromthevassalsofthePharaoh; being particularly exemplified by the despairing pleas of kingAbdikhiba of the most ancient city of Jerusalem for assistance against the

pressureofthearmedassaultsoftheHabiru.[95]InthemeantimethemilitarymightofthosegrimwarriorsoftheshaftgravesofMycenae continued togrow, and they clearly couldbe reliedon to supply themastermoneyersofthatancientworldwithgoldandsilverandslaves.Thereinthese robber rulers, best known from the Homeric sagas, were but theinstrumentsbywhichthemysteriousworshippersoftheanti-god,thecontrollersof the extensivemoney creative force deriving from theMesopotamian cities,unseen,butall-seeing,slowlyundermined thewallsof the templestatesof theancientworld,ofCrete,ofMycenae,ofTroy,ofBog-HazKoiandofEgypttoo,sofinallyandsocompletely,thatlittlememoryorrecordexisted,exceptinthecaseofEgypt;evenduring thatperiodwhich isknownasantiquity; that is theperiodoftheflourishingofGreeceandRome.What,therefore,didtheinternationalmoneycreativefraternityofthatdayneedfromthosestatesthatclearlyforbadtheirtradeorsettlementascorruptorsofalltrueorderandpeaceinlife,andthatthusrejectedtheirblandishments;orfromanyotherstateforthatmatter?WhatotherthantheplunderoutofsackandruinbythosewildmentheybroughtinfromdistantlandstoNorthandtoSouth.andtowhom they offered the sweet-smellingwomen, the sunlit gardens, the goldandthesilver;whichofcoursewouldsoonbetheirsinanycase.Ofallthosecitiesandstateswithoutnumber,andmanywithoutname,whytheydisappeared,orwhen,bothasactualsites,ornamesintertwinedwithhistoricalmemory is not known; nor the story of the ending; for as at Pylos,[96] andCnossos,[97] and Ugarit[98] too, in so many cases the flames were the finalgesture of fate whichmade durable to the end of time, the clay libraries andarchivesthussharplydefiningtheendoftheircompilationandleavingnorecordfurther.ThelastthrustoftherelativelywildmenoftheNorthandWestagainstEgypt,and that Egypt survived to still continue to write its name upon the page ofhistoryforyetathousandyears,evenifwithahandgrowingevermoreweary,ifsuccessful,wouldhaverevealedthesamepicture.ItisclearthattheorganizationofallthoseWesternandNorthernpeoplesinconfederationagainstEgyptduringthereignofthePharaohMerneptah(1236B.C.-1236B.C.)wasnotofhaphazarddesign.Tehennu,Sherden(orSardinians)Shekelesh(orSikeli,theearlynativesofSicily),Achaeans,Lycians,Teresh(orEtruscans),Danae(obviouslyderivingfromtheGothsoftheNorthernshoresofEuropeandverylikelytheforefathersofthoseintheIsraelitishconfederacywhodescribedthemselvesas“Dan”),[99]all these nations known as “The Peoples of the Sea,” could not have beenbroughttogetherasafairlydisciplinedgroupwithoutsomemoreinternationally

wiseadvisors in theclosecirclesurroundingKingMeryeyof theLibyans thanhisownLibyanadvisors.EgyptstillcontainedintempleandburialhouseagreatpartofthegoldwashedfromtheriversofAfricaoverathousandyearsormore,despitetheplunderingoldtheso-calledHyksoshadcarriedwiththemintothedesert some three hundred and fifty years before.Whether Egypt fell, or theconfederate host fell, eitherwaywas profit to the international bullion traderswhoseagentswouldhaveequallyfollowedEgyptianorconfederate.Afterthistotalvictory,largelywonbytheskillanddisciplinethatexistedintheEgyptian archery, of copper, still amost valuablemetal of war, 9000 swordsalone were surrendered to Merneptah. A further one hundred and twentythousand pieces of other coppermilitary equipmentwere also surrendered; ofweaponsandvessels insilverandgold,over three thousandpieceswere takenfromthecampoftherulersandchiefs;thislatterspoilincludingmanyswordsofgoldandsilver.TheKingsareoverthrown,saying‘salam!’NotoneholdsuphisheadamongthenineNationsoftheBow.WastedisTehennu,TheHittiteLandispacified,PlunderedisCanaanwitheveryevil,CarriedoffisAskalon,SeizeduponisGezer,Yenoamismadeasathingnotexisting.Israelisdesolated,herseedisnotPalestinehasbecomeadefencelesswidowforEgypt.AllLandsareunited,theyarepacified;EveryonethatisturbulentisboundbyKingMerneptah.[100]It is interesting to note that although the hosts that fell at the battle of Perire,numberingat leastnine thousand,werealmostall fromtheWest,according tothepoemrecordedabove,MerneptahalmostimmediatelyturnedhisattentiontothepeoplesoftheEast.Judgingbythisrecordofthestele,hepaidsomespecialattentiontoanIsraelneverpreviouslyreferredtoinEgyptianhistory.SuchIsraelwouldundoubtedlybeaconfederacyestablishedduringthe13thCenturyB.C.byCanaanitic tribes,elementssuchas thefragmentsof the“Hyksos”orShepherdKings, whatever their correct designation, and that had disappeared into thedesert some 350 years before pursued by the chariots of Ahmose I,[101]elementsderiving from the“Peoplesof theSea”perhaps,and theHabiru,alsoknownas‘Apiru’or‘Khabiri’.Butwhowaswho,orwhy,orwhat,littleconcernedthatbraincentreinBabylon

orUr,orwhereveritwas.Whoevertheyprofessedtobe,ortobelongto,meantnothing.Outofdeathanddestructionwastheirharvest,whetherthosetheysaidwere their own, were theirs or not. The only reality was control of preciousmetal. Out of death and destruction came the releasing in that day of the allimportant hoards of stored bullion, and the renewal of the slave herds to beconsumed inmining ventures in distant places, garnering the increase of suchpreciousmetals.[102]Further, as kingly ruleweakened,with the increasing circulation of fraudulentreceipts for precious metals and other valuables supposedly on deposit, thishighly secretive interstratum of merchant classes controlled by thesemonopolistsofmoney throughmonopolyof control ofpreciousmetal bullion,postulatedbyProfessorA.L.OppenheimtobeAramaicspeakingduringthefirstMillennium B.C.,[103] would be able of finance much larger manufacturingsystemsthanhadbeenpossiblefromthehighlydiscriminatory temple loansofearlierdays.UgaritandAlalakhpreviouslymentioned,werebutearlyinstances.While thepurposeof the templewas tocause thepeople to livegodly livesasaccording to thecustomsof thedayand topreserve themfromstrayingoutofthe ways of righteousness as it were, the secret and private money creativepower,beingmoreconcernedwith theopposite, theneedsof theanti-god, thedestructionofthepeople’slives,whetherofking,priest,nobleman,ormerchant,orhewholabouredinthefield,loanedwithoutsuchdiscrimination.Outoftheresulting confusion amongst rulers could come nothing but advantage tothemselves and their purposes; out of the break up of family and home andtradition, all that the dedicated servant of the god has in life,would come anexhaustedandconfusedpeople,more ready toaccept slavery.[104]Corruptionof thepriesthood,as in today,was thechiefaimofmoneyconspiracy,andbycausingsuchpriesthoodtolosesightofitshighpurposeanditselfasthevoiceofgodonearth,successinallitsotherpurposes,naturallyfollowed.“Documentsofthethirdleveloriginateinautonomouseconomicbodiesrangingfrom collective agricultural organizations centred in families, to what oftenconstitutesdefactoprivateenterpriseinsideandoutsidecities.Thedistributionoftheevidenceinvolumeandimportancevarieswithtimeandregion.”[105]Privateenterprisedependedonprivately issuedmoneyandof suchwas silver.Thustowardstheestablishmentofmanufacturies,they,theinternationalbullioncontrollersneeded the connivanceof those corrupted templeofficialswhohadlostsightofthemeaningofthatgod-givenpowerofmoneycreationwhichhadbeentheirs,andwithoutwhichthegodhimself,therealrulerofthecity,couldnotbetrulymaintained.Bythetimethesetempleofficialswerebroughttoenter

into such connivance, they would be past realizing or caring, for that matter,about the destructive effects to their powers and purposes which lay in sopermittingprivateissuanceofmoneyintocirculationamongstthepeoplebywayofpreciousmetals,orreceiptsforsuchpreciousmetalsorvaluables,supposedlyondepositforsafekeepingwithprominentmerchanthouses;thustheywouldbeeasilymanipulated.Withtheextensionofthegrowthofexchangestoasilverstandardsuchaswouldderive from the circulation of false receipts issued against silver or valuablesreputedlyondepositforsafekeeping,nospecialoutlayinpreciousmetalswasneededotherthanpossiblybribestocourtandtempleofficials.Thesemen,thecontrollers of bullion movements internationally, and of almost equalconsequence,theslavetrade,nowthattheirknowledgeofthefraudsrelatingtothe use of precious metal money, and consequently their knowledge of thatwhich is nowknown as “capital”was becoming perfected,were bringing intobeingextensiveprivate industries, themost importantofwhich,aspointedoutpreviously,were the industries relating towar. Towards the promotion of anyparticular industry as required by the bankers, no doubt ambitious slaves orfreedmenaseagerformoneyastheircounterpartstoday,couldbealwaysfound.Itwasclearlyunderstoodthatthosereceiptsrepresentingtheweightofsilverorthevaluables assessed as according to a silver standard, that thebankersweresupposedtohaveondepositforsafekeeping,whichcirculatedbycustom,orbylawwhich is custom, asmoney as to represent a definite amount of exchangeunits,whileacceptedasmoney,weremoney.Thefactthatthepeopleacceptedthem as such, made them so. Their cost to the money manipulators, bullionbrokers,orwhatevertheirdesignation,beingbutthatoftheclayinthetabletandthescribe’sentrythereon.Afterthefinaltriumphoftheinternationalmoneycreativefraternitywhichmaybe identified in Mesopotamia with that period of conquest, reconquest, andconquestagain thatbeganwith that invasionofSumeriaby theGutimin2270B.C., and ended with the collapse of the Empire of Ur of Ibi-Sin before theElamiterebelswiththeirAmoriteallies in2030B.C.,andtheir takingawaytoSusaascaptive,boththecultstatueoftheLordNannar,theMoonGodtogetherwith the King Ibi-Sin himself, earthly viceroy of that God, those agents ofInternational Money Power, quickly concluded the work of destruction[106]through liberalism and permissiveness, no doubt, so that by 1900 B.C., theSumerian had totally lost his national and racial identity andwill to be.Whatcontinued from then onwas, without a doubt, amixed breedwith no specialallegiancetoanythingotherthan“money.”[107]

Such agents are shown by the general evidence of history to be a class ofdubious origins and antecedents. Imbuedwith racial self-hatred, these rascals,who are raised up in a time of national exhaustion, against the former naturalsystem of rule, by a triumphant money power, too often are particularlydistinguished by a readiness to please those who it seems to them are themasters; even to the downgrading and debauchment of their own kind. Theapathyofacontrolledpublicopinion to thedelugeofperverted sexdrenchingthe Anglo-Saxon countries today, which could not take place without theconnivance of the so-called rulers, if only through their failure to take anyseriousstepstowardscontrollingitssource,is,herein,instanceenough.However, until the violent disruptions of caravaneering about 1800B.C.,[108]the manufactures of Mesopotamia continued to flow Northwards as againstpreciousmetals,principallysilverandrawmaterials;andnodoubt that tradingareaorcommonmarketformerlycontrolledbytherulersoftheIIIrdDynastyatUr,continued toexist; thoughno longerwith theLordNannar[109]assigningauthority.The growing manufacturies of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt in the time of theEmpire,UrinthereignofIbi-Sin,andofallthewell-populatedworldwhichisnowknownastheNearEast,wereinstigatedasaresultof thosesecretmoneycreativeprocessesknownonly to that classof personswhohave alreadybeendetailedasbest as ispossibleoutof the fragmentaryevidenceavailable, tobecontrolling external trade out of theMesopotamian plain. Suchmanufacturies,tradingtotheendsoftheknownworld,wouldhavedrainedsouththesilverofGreece,ofThrace,of Illyria, andCarpathia; indeed fromwherever it couldbeobtained, it would have flowed as against settlement of trade balances, toMesopotamia.Consequently,bythetimeoftheAssyrianassumptionofcontroloverAram,andArabia,andEgyptduringthefirsthalfof thefirstMillenniumB.C.,money,asbeingacreationofthegodofthecitytowardthewell-beingandgoodlifeofhispeople, had become a conception of which sight had been almost completelylost.Ithadcometobethesilverinjectedintocirculationbyprivatepersons,whoby then, in reality, if not so far as went general appearances, throughmanipulationofthatinvertedpyramidofledgercreditpageentrymoneyerectedon the silver they claimed to hold in reserve, as apex, had now completelyusurpedtheessentialpowerofthetemple:thecreationandallocationoftheunitofexchange.Thusthetotaldesignofthecitywhichderivedfromthepowerofrejectionorprefermentformerlyexercisedthroughthemoneycreativepowersofthegodthroughkingandpriesthood,fell into theirhands,andwhere inearlier

daysadevotedpriesthoodexerciseditsprerogativeofprefermentthroughmoneycreation, towards the people living a god-ordered and pious life, eachman inharmony with his neighbours,[110] those new international forces that nowexercisedtherealityofsuchrulefromthecountinghouses,contemptuousofallkinglyandgodlypowerasundoubtedlytheywere,butstillneedingsuchpowerasfrontbehindwhichtheymightshelterinordertobetterpursuetheirnefariouspurposes,spreadhateandsuspicion,eachmanofhisbrother.Secretlypromotingtheconceptof“PermanentRevolution”asbeingmostsuitedtowardsthemaintenanceoftheircontrol,nosoonerdidstableandnaturalgod-orderedgovernmentcomeagain,then,feverishlydiggingatitsroots,theytoreitdown.Outofbreak-upoffamilyandhome,outoflustanddrunkenness,outofthepeople living indisorder, and lovegivingway tohate, they throve.Wherethey saw signs of nobility and natural aristocracy in living and thought,returning, financial preferment was automatically withdrawn. He who wasconsumed with animal desires and ignobility of purpose, was their man andeagerly their slave,andwillingbetrayerofhisbrethren intowhatwasplannedforthembyhismaster.Even though certain priesthood continued to maintain vigorous templeorganizations long after the international control came about such as wasexercised by the great Babylonian financial houses, itmay safely be assumedthat such temple organizations continued to exist only on account of theirdeference to these new controllers of international exchanges. In a similarmannerdidtheEgyptianpriesthooddefertothepowerofJosephasViziertothePharaoh;asaresultofwhich,whileallotherlandsinEgyptwereexpropriatedand returned to State ownership and administration, its lands, such asappertained to the temples, were not touched in any way.[111] Thus was acorruptedandshort-sightedpriesthoodbroughttoacquiesceintheenthronementofitsenemies,andtheenemiesofthegoditrepresented.ForJosephclearlywasagentofanexternalMoneyPower,andwhilethePharaohleanedonhim,heandthatforcebehindhimwereclearlytherulers.defactoifnotdejure,theywereintheplaceofthePharaoh.

BTHELEFTHANDOFDAWN

oth according to FrançoisLenormant[112] and theCambridgeAncientHistory,[113]chequeswereinuseinBabyloniafromtheearliesttimes.SuchuseofchequeshasalsobeenverifiedashavingexistedatUrduring

the3rdand4thMillenniumsB.C.bySirCharlesL.Woolley,andnodoubt,byotherarchaeologistsatothersites.As theonlyclearmeaning thatcanbegiven to the lawNo.7ofHammurabai,indicatesthatalsowereknowninthe3rdMillenniumorearlier,theprinciplesofprivatemoneycreation through thecreationof receiptsasagainstvaluablesondepositwithpersonsof“Repute,”theexistenceofalltheabusesagainstthemenofthecity,derivingfromtheexerciseoftheprinciplesofinflationanddeflationof the total number of such receipts indicating given numbers of the unit ofexchange,maybedeemedtohaveexisted.Theseinflationsordeflationsofthevolumeofthemassofabstractmoney,whichindeedsuchfalsereceiptsmaybecalled, and such as are particularly associated with the custom of makingpaymentsbychequedrawnon“deposits”createdbysuchreceiptsasissuedbysuchpersons“ofrepute,”andwhichcouldbemanipulatedassuitedthemselvesandtheirfriendsetc.,weredirectedtowardscreationoftotalmonopolyofwealthandindustry.Further,asaccordingtoPaulEinzig,“acreditsystemdevelopedinGreeceasinother parts of the ancientworld long before the adoption of coinage,”[114] itmay reasonably be supposed that well before the flood of refugees that musthave poured out ofAram in the earlier days of the firstmillenniumB.C. as aresult of the Assyrian onslaught, Babylonian money power had alreadyestablished branch agencies on the coast of Greece, and in the Mycenaeancentres generally, from which they loaned their clay “promises to pay,”expressedintermsofsilvernodoubt,asagainstcollateral.Suchloanscouldbeused to purchase those luxury goods and arms which were brought from theSyrianorMesopotamiancities;butalthough theoriginal loanhadbeenbut anentryintheledgeroftheagent,probably,inthefinalanalysiscostinglittlemorethan the labour of slave scribe, the repayment demanded would be silver orslaves,orotherequallydesirablegoods.

ClearevidenceoftheexistenceofthisBabylonianforceintheMycenaeancitieswas yielded by verification of the fact of the existence of the mythologicalCadmus of Grecian Thebes, reputedly Phoenician (Phoenician being simply awordusedby theGreeks todescribe thosepeople that came to trade from theportsofSyriaandCanaan),havingprobablybeenreality.ThishistoricalfactwasrevealedbythediscoveryinmoderndayThebesintheareathatinancienttimesmusthavebeenthenationalstorehouses,ofcylinderscontainingsealsofahighdignitaryofthecourtofKingBurraburiaswhoreignedinthecityofBabyloninthe firsthalfof the14thCenturyB.C.;whichunmistakably suggestedCadmus,and his real part in the affairs of Thebes and those cities with which it wasconnected.[115] Further evidence of the activities of the Babylonians isindicatedbythediscoveryoftheirsealsintheCyclades.These tradingstationsestablished inMycenae longbeforeHomer,wouldhavefunctionedverymuchasdidtheEuropeantradingstationsontheWestCoastofAfrica during the eighteenth centuryA.D.[116] Theywere points fromwhichagentsofinternationalmoneypowercouldinstigateinternalwarfareamongstthetribes, so that theywould always have readymarket for the products of theirarmsandother industries; themostdesirablepaymentfor theseproductsbeingpreciousmetalsandslaves;asmuchinancienttimesasinmoderntimes.As previously pointed out, the warrior princes of Mycenaean Greece hadundoubtedlymaintained steady supplies of these commodities as the result oftheirdepredationsovermanyyears.ButoncetheyhadthrownalltheirresourcesandmilitarypowerintothegambleacrosstheseawhichwasthecampaignoftheKingofLydiaandthe“PeoplesoftheSea”againstPharaohMerneptahofEgypt,andwhichendedintotaldisasterforthematthebattleofPerire,theyearsofstrength,andplenty,andbeingfearedbytheirenemieswereover.Itmayreasonablybeassumedthattheirtotaldestructionwhileinconfederationwith the tribes and kingdoms of the Western Mediterranean at Perire on theWesternmarches of theEgyptianDelta in 1234B.C., by the discipline of themassed archers of PharaohMerneptah,would havemarked theApogee of theparabola of their rise and fall.[117] In that battle it was proven that they hadover-reachedthemselves,and,ashistoryrecords,theirdescentfromthatApogeewas swift.Despite the excellence of theirweapons and the skill at diplomaticmanoeuvre of those forces supporting them, such as lay hid within theBabylonianmoneypower,althoughsomuchof thatworldofancient timehadfallen before their fine copper weapons and their chariots, as a result of thatunhappybattle,allsuchequipmentwasgone;andmorethanthinkingoffurther

conquestsabroad,thoughthadtobefordefenceofhearthandhome.IfthenthelatestestimateofthedateofthebattleofPerire,givenas1234B.C.by W.F. Albright,[118] is correct, that the destruction of Egypt itself wasplannedover the period of years or so following the sackofTroy (1250B.C.according to the modern dating and that of Herodotus), is reasonablesupposition.Theorganizing,arming,andtrainingofsuchwidelydiversepeoplesasformedthearmyofKingMeryeyofLybia,wouldhavetakenmanyyearsofcarefulplanning.ConsideringthattheplunderthataccededtoPharaohMerneptah,afterthebattle,of at least ten thousand swords, mostly copper and bronze, the rest gold andsilver,andthe120,000piecesofothermilitaryequipmentincopperandbronze,underthemethodsofproductionofthatdayrepresentedyearsofwork,perhapsMerneptahdidnoton thisoccasionmelt them intobullion,or sell them to theagentsofinternationalmoneypowerwhoundoubtedlywereamongstthosecampfollowersappearingtosupporthisarmy.Hemayhavemadetheobviousmove,asissuggestedbythefallofPylosabout1200B.C.[119]ofusingthisplunderinweapons to arm the tribes of Epirus, and perhaps farther North, who clearlywould be the natural enemies Achaeans. These tribes, although recorded bysomeasbeingshepherds,werejustaslikelytohavebeenslavesrevoltingfromthemining industries establishedby theBabylonianmoneypower through theinstrumentality of the Achaeans and Mycenaeans; which mining industriesproducedthegoldthatwassuchacommonplaceinthehomesofthenobilityofMycenaeaand the silver thatwas somuchneeded for themaintenanceof thatfinancial system based on silver byweightwhichwas the foundation ofwhatmay have become, by this time, a total world hegemony of private moneycreativepower.FollowingisadigressionontheminingindustriesthatexistedinGreeceandtotheNorthaboutthetimeofCadmuswho,aspreviouslypointedout,wasoneoftheprincipalBabylonianagentstotheMycenaeanworld.Hisapproximatedatemayverywellbeknownfromthedatingof theseal foundatGrecianThebes;[120] which reveals that Cadmus probably lived during the reign of KingBurnaburiash (sometimes known as Burraburiash) of Babylon, who wascontemporary of King Tutankhamen of Egypt (1358-1353 B.C.). The sameBurnaburiashisbestknownbyhislettertoKingTutankhamenaswasfoundintheTelAmarnaarchives, inwhich,pleadingforgoldinnouncertainterms,heachievesanimmortalfame.[121]Nearlyonehundredyearsbeforethemoreextensiveknowledgeofthesetimes,suchasexists today,AlexanderDelMar, relyingonhisownobservationsasa

miningengineer,andontherecordsoftheancients,wroteasfollowsrespectingthe mines from which the agents of the world-wide Babylonian financialhegemony,suchasCadmusofThebesdrewtheirsteadyflowofgoldandsilver.AfterdescriptionofthethoroughnessofRomanmininginSpainintheAsturias,anddetailedmentionofLaureionnearAthens,hecontinues:“Thassus,anislandofftheThraciancoast(writtenThassobytheGreeksandThassusbyLivy)wasoriginallycolonizedbythePhoenicians.Thassusitself isprobablyacorruptionof Iassus for Pausanias informs us that Thassus was the son of Agenor, thebrotherofEuropa,and the leaderof thePhoenicians (and therefore,brotherofCadmusthefounderofThebes)[122]whicharedetailsthatbelongtothemythofIassus.Herodotus says that he himself visited the islandofThassus,where hesaw a temple to the Thasian Hercules ‘erected by the Phoenicians, who builtThassus while they were engaged in the search for Europa, an event whichhappenedfivegenerationsbeforeHercules,thesonofAmphytryon,wasknowninGreece.”The“ThasianHercules”wasIassus.Weknowbut littlemoreof theearlyhistoryofThasusbeyondthefact that itsmineswerecelebratedfortheiryieldofgoldandsilver;thatthemostproductiveones were in the S.E. district between Aenyra and Coenyra; and that theThasians, in addition to the mines of the island, owned and worked those ofScapte Hyle (or Scaptesyla) on the Thracian main. These last in the time ofDarius yielded an average annual product worth or equal to 80 talents. Theminesontheislanddidnotproducesomuchatthisperiod,althoughatanearlieronetheyhadannuallyyieldedbetweentwoorthreehundredtalents.About 60miles S.S.E. ofCapeSunium is the island of Siphnos,which in thetimeofPolycratesB.C.580-22andperhapslongbefore,wasfamousforitsrichmines of gold and silver. ‘Their soil produced both gold and silver in suchabundancethatfromatenthpartoftheirrevenuestheyhadatreasuryatDelphosequal n value to (all) the riches which that temple possessed.’ In the Romanperiod, time of Strabo, Siphnoswas noted for its poverty: for says Pausanias,speaking of the interval, ‘Afterwards their gold mines were destroyed by aninundationofthesea.’Mount Pangaeus is in Thrace on the River Nestus, about two hundred milesW.N.W.fromConstantinople.Plinysaysthatthegoldminesinthisrangewereopened byCadmus: indeed it is probable that all themines in ancientGreecewereopenedbythePhoeniciansor theVenetians,beforetheywereworkedbytheGreeks.PhillipofMacedonaboutB.C.358,beinginformedthat inancienttimes(thatwouldbeprevioustotheso-calledDarkAgesofGreece)[123]thesemineshadbeenproductive,causedthemtobereopened,withtheresultthathe

obtainedfromthemannuallymorethanathousandtalents.ItisfromthegoldofPangaeusthathestruckhis“Phillips,”whosetypeduringthefollowingcenturywassoextensivelycopiedbytheGauls.TheislandofSamos,oncecalledCypar-Issa,isonthewestcoastofAsiaMinornearthemouthoftheCaystrusandruinedEphesus.ItwascolonizedoriginallybytheBacchidae,whowerepresumablyPhoeniciansorVenetiansandwho,onbeingdrivenoutofSamosbytheIonians,settledafterwardsinSamothrace.Weknowlittleof theearlyhistoryofSamos.TheSamianmineswereofgoldandsilver, theoresofwhichwere reducedon the river Imbrasus.Theextantgold,silver, and electrum coins of Samos are numerous. Some of those commonlyattributed toSardis,wereascribedbySestini toSamos.Herodotus reports thatPolycrates bought off the Lacedaemonians, who tried to deprive him of theisland,withasubsidyofleadcoinsthinlycasedwithgold,andthuscheaplygotridofhisunwelcomevisitors.TheminesofSamoswerestillworkedinthetimeof Theophrastus, about 240 B.C., for he wrote concerning them: ‘Those whoworkintheseminescannotstandupright,butareobligedtoliedowneitherontheirsides,ortheirbacks:forveintheyextractrunslength-wiseandisonlytwofeet deep though considerablymore in breadth and is enclosed on every sidewithhardrock.Fromthisveintheoreisobtained.’Minesofgoldorsilverorbothwereworkedbytheso-calledPelasgiansinmanypartsofGreece,chieflyinthemountainsofAlbania,Dalmatia,Croatia,Bosnia,Servia, Thrace and Bulgaria. The remains of a smelting furnace composed ofcolossal hewn stones (once again the cyclopaean stone works of Mycenae?),[124] together with heaps of refuse silver ores, can still be seen in Albania,almost in sight from the houses of Corfu (Corcyra). Similar structures andremains are said to exist in Dalmatia. In Bosnia at Slatnitza, on the road toScopia,sixmilesfromTraunick,theRomansworkedgoldminesonanextensivescaleand theywereprobablyworkedby theGreeksbefore theRomans.Thereare reported tobegoldmines in severalmountainsnearZvornickandVarech.The rivers Bosna, Verbatch, Drina, and Latchva are auriferous. Many silvermineshavebeenworkedintheneighbourhoodofRamaorPrezos,Foinitcaandothervillages, calledSreberno,Srebernik,orSrebernitza.Cinnabar isobtainednear the convent of Chressevo, and this deposit was probably worked formercury in very ancient times. About B.C. 470, Alexander, son of Amyntas,possessedaminenear lakePrasisandMt.Dysia inMacedonia,whichyieldedhimatalentperdiem.In Servia there were silvermines near Nova-Berda, and (Roman) goldminesnearSaphina.Ancientminesofbothgoldand silver, chiefly the latter exist in

otherpartsofServia,but little isknownof theirearlyhistory.Thereare sometwenty thousandacresofalluvionswithin fiftymilesofBelgradewhichmightyetrichlyrewardthehydraulicprocess.Thereisplentyofwaterwithgoodheadsandgoodgradesforthegravel.Bulgariaalsoaboundsinminesofthepreciousmetals, but like most of those within the territory comprised within AncientGreece,theyhavefallentoruinsandtheirhistoryisforgotten..In many parts of Greece or European Turkey, where ancient mines wereworked,asuperstitionissaidtopreventthepeasantryfromvisitingthem.Malte-Brun especiallymentions this of the oldRomanmines nearTraunick, andweourselveshavenoticed thesamesuperstition in thevicinityof theRomangoldmines in the Carpathian foothills. This superstition is probably due to thetraditions of that cruel and relentless slavery to which their forefathers weresubjected by the Greek and Roman Lords who once owned these mines.Valdivia, writing to the Emperor CharlesV, declared that every castellano ofgoldfromPerucostameasureofhumanbloodandtears.WhatwasthecostofgoldtotheancientRomansorthestillmoreancientGreeks,itwouldbehardtosay:butahumanlifeforeveryouncewouldprobablybewellwithinthemark.[125]For further information on mining in very ancient times in S.E. Europe, theactivitiesoftheBeakerpeopleetc.,theCambridgeEconomicHistoryshouldbeconsulted, though no special significance, such as obviously exists, will bepointedoutthereinrelatingthissearchforsilverandgoldtotheprivatemoneycreativesystemalreadywellestablishedinBabyloniaatthattime.Sotoreturntothemainthreadofthistale.Itisclearthatarelativelyextensive,andhardened, andbrutalizedpopulation existed in the localities of theminingindustriesofEpirusandfartherNorthatthetimeoftheflourishingofCrete,andMycenae and of Cadmus of Thebes; formerly considered mythological, butclearlypowerfulagentoftheBabylonianmoneypowertowardsitssearchfortheprecious metals. This population, largely slave, given weapons andorganizations, as the vanguard of the so-calledmilitant shepherds, could be aseriousthreattothecivilizationsoftheSouth,soconcernedwithpeaceandthepleasuresderiving fromtradeetc.,which isbornoutby the recordsofhistory,scantastheyare.It is to be noted thatUgarit,wherein theAchaean had trade centre after 1300B.C.,greatport,andlocationofmanufacturies,fellwellpreviousto1190B.C.,when Rameses III of Egypt appears to have finally checked the Southwardadvanceofitsdestroyer;[126]whichsuggestslikelihoodofthemashavingbeenthoseNorthernpeople,notconnectedwiththe“PeoplesoftheSea,”withwhom

Egyptundoubtedlyestablishedallianceat the timeof thebattleofPerire.Suchalliesmay verywell have been thosewe know of as theDorians, who, as isrevealedbythetabletsofPylos,clearlyweresearaidersintheirearlierdaysintheMediterraneanarea.Furtherverificationoftheseconclusions,thoughnotofthe Dorian alliance, exists in the deductions of Professor Albright (Syria, thePhilistines, and Phoenicia; p. 31.), deriving from the information on thedocuments found in theTabletOvenatUgarit, that the sackofUgarit, havingobviouslyoccurredshortlyafterthetabletswereplacedintheoven,datesfromabout1234B.C.,whichwouldbeaboutthetimeofthevictoryofMerneptahofEgyptoverthe“PeoplesoftheSea”atPerire.ThedestructionUgaritmayverywellhavebeenanactofpoliticalrevengeofareawakenedEgypt,working through theallies itwouldbe raisingup.For it isclear that theraiderswhostruckdownthis importantcitywerewelladvisedinthat theychose the timefor theirattackasbeingwhen theshipsofUgarithadbeen ordered elsewhere, perhaps toLydia, by theHittiteswho appear to havebeen the overlords of the kings of Ugarit.[127] These raiders obviously werealsowellarmed.Inthatday,muchmoresothantoday,thequestionwasnotsomuchaswhethermenwereavailable,aswhethereffectivearmswereavailableforthemtobear.Ugaritwasundoubtedly centre fromwhich armsand supplieswere shipped totheLibyansandthe“PeoplesoftheSea.”Insuch,therefore,itwouldhavebeenagencyof thatgreater force seeking todesign theendofEgypt as itbadbeenknown;andwaitingforitsplunderofsliverandgold.ThemainAchaean states, suffering serious shortageof arms as a result of thebattleofPerire,whichappearstobeverifiedbythedearthofmilitaryequipmentrecordedbytheLinear“B”tabletsunearthedatPylos,obviouslywrittenshortlybefore thefull forceof theattackcamefromtheNorth,werewideopento theenemy. On the reasonable assumption that Pharaoh Merneptah would havearranged for armed uprising of the numerous mine slaves to the North ofMycenaeanGreece, together with organized attack from those nations ofmidEurope, perhaps from as far afield as Denmark, trading partner of Mycenae,[128]itwouldhavebeenreasonableforhimtohavesuppliedthemwithofficersparticularly instructed in siege work, and the arms with which, as a result ofPerire,hisarsenalswouldhavebeensowellequipped.Onethingisclear,theDoriansknowntobedestroyersofPylos,anactionwhichpavedthewayfortheirconquestofthePeloponnese,werewellorganized,withastrongespritdecorpswhichremainedwiththemuntilthelastdaysofSparta,and were well armed as armaments went in those days. Having ships, as the

tablets of Pylos reveal,[129] they thus couldmaintain adequate supplies downthecoastof theAdriatic.Aboveall theymusthavehadpreviousexperienceinsiegework such as couldhavebeengained in thewars against theCanaaniticcities, for the tremendous walls of bothMycenae and Tyryns could not havebeen taken but by well organised armies with a strong and experiencedengineering corps. Itmay safely be considered that a considerable part of theexcellentarmswithwhichtheDoriansmusthavebeensupplied,wastheplunderofPerire.Theonlyuncertaintyiswhetherthesearmswereobtained,asseemstobe the usual thing in such circumstances, from the internationalmoney powerdirect,orfromaschemingandresurgentEgyptwherethegod-kingshoneonceagainon the throneof the two lands,givinguniversal illuminationasguideofhispeople’sdestiny.AfterPerire, terriblebattle that itmusthavebeen for thetimes,hecertainlywouldhavebeeninapositionto“DivideandRule.”After all these events, largely indicating frustration of the schemes ofinternationalmoneycreativepower,particularlyinitsfailuretobringabouttotalcollapse of that most ancient world which was Egypt, so far as Greece wasconcerned,therecameaperiodknowntodayasthe“DarkAges”;dark,becausetoo little is known thereof. Suchwas themagnitude of the disaster that sweptovertheAchaeans,weaponlessastheyverywellmayhavebeen,thatforatimethosetradingstationsestablishedbytheBabylonians,andthathadflourishedforso long, through the crumbling of somuch ofwhat had been in ancient days,mayhavebeenreducedorevenclosed.[130]Ashowevertheturbulencediedaway,moneypowerascentredinMesopotamia.nowwith the plunder of half a dozen civilizations in its strong rooms, and asteady inflowof the preciousmetals deriving from the rapid expansion of themining industry at that time, due to the improvement of the methods ofexploration and smelting brought about by the use of tools of hardened iron,togetherwith theavailabilityofampleslavesuppliesasderived fromall thesewars,begantolookaroundfornewfieldsinwhichitspowertocreate“Capital”could be used to best advantage. Thus once again the money creators ofMesopotamia turned their eyes towards the idyllic shores of Greece, and itsforestedmountainsandhills;GreecewhichwasclearlythegatewaytoEurope,and,throughitscommandoftheroutestotheHellespontandtheBlackSea,tofurtherAsia.Analysingthesources,eitherDorianorIonianfromwhichderivedtheimpulseswhich gave driving force to the growth of theGreek industrial revolution, theEncyclopaediaBritannica(1898)says:“The Ionianwas thatwhichmostactively influenced theearlydevelopmentof

Greece.ButtheIoniansthemselvesderivedthemostimpulsesoftheirprogressfromaforeignsource.ThoseCanaanitesor‘lowlanders’ofSyria,whomwecallby theGreeknameofPhoenicians, inhabited the longnarrowstripof territorybetweenLebanonandthesea.Phoenicia,called‘Keft’bytheEgyptians,hadataremoteperiodcontributedSemiticsettlerstotheDeltaor‘IsleofCaphtor’;anditwould appear from the evidence of theEgyptianmonuments that theKefa, orPhoenicians,wereagreatcommercialpeopleasearlyas the16thCenturyB.C.Cyprus, visible from the heights of Lebanon, was the first stage of thePhoenicianadvanceintotheWesternwaters;andtothelasttherewasaSemiticelement side by side with the Indo-Europeans. From Cyprus the Phoeniciannavigators proceeded to the Southern coasts of Asia Minor, where thePhoeniciancolonistsgraduallyblendedwiththenatives,untiltheentireseaboardhad become in a great measure subject to Phoenician influences. Thus theSolymni,settledinLycia,wereakintotheCanaanitesandtheCarians,originallykinsmenof theGreeks,werestronglyaffectedbyPhoeniciancontact.ItwasatMiletusespeciallythattheIonianGreekscameintocommercialintercoursewiththe Phoenicians.Unlike the dwellers on the southern seaboard ofAsiaMinor,theyshowedno tendency tomerge theirnationality in thatofSyrianstrangers.But they learned from themmuch that concerned the art of navigation, as forinstance,theuseoftheroundbuiltmerchantvesselscalled,andalsoasystemofweights and measures, as well as the rudiments of some useful arts. ThePhoenicianshad firstofallbeendrawn to thecoastsofGreece inquestof thepurple fishwhichwas found in abundance off the coasts of the Peloponnesusand of Boeotia; other attractions were furnished by the plentiful timber forshipbuildingwhichtheGreekforestssupplied,andbyveinsofsilver,iron,andcopperore.TwoperiodsofPhoenicianinfluenceonearlyGreecemaybedistinguished:first,aperiodduringwhichtheywerebroughtintointercoursewiththeGreeksmerelyby traffic in occasional voyages; secondly a period of Phoenician tradingsettlementsintheislandsoronthecoastsoftheGreekseas,whentheirinfluencebecame more penetrating and thorough. It was probably early in this secondperiod,perhapsabout the9thcenturyB.C.(probably the timeof thefirstmajorAssyrian attack on the Arameans in 933 B.C.), that the Phoenician alphabetbecame diffused through Greece. This alphabet was itself derived from thealphabet of the EgyptianHieroglyphics,whichwas brought into Phoenicia bythePhoeniciansettlersintheDelta.ItwasimportedintoGreece,probablybytheArameo-PhoeniciansoftheGulfofAntioch,notbythePhoeniciansofTyreandSidon,andseemstohavesuperseded,inAsiaMinorandtheislands,asyllabary

ofsomeseventycharacters,whichcontinuedtobeusedinCyprusdowntoalatetime. The direct Phoenician (I.E. Babylonian), influence on Greece lasted toabout600B.C.(significantlyaboutthetimeoftheSeisachtheiaatAthens,andtheLawsofLycurgusinLaconia).Commerceandnavigationweretheprovincesthatconcernedthehigherculture,thePhoeniciansseemtohavebeenlittlemorethan carriers from East to West of Egyptian, Assyrian, or Babylonianideas.”[131]Although theexistenceof thecitiesofUgarit andAlalakh in the regionof theGulfofAntiochwasunknownwhentheabovewaswritten,neitherthereforehadknowledge of those days received the impetus of the information recorded intheirtablethoards,norwereLinear“A”and“B”known,muchlessdeciphered,revealingsomuchofMycenaeanditstime,andthatwhichhadbeenbefore,theopinions expressed by this 19th Century writer more or less agree with thoserecently expressedbySirCharlesLeonardWoolley,[132] despite the belief ofSirLeonardsome26yearspreviously,thatthescriptofthe(Aramaic)tabletsofRasShamra,siteofancientUgarit,derivedfromthecuneiformofSumeriaandAkkadia.[133].And so to continuewith themain thread of our narrative, it being thus quiteclear that by 933 B.C., agencies for Babylonian imperialismwere once againwellestablished,inGreece,certainlyinIonia,andalmostcertainlyfartherafieldon the Greek mainland, considering those favourable conditions existing inGreeceatthattime,theinternationalmoneypowerofthatday,inrealityasblinda force to its own needs and purposes as it is today, on the advice of suchAramaean refugees no doubt, decided to reduce exports to Greece, and tofinance the growth of native Greek manufactures. Such financing, whetherthroughforgeryoftheexistingcurrencyofGreece,theironorcopperspits,outof the bloody scrap garnered from the fields of battle inAram, or Arabia, orIsrael,orEgypt;orbyothermethodsknown to them,aspreviouslydescribed,wouldpresentnoproblem.ThusrenewingmorepermanentlythebasefromwhichtheirtradeintoNorthernEuropemight be conducted, winter or summer, they were guaranteed a moresteadyflowofCarpathian,Illyrian,Thracian,orAtticansilver.Abasewasalsoestablished from which the similar trade into the Pontic regions and SouthRussiacouldbebettermaintained;inadditioncouldbereckonedonagrowingindustrial population to assist in the absorption of both Egyptian and SouthRussiansurplusesofgrain.ThepettybutvigorouscitystatesofGreeceasexistedandwouldcometoexist,would formagoodground forexperimentwithmoneysystems,andwithnew

systems of government and, what is now-a-days called social systems. In thefeveredimaginationofthemoneychangersschemingintheirshadedcourtyardsofBabylonia,suchexperimentsmightevenshowthewaytowardsthatforwhichtheir souls yearned above all, andwhich still they had not been able to bringabout: the total disintegration of the last great kingdoms of earth, which, itseems,nosoonerhadtheybeenbroughttothepointofcollapse,thansomehowtheycametoriseagain.“KingshipagainbeingsentdownfromonHigh.”[134]Thewaymightbeshowntothembywhichtheytoo,theirGod,themselvesandtheirs,mightbecomeLordsoftheEarth;andindeed,wherebyoutoftheirmidstmightbe setup thatGod-Kingwhowouldpresideover thegovernanceof theUniverse;itstotalandabsoluteruler..And much of these strange yearnings came to be realized. The possibilitiesinherentincirculatingpiecesofpreciousmetalofequalweightandfineness,andwiththesealofstatestampedthereon,asmoney,afterthefirstmajorexperimentthereinintheLydiaofCroesus,werefullyexploitedinGreece.NodoubttheseancientGreeks,thesameasourpeopleinthisday,fondlyimaginedthatthestateimprinted marks on their so-called coinage, denoted the absolute integrity oftheirmoney;andwhiletheycontinuedinthisbelief,theywerethemoreeasilymanipulated.Thus thepowerof rejectionorappointment felloutof thewitheringhandofadecadent, if not dying priesthood, into that hand thatmoved over the disks ofpreciousmetalintheshadowsofthecountinghouse;andratherthannobleandselflessmen in positions of power, came low andvenalmenwielding but theappearanceofpower.Suchmenbeingraisedupfromtheblindmob,exercisednomore controlor rule than thatwhich the forcesbehindmoneycreation andissuancepermittedtothem;nordidtheyexerciseguidancefurtherthanthatlimitdictatedbytheinferiorityoftheirquality.TheGreekofthosedays,astheEnglishmanduringthe17thCenturyA.D.,washighlyintelligent,industrious,andfrugal,andheclearlyservedunderhisancientandnaturalaristocracyproudlyandgladlyinwarorinpeace.Hislandwasthencoveredwithforestsfromwhichwasavailableanamplesupplyofcharcoalsuchaswouldlastkilnsandfurnacesforalongtimetocome;fromThrace,notsofardistant,camesuitabletimbersforshipbuilding.Hencethesparkthatgavelighttothe life of the Greek city state must have been smouldering well before theintroduction of coined money from Lydia and its attendant possibilities ofcontrolledcreditmanipulationsmuchgreaterthanhadeverbeenbefore.Consequently,atthetimeofitsemergenceintothelightofhistoryasweknowit,GreecewastotheknownworldinthesamewayaswasEnglandduringthe

16th and17thCenturies,when, due to the stealthy stimulationof a “Credit,” orabstractmoneyeconomy,moneygreedinjectedintothenobilitycausedthemtoforgettheirtrust.Themajormanifestationoftheforgetfulnessofsuchtrustwastheirseizureofthecommonlandsforthepurposesofsheeppasture,thegrowingwool trade now yielding good return in the expandingmoney economy; thusdeprivingthevillagersoftheirrightfullivelihoodontheland,andleavingthemwithnooptionbutemigrationintothecities.Inthecitiesthesevillagersservedas labour inmine or factory, there being totally at themercy of rascals fromforeign parts, or thosewho bad been raised up from their own ranks asmosteagerforfood,andwhowereleastcriticalofthehandthatofferedittothem.SofarasGreecewasconcerned,ontoasceneidyllicinthelovelinessofitstreeclad hills and mountains and shores, came men from that Aramaic speakingmoneypoweroutofSyriaandAram,plausiblemenwhoweptandmoaned tothepityingGreektheslaughterof theirpeoplebytheAssyrian.RefugeesfromtheHittitecityofCarchemish,fromArameanDamascus,Kummuh,andSama’l,and other cities. Citieswhich had crumbled to dust before the ferocity of theAssyrians under Shalmanezer and Ashurnazirpal; but whether Syrian orBabylonian,thesemenspokeandwroteAramaicinoneformoranother,astheevidence of the Greek alphabet reveals,[135] and which would be furthersuggestedbythenatureofthetabletsthatwerefound(about1935)onthesiteofUgarit(nowknownasRasShamra),ontheNorthSyrianCoast.[136]These men brought with them the knowledge of precious metal commodityexchange, and amongst other deceptions easily perpetrated on a simple andtrustingpeople,knowledgeofthepossibilitiesofcreationofmoneyandwealththroughtheracketsofstorageofvaluablesasforsafecustody;orthecreationofcredit as it is now euphemistically known, and its power as a driving forcetowards the establishment of industry amongst a healthy, trusting, andwarlikepeople; and its power towards the creation of monopoly of ownership andcontrolofsuchindustry.Whatmust havebeen cottage industry inGreece, soonbecame industryunderorganizationandundermethodsofsemi-massproduction, longsinceknowninSumeria,andAkkadia,andAssyriaetc.Suchindustrycouldonlybeorganizedon the basis ofmoneywages in the case of freemen, and therefore onlywithlabour,slaveorfree,trainedtotheconceptofmoney,andthemakingofmoney,asthebe-allandend-allinlife.Athensmadepotteryandships;Corinthmadepotteryandships;Megaramadetextiles. Athens, with ample surpluses of olive oil sufficient to maintain asubstantial export trade in that commodity, and with the production of silver

from the Laureionmines but a fewmiles from the city, became centre of anentre-pôt tradewith thoseotherGreek city states that reliedon copperor ironfiduciarymoneysystemstodrivetheirindustryandexchanges;moneysystemsifofstatedesignandcontrol,thatinternationalbankinghadlittleusefor.Butwithouttheeconomicorganizationderivingfromparticipationintheorbitofthe international money market controlled by the international silver bullionbrokersandtheiragents,thebankersofthePiraeuswhocontrolledabovealltheflowofsilverfromLaureionandThrace,andSamos,andminesfurtherafield,itisdoubtfulifthatdynamicforceengenderedfromtheunionofDorianandpre-DorianGreececouldeverhavebecome thatwhich itdidbecome: thepoint towhich a great part of the power and learning gravitated from those fast dyingworldsofthemostAncientOrient;thencebeingthrustforthagainamongstmentoconstitutethatwhichmayprovetohavebeenoneofthelaststagesofman’sendeavouruponthisearth.Itwas thebeginningofanapparent reassemblance,a false renewalof learningand life which was to reveal momentarily, in fading glory, the fusion of thatworldofthecompanionsofZeus,golden-headedgiantsdescendedtoearthfromtheirhomeamongstthegods,andtheworldofCretewheredarkchildrenofthesunbaskedinthelightandcomfortofhimwhotothemwasgodonearthashewalkedinhisgardensatCnossos.Bothgod,priesthoodandpeoplelivedinthisdistantsunlitworldinthemysticharmonyofancientsystemsoflife.Theylivedwithlittleknowledgeofwarfareorweaponsofwar.Theircitieswerewithoutwallorvisibledefencesolonghadtheybeenwithoutfear.Inamildwarmclimate,theyneededlittleclothing,andtheir women who wore no more than a heavy flounced skirt, proudly andfearlesslydisplayedthelovelinessoftheirbreasts.

TBLOOD,SORROW,ANDSILVER

hegrowthduringtheearlyyearsofthefirstMillenniumB.C.oftheuseofhardenedirontoolsintheminingindustry[137]andthedevelopmentofahighly efficient system by the Phoenicians, for smelting calamine and

othersilverbearingores,asshownbythealmostcompleteabsenceofsilverinthe slagsor scoria left by theirminingoperations atLaureion,[138] released aheavy flow of silver on to the bullion markets of the Near East; with theconsequence that silver, further than being a standard for money accountingbetweenmerchantsandalsothetemples“inrelationtostaples,othermetals,andcustomaryservices.”[139]becameanactualmeansofpayment.”andascurrencyofalllevelsoftransaction.”[140]Thispractice,withallthepossibilitiesinherentthereintowardsthevirtuallyunlimitedprivatecreationofmoneyinoppositiontothatmoneywhichhadoriginatedasentryinthetempleledger,spreadwestwardwithall itsattendantevilsduring the firsthalfof the firstmillenniumB.C., asalreadypointedoutinrespecttoGreece.While certain temple organizations still survived as previouslymentioned andwere strongly maintained, the instances quoted being those of the temples ofSippurandUruk(Oppenheim;p.46),thefloodofprivatelyissuedandcontrolledmoney which in reality was this new silver in circulation, together with thepyramid of ledger credit page entry money raised thereon, had almostcompletelyeffacedeven thememoryof that law in relation toexchanges, thatwasthewordandorderofthegodofthecityhimself,andthathadbeentheissueofkingsandpriesthoodofformertimes.Thesekingsmayhavebeenawarethatthe source of all their powers was the power inherent m the creation andemission of the units of exchange, which was the power to discriminate, thepowertorejectorpreferfromamongsttheirsubjects;andofcoursetheymaynothavebeensoaware.Of theevidence revealing thestepsbywhich thisgod-powerwasundermined,the first and most important was the establishment of internal values in theexchanges within any state to the same standard as the value of silver in theinternational exchanges, which did not happen overnight as it were, andmayhave slowly taken place over several thousand years; for at least 1500 yearsbeforewhatwassupposedtobetheinventionofcoinedmoneyinLydia,silveringots already circulated in Babylonia bearing the stamp of the issuing andguaranteeing authority, whether temple, state, or merchant. Before this time

“Silverwasusedinmanyinstancesasastandardofvalueeventhoughitwasnotactuallyemployedinpayments.”[141]ItisnotuntiltheAssyrian,Neo-Babylonian,andPersianerasthatclearevidencecan be traced of the total degeneration of kingly power and of kings and so-called emperors as quite often being little more than gloriously be-medalledfront men for private money creative power striving to create world-widehegemony. They still continued to be needed principally as a point towardswhichtheeyesofthepeoplemightbedivertedinorderthatthepeoplemightnotrealize that all was not well in that direction towards which their loyaltiesnaturally leaned, nor glimpse the destructive forces that were gnawing at therootsoftheTreeofLifeitself.Evenasfarbackas2500B.C.SargonofAkkadproceeded into Anatolia to chastise the city of Ganes on account of thecommercial communityofMesopotamia;[142]probably toenforcepaymentofinterestonloans,orrepaymentofprincipal.OneofthereasonsofthesuccessofCyrus,thoughbutapettyPersianprinceformerlyto550B.C.whenhedeposedhissovereign,AstyagestheMede,isclearfromthecircumstancesofhisvictoryoverCroesusofLydiain546B.C.Croesus had offended internationalmoney powers by seizure of their treasureheldbytheiragentSadyattes[143]andbythetotalassumptionofmonetaryissuebythestate.Examplehadtobemadeofhimtodeterotherprincesfromsimilaraction,andtheeagerandambitiousCyruswasobviouslytheonechosenforthispurpose.AccordingtothearticleonBabyloniaintheEncyclopaediaBritannica,9th Edition, by Professor Sayce, Croesus had rashly joined battle with CyruswithoutwaitingforthearrivalofhisBabylonianalliesunderNabu-Nahud[144]thefatherofBelshazzaroftheBookofDaniel.Itismorethanlikely,however,that a truer reading of these eventswould be that internationalmoney power,patron of the rise of Cyrus both through organization of his supplies ofmercenarysoldiers,andofthebestofweapons,hadbeentheprincipalinfluenceintheseeventsasinotherenterprisesofCyrus,suchasthesiegeofBabylon14years later.Thankstoits influence,while theprogressofNabu-NahudtowardsjunctionwiththeforcesofCroesuswouldhavebeensabotaged,CroesushimselfwouldhavebeenmisinformedoftheintentionsandstrengthofbothCyrusandNabu-Nahud.[145]Cyruswon theday, andCroesuswas totallyhumbled.Having thusprovenhis“suitability,”andhisreadiness topromote thepoliciesofhisfinancialbackers,the relativelyeasyconquestofBabylonwasarranged forCyrussomefourteenyearslater.[146]Cyrusfromthenonwasdesignated“TheGreat,”andassumedthetitleof“GreatKing”ofthevastPersiandomainsoverwhichhenowruled.

As the most valuable by-product of their being and existence, kings and“conquerors”werealsoneededtowardsthemaintenanceofthesteadyinflowofslaves,sufficienttotakecareofthefearfuldeathrateinthemines,andnodoubt,topermitoftheopeningofnewminesduetotherapidexpansionoftheminingindustryonaccountofthegrowthoftheuseofhardenedirontoolsandimprovedmethodsofexploration.This growthof bullion supplies, alsomeaninggrowthof themoney economy,meant growth of industry. Such growth of industrymeant further demand forlabour, which labour then was principally slave, as money economy had notarrived at the totality of its modern development. Therefore not only was anincreasingandcontinuousflowofslavesneededforthemines,butalsofortheindustrytowhichtheproductsoftheminesgaverise.Therewere twowaysalonebywhichnewsuppliesofpreciousmetalsbecameavailabletorejuvenateamonetarycirculationwithering,andevendisappearingfromwear and tear, exportation or hoarding, with the economic collapse thatsuchconditioncouldbringabout:onewasthroughminingusingslavelabourasminingwith free labourwas rarely profitable,[147] and the otherwas throughsackandplunder.Forthefirstmethod“Conquerors”wereneededforfreemendidnotwillinglybecomemineslaves;forthesecondmethod“Conquerors”wereobviously needed again, for to cause a people to reveal and surrender theirhiddenhoardsofpreciousmetals,wouldonlybepossibleasaresultofthenightsof terror immediately following on the “Conquest,” and the abuse and rapineinfectedbyalustcrazedsoldierysuchasfollowedsuchconquerorsandachievedsuch “Conquests.” For instance, according to the Iliad, (Book IX), promise ofthe gold and bronze plunder (of Troy) was the principal lure used byAgamemnon(besidesthereturnofBriseis),tobringAchillesbackintothefight.For further instance, may be accepted the main information in respect toShalmanezer theAssyrianandhiscampaigns in858B.C., leavingnodoubtofthepurposesof thehiddenforceswhoguidedhim,andwherein lay theirchiefinterest.TheconquestofDamascus,in803B.C.,yielded20talentsofgoldand2300talentsofsilver,nottospeakof300talentscopperand5000talentsofiron.The sack of Carchemish by Sargon, 717 B.C., yielded 11 talents of gold and2100talentsofsilver.The following table reveals what was extracted from several lesser cities andtheirrulers.

Ruler&City GoldIndemnityHattinean

3Talents

SangarofCarchemish3Talents

HariiofSam’al10Talents

AramesonofBitaqusi6Talents

KatazilofKummuh20minasofsilver

SilverIndemnity AnnualTribute

100Talents 10TalentsofSilver

70Talents1m.gold,1t.silver

16minasofgold

Tyre,Sidon,andJehuofIsrael,thoughclearlysittingonthefenceasitweretosecurethebestadvantageasmightbeofferedoutoftheseevents,withoutopenlycommittingthemselvesasallyofAssyria,hastenedtopaytributewhenafterthe

battlenearWadiZerzerin842B.C.inwhichHazael,usurperKingofDamascuswas finally put to flightwith the slaughter of some 6000Arameans,[148] andlikely the enslavement of many more, Shalmanezer, victorious but totallyexhausted, came down to the coast unable to continuewith the investment ofDamascus[149].ItwouldbeaninterestingspeculationastowhatwasreallyinthemindofShalmanezerinturningtowardsthecoast.WhatmoneypowerhadarmedHazael to thepoint thathe couldbe sucha real threat to theAssyrian?HadShalmanezerplannedbloodyrevenge?Thenrealizingthatinthedestructionhe planned, hemight further destroy his own source of arms, and those slavetraderswhoorganizedthesaleofhiscaptives,hadhehesitated,finallydecidingtosettlefortribute?TheStatesofArvad,Symyra,andUshanainthefactthattheypaidnotributetoNineveh,[150] while being much closer than the Aramean States, revealedthemselves as ally; the absence of any savage thrust by Assyria at that timeagainstIsrael,orTyre,orSidon,inthefirstphaseofAssyrianconquest,wouldsuggestsuchstates, ifnotactuallyasally,asharbouringforces inoneformoranotherwhichwouldbecontrolledbyagentsof thathighlysecret internationalbullionbrokingfraternity,whichindubitablyexisted,andwhichwasconnectedtotheextensiveorganizationofcampfollowersandslavetradersthatmusthavebeenyetanotherhostbehindtheAssyrianhost,andtherefore,profitably,enemyoftheAramean.Moneypower,internationalinscope,beingthatitsoughtatthistime,toinstitutepreciousmetalsasthegoverningfactorofexchangesovertherestoftheknownworld,wasdeeplylodgedintheheartoftheAssyrian,apeopletowhomithadearlyimpartedthesecretHittiteskillsandprocessesinironworking,andwho,intheirhome land,had thenecessarymaterials for such industry.Assyria for thetimewastheirswordarm.WhethertheAssyrianswereawareofitssignificanceor not, they must have been closely connected with that fraternity whosebusinesswasminingofthepreciousmetals,tradeincertainstaplecommoditiesandmanufactures,andslaves,andwhomusthaveconductedtheiroperationsinall the cities of Babylonia, Aram, whether enemy or not, and especially,Phoenicia.ConsideringthatPhoenicianminingoperationsextendedasfarNorthasBritainwherewasminedthetinsonecessaryinbronzemanufacture,itmaybeassumedthatPhoenicia,aboveall,dealtinAssyrianwarcaptives.InplacesasdistantasCornwallwheretheywouldhavebeeninarelativelyweakpositionsofarfromhome,theywouldhavereliedonimportedslaves,ratherthanonlocalconquest. There is nomissing the connection between the floods of slaves asreleased on to world markets by the Assyrian conquests, and the rapid

expansions of thatwhich is nowknown as “Credit,” the same silver and goldminingthatwastakingplaceallovertheknownworldatthattime.Ofsomeinterest is thestoryof theeasingof thepressureonDamascusby thedeparture of Shalmanezer in 839 B.C. during the first phase of Assyrianconquest, tomore pressingbusiness in theNorth. “Hazael,KingofDamascuswasabletoturnagaintoIsrael.”Once Assyria, abandoning the Israelites whose alliance they must have beenaccepting at that time, either to assure themselves of a source of supply ofmercenarysoldiersorof slave-mastercamp followers, turnedadeafear to thepleasofJehu,theIsraeliteking,thePhilistines,theIdumeans,theAmorites,andeventheirancientally,theTyrians,viciouslyturnedonthem[151].CoulditbetoseizeashareoftheplundergatheredoffthebattlefieldsofShalmanezer?Therenewedstreamofpreciousmetalmoneythatmusthavefollowedthesackof all those cities of Aram at this time, flowing through the coffers of theinternationalmoney power located in the cities ofNineveh orBabylon orUr,wouldhavebeenaccompaniedbyvastexpansionsofthatwhichisnowknownas “Credit,” the same being emitted in all the major cities of the Near East.Also[152] Bills of Exchange, Letters of Credit, but above all the ubiquitousreceipts for valuables reputedly on deposit for safe custody, came into being:clay “Promises to Pay”: all forming expansion in one form or another of theworking money supply. By manipulation of such abstract monetary units inrelation to what might have been described as the visible symbols of themonetary unit such as was gold or silver money, powerful business housescombiningtheoperationsofbanker,goldsmith,silversmithetc.,withbranchesinall major cities, were certainly able to manipulate the destinies of so-calledempires,justastheyhavesodoneinthisday.ThatBabylonitselfshouldhavebeenabletoriseagain,andleadafrightenedworldagainstAssyriatoformtheso-calledNeo-Babylonian empire, is proof, however, that internationalmoneypower at that time was not monopoly of the Hebrew who now whatever hisorigins, as ally of the Israelitewhohad comeout ofEgypt, appears clearly inhistory, a distinct entity; even if the part he plays as native of Palestine wasrelativelyinsignificant.It seems the fall of the Assyrian in finality in the defeat of Ashur-Uballit byNabopolassar in 605 B.C, was also the fall of the Hebrew. No sooner hadNabopolassar destroyed the last remnant of Assyrian military power, than, atCarchemish,hissonNebuchadnezzardestroyedthatofaresurgentEgyptunderPharaohNecho, recentlyvictor over Josiahof Judahon that ominousplaceofbattleMeggiddo,[153]betterknownasArmageddon,(IIChronicles;25,20-27.),

andwhereeighthundredyearspreviouslyTahutmesIIIhadputtheconfederatearmiesofSyriatoflight.In this battle of Carchemish in which Pharaoh Necho had suffered completedefeat,wasdestroyedthe lastprotectorofIsrael,andasaconsequence, in586B.C.Israelitselfwastotallydestroyed.Itsleaders,overtakenbythesamefateasitsArameanbloodrelatives,ifnotco-religionists,werecarriedofftoservitudeatBabylon; where in the case of some, they were used to keep the wheels ofindustryandfinanceturninginthatgreatcity,whileinthecaseofothers, theyseemtohavebeenpermittedsettlementintheregionoftheriverChebar,alargeirrigation canal nearBabylon,where theywere allowed to establishhomes, tofarm,andtomaintainthemselvesasaracialandreligiousgroup,clearlylivinganational and exclusive life, as was shown by the very fact that an intenselynationalistic prophet such as Ezekiel could exist in the settlement at Chebar,preachingamongsthisownpeoplewithoutrestriction.[154]DuringthistimethecitywasyetagainsoldtothenewimperialpowerrisenoutofoldElamandthePersianHighlands,andin536B.C.,thePersianforcesunderCyrus, “TheGreat,” quietly entered the city by nightmarch down the dryingriverbedaftertheyhadcompleteddiversionoftheriver.AccordingtothebookofDaniel,theproudBelshazzar,KinginBabylon,wasslainthatnight.[155]ItisinterestingtonotethatshortlyaftertheentryofthePersianforcesintothecity, the “Children of Israel” were permitted to return to that which theyconsidered their homeland, and every assistance was given them towardsrenewaloftheirnationallifeandtherebuildingoftheirtemple,which,ofcourse,was its heart. In the very first year of his reign at Babylon 536 B.C., CyrusissuedadecreepermittingtherebuildingofthetempleatJerusalem,andthegoldand silver vessels carried away by Nebuchadnezzar supposed to be 5400 innumber,were returned toSheshbazaar, thePrinceof Judahwhowas leaderofthemigration.[156]AlthoughtheproclamationofCyrushadbeenaddressedtoall servantsofGod throughout theEmpire, the42,000orsowhoresponded tothe call and went with Sheshbazaar, were but a small part of the Hebrewpopulation of the total dominions of Cyrus. The special concessionsmade byCyrus to theHebrewalmostonentry into thecityofBabylon,wouldcertainlysuggest that he had received their substantial assistance, perhaps throughfinancing towards thepurchaseof the finest ofmilitary accoutrements such aswouldonlybeobtainablethroughthegoodgracesoftheBabyloniancommercialand banking houses, or through that informationwithwhich theHebrewmayhave kept him constantly supplied such as the state of military preparednesswithinthecity,etc.

ItmayreasonablybeassumedthattheBabylonianmoneypowerwascompletelyinternational in outlook, whatever its outward profession, and totallyunsympathetic towards the ancient faith of the Ziggurat and the worship ofMarduk,[157]andtowardstheintendedeffectsoftherestorationoftheZigguratofUr,atthattime,byNebuchadnezzar.IfinearlierAssyriantimessuchmoneypower certainly was not the Hebrew, though possibly linked thereto throughmembersof thelatterIsraelitishConfederacysuchastheHabiruoreventhosewho derived from the Hyksos, the fact of the existence of powerful HebrewinfluenceininternationalfinanceinNeo-Babyloniantimes,seemsareasonablesupposition.The Hebrew, being aggressive and intelligent, may have risen to especiallyprivilegedposition in theBabylonianmoney industry, if that iswhat it canbecalled, andmay have come to learn at that time those secret practices of themoney changers craft, which he was certainly forbidden in his native land,according to theLawsMoses. InBabylonia the lawNo.7ofHammurabaihaslongsincebecomeadeadletter.That ungodly and cruel order of Ezra compelling the Israelites divorce theirforeignwivesaftertheirreturntowhatwasconsideredtheirancestralhomeland,[158]might verywell have been related to the needs of total religious, racial,andcommercialsecurity,asindeedmighttheordinanceexistingtodayamongstEnglishQuakers forbidding them tomarryoutside their own sect,[159]whoseleaders, any brief study will show, were deeply involved in the growth andcontrolofmodernbanking,[160]whichhadlead,andstillleadsmankindalongaroadthatofferslittlepeaceorrest,andfinally,exhaustionandcalamity;aroadofnon-return.One thingbecomesclearoutof this turmoilof risingand falling“Empires”ofthe firstmillenniumB.C., particularly that calamitous succession ofAssyrian,Neo-Babylonian,andPersian“Empires,”from933-605B.C.,625-538B.C.,and538-332B.C., respectively, and that is: in aworldwhere treasurehadbecometotally equated in the peoples minds with “Wealth,” as expressing relativelylarge sums of the monetary unit, no sooner had one power gathered all suchtreasure in a given area into its store houses and safe deposits, by conquest,plunder, and sack, than such treasure, temporarily creating boom, moved onagain,aslikelyasnottoformthebaseofthose“credits”grantedbyinternationalmoneypower towards thepurchaseofarmsandthebestofmercenarysoldiersbythatnextpowerdestinedtoariseandbethenew“conqueror.”Dealinginmoney,andbullionwhichwasthefoundationofthemoneysystem,hadbecomeahighlyspecializedandclosedtradenowabletooperatequiteapart

from the temples; even if inmany cases the temples still continued to permitthemselves,andthatwhichtheystoodfor,tobeusedasfront,andsohadofferedsanctitytothosemostsinisteranddestructiveoperationsofthemoney,bullion,and slave brokers; in themselves and their attitude towards mankind, theantithesisofGod,theAnti-God.Themoneymastershadonlyonepurposebesidesmaintenanceofsecrecy:whichwasgrowthofthemselvesandthosethroughwhomtheyworked.Thosethroughwhom they worked were too often the criminal castes of the civilizations;criminal because the nature of so much of their activities, such as fencing,counterfeiting of coinages, clipping and sweating of coins,was criminal; as ithad to be. Towards this purpose, consciously or not, they sought the totaldestructionofthatnaturalorderoflifeofgod,king,priesthood,andtempleandthedevoted,anditseradicationfromtheBookofLifeitself.Forpietyandloveandmanlivingwithhopeandwillforthefuture,guidedbyhistrainedshepherdshadtobesubstitutedanorderoftheexploitationofmankind.Therulersinsuchan orderwould be its previous rejects, its outcasts.God, king, temple and thedevoted were to become a thing forgotten, and man, into whom was to beinjectedraginganimalpassions,wastobeleftwanderingwithoutguide,exceptsuchthrustinghitherandthitherbysuchascouldonlybecalledlivingsoresofman-hatred and which were embedded in mankind itself, could be calledguidance.Theunfortunatemassesof theAncientOrient,whohad so trusted their rulers,hadnoideaorunderstandingofthenewreality,andthattherulertheysaw,farfrombeingtheSonofGodonEarth,wasinrealityapuppetmanipulatedbythatconspiratorial force exerted by those controllers of precious metal bullionparticularly, that lurked in the Aramaic speaking middle class mentioned byProfessorOppenheim.[161]Thesepowerfulclassescouldhavehadnomorethanasecretcontemptforthegods,kings,priesthood,ofthepeoplesamongstwhomthey lived,ableas theywereby thismanipulation, tobringabout thedecayorgrowth of power, without reference to such “State” power structure, of thosewhoseundoingorotherwise,theyplanned.They themselves, through triumph of their system of privatemoney issuance,had now in reality come to sit in the place of the gods. From this time on itseems, there was not even that periodic interference of the king against themoney-lender,which gave the people respite from time to time, as in the oldBabylonianperiod,[162]andtheKingdomofIsraelofrecord.[163]Cruelprivatemonopolizationofwealthandcapitalgrew,andwherethepeoplehadbeensheep in the flock,and theking their lovinganddevotedguide,now

thatkingsconcerned themselveswith those falsepoliciesprepared for them inthe interest of the private money creators, the people became lost anddisheartened, driven hither and thither as they were by the crazed wolfmasqueradingintheplaceoftheshepherd’sdiligentsheepdog.Inthistime,astoday,thepeoplewerealmostentirelyatthemercyoftheprivatepersons controlling their money, who then controlled the inflow of preciousmetals, silver andgold, the foundationof thepeople’smoney.Thepolicies ofthese controllers from their standpoint as internationalists, were necessarilydirected towards the stimulation of war against the well-being of mankind.Frequently wars were above all the prime essential, firstly towards thedestruction of the natural system of rule[164] previously defined, which hadbeen the protection of the people; secondly towards the reinjection into thesystem of hoarded coin and bullion, and consequent reinflation of themoneysupply;thirdly,butnottheleastimportant,thegatheringofanewcropofslavestoreplacethosestocksofsilverandgold,sonecessarytothefoundationoftheirmoney power, and the maintenance of their international hegemony inconsequence.

WBABYLON,BANKING,ANDBULLION

ithout a doubt, the ramifications ofBabylonian banking as operatedfromNinevehduringtheeighthandseventhcenturiesB.C.,extendedinmore or less degree over that total area fromTartessus to India,

[165]andfromthegoldwashingsofthatgreatbendintheNileinNubiaknownastheBisharee,totheminesofCornwall;andofallsuchareaitwasthefocusoflandandsearoutes.Inabsolutedegreeduringthefirstmillennium,itextendedasfarafieldasthereisevidenceofAramaicaslanguageofofficialandmerchantclasses; that is to say from Peshawar to Greece.[166] In Greece the evidencehowever is not somuch fromAramaic as language, as from the fact that theGreekalphabetderivesfromAramaic,[167]andthereforemaybeassumedtobethe design of refugee Arameans of the period after 933 B.C., when AssyrianpolicyafterfortyyearsofunremittingpressurefromtheArameans,becametheextirpation of the Aramean, achievable from much strengthened militaryresources.Accolytesof thebankersofBabylonia,whether fromNineveh,Carchemish,orthe Babylonian cities themselves, who sought their own fields abroad, orprominent but unsuspecting natives of the area chosen for penetration, wereselectedas“suitable”toopenthetradeinagivenarea;“suitability,”asintoday,being advanced training in money worship, basic lack of integrity, andpreferably some black mark in their secret past making them amenable topressure and willing to grind down their own kind, or sell them to the slavetraderwithoutthegate,andwithoutmercyandwithoutcompunction.Those refugeesskilled inmoney, fromthecitiesofAraminparticular, thoughperhapsnotqualifyingineveryspecifictraitdetailedabove,beingdispossessed,andwiththereforebitternessintheirhearts,wouldhaveservedbest.Theywouldhave considered that alignmentwith theBabylonian banking houseswould bealignment with enemy and destroyer of that which had destroyed them. Suchsilver money as they later minted and circulated from Aegina and Argos,appears,asisexplainedbelow,tohavebeenofthesameweightandfinenessastheBabylonianshekel,beingthatitwaseighty-fivegrainstothedrachma.Thusit is evident that the financial organization these Arameans created in Greeceprevious toSolonwasoutrightextensionof theBabylonian; inaway itmighthavebeentheinstrumentofBabylonianimperialism,justaswastheentryonthetabletofthetravelingagentoftheTempleofUr,recordingloansmadetoenable

purchase,instrument,twothousandyearsbefore,ofthatimperialismofUr[168].Thus the coinage as used at Athens at this time, wherever minted, could beexported and circulated in Babylonia or other cities of this common moneymarket; and while it could be profitably used in settlement of unfavourableIndian trade balances, it could also be returned to Athens without loss orremitting.In the so-calledSolonianmonetary reforms, according toGroseclose,[169] theMina consisting of 73 drachmas was made legal tender to the value of 100drachmas,thoughaccordingtosomescholars,thereisnoevidenceofAthenianmintageatthistime.[170]AssumingGrosecloseandhisauthoritiestobecorrect,itfollowsthattherealmeaningofthesecurrencyreformswastheestablishmentofAthenianhomemintage inauguratinganewcoinageof a lessweight,madelegal tender for debts incurred in terms of the previous heavyweight coinagemintedatAeginaorArgos.HoweverofthismatterSeltsmaninhisGreekCoinswrites,.”ThatwasthechangebroughtaboutbytheSoloniancurrencyreform,thepurpose of which was not to relieve debtors by lowering the value of thestandard coin, but rather to freeAthenian trade from aweight system such asbound the merchants to a local Peloponnesian standard which did not extendbeyondtheAegeansea.InsteadtheAtheniansnowhadacurrencybasedontheoldandfamousbronzeAge“Euboictalentandmina,andhisstandardcoinwasofthesameweightofthoseoftheCorinthians,Samians,andlaterofCyrenaeans.ButheretainedthePheidoniansystemofdividinghisstaterintotwodrachmasandhisdrachmaintosixobols.AtAthens,too,therivalsystemsofcurrencymetandmergedforshebegan to coinon theDorian system,whence shederivedherobols, drachmas,anddidrachmas,butunderSolon’sreformsshewentover to theIoniansystemandadjustedhermoneytotheIonicEuboictalent.”[171]Theveryfactofthestressonweightshowsthatsuchreformsweredesignedfor,and perhaps only really understood by, a group thatwas only concernedwithsilver by weight; in other words, large scale movements of bullion; and whowould be none other than our old friends the international bankers or bullionbrokers;possiblyeveninsomeoppositiontoasituationinthePeloponneseandAegina, such as may have been occasioned by the institution of the Laws ofLycurgusatSparta,[172]whenconsequently,theyandtheiragentshadvirtuallybeenejectedfromthoseareascontrolledbySpartaorinfluencedbyherpolicies.Solonwasmorelikelythefrontmantheyputuptoputintoeffectaprogrammetheyhaddesignedasaresultoftheconclusionreachedamongstthemselvesthatthe notion ofGreece as source of the slaves so desperately needed in aworld

whichconsumedsomuchlabour,wouldhavetobeforgotteniftheiragentswereto be able to continue operating inGreece, and if they themselveswere to beabletomaintainthatconfidenceandrespectoftheGreekpeoplesoessentialtotheirparticularaffair.Fromhenceforwarditisclear,theissuewastobeloanstoindustrialworkersonthesecurityoftheirwages.Nolongerwouldthebanksormoneylenderslendtothe peasantry being that now they were forbidden to bind their persons ascollateralsecurity,andsellthemintoslaveryacrosstheseas,intheeventofnon-payment; or to alienate their lands. To get such loans, which the poor andtrusting of the countryside were always craving for one special occasion oranotheritwasnecessarytogotoAthensandworkforawageinsomeindustry.It may safely be said that the main industry was mining at Laureion, andpossiblyinThrace,where“FreeMen”foratriflingwagecouldjointhegangsofslavesclawingtheirwayintothehardrock,untilfurthersourcesofcheapslavesupplywerefound.Althoughsomemodernnumismaticscholars[173]disagreewiththefindingsofthescholarsofeventhirtyyearsago,andwithsomereason,andcertainlymaybemore accurate in their dates, in the caseofAlexanderDelMar,whohadbothpractical experience of mining and practical experience in the field ofgovernment finance,andwhohadmadeconsiderable studyof theworkingsofmoneyandfinanceinantiquity,hisopinionisnottobesolightlybrushedaside.InhisHistoryofMonetarySystemsinVariousStatesonthissubjecthewrites:[174]“According toBoeckh,p.28,onehundredof thenewdrachmasofSolonwhowas Archon of Athens B.C. 594, were equivalent to 72 or 73 more ancientdrachmas.Ifthiswerequitereliable,thentoSolonbelongsthemeritordemeritof altering the ratio from 13:1 to 10:1; because, as we have some of thedrachmasofSolon andknow their contents, theproportiongivenwouldmakethemoreancientdrachmascontainabout85grainsfinesilver,theweightoftheshekel.As twentyof thesewere commonlyexchanged for agold coin,which,whetheradharanaofIndia,amedimniofMedia,adaricofPersia,orastaterofthe Levant, contained about 130 grains of fine metal, the Athenian ratio,previoustotheloweringofthedrachma,musthaveobeyedtheratioofAssyria,Media, and Persia, whichwas 13:1. But according to Quiepo, who is amorereliable authority on the weights of coins than Boeckh, although we havedrachmas older than Solon, they do not contain more than 65 grains of finesilver;sothatthechangeofratiofrom13:1to10:1,assumedtohaveoccurredatAthens,musthavetakenplacebeforeSolonwasArchon.However,itiscertain

fromthecoinsthattheratioundertheadministrationofSolonwas10:1andthatit continued for nearly three centuries; for it is impliedly mentioned byMenanderaboutB.C.322,asbeingstillinvogueatarecentperiod.Duringthisinterval,theratiointheOrientwas6¼or6½,andinPersia13:1ordoubletheIndianratio.”In otherwords, if theseweights of drachma and of shekel as at that time arecorrect, just as the Roman denarius was later issued to practically the sameweight as the post Solonian drachma which was in use in Sicily andMagnaGraecia,[175]sowastheearlyGreekdrachma,whetherAegineticorofArgos,I.E.Pheidonian,mintedtothesamestandardastheshekel,theunitofexchangeinBabylonia,Assyria,andPhoenicia,clearlycreatingextensionoftheCommonMoneyMarketofthatareaanditsfinancialdependencies.ThustheGreekcoincouldbeexported,circulatedatparwiththeshekel,andevenreturnedtoGreecewithout loss through remittingor smelting tobullion;andalsomore importantstill, could realize that sure profit that the international bullion traders hadguaranteedthemselvesintheIndiantrade,byprevailingonrulerstomaintaintheratioofsilverastogoldat13:1asopposedto6½:1inIndia.[176]Inotherwordsthe real significance of the monetary reforms of Solon was the separation ofAthens from the financial hegemony of Babylonia and its nearer agencies inLydia,Aegina,Argosetc.;which,aspreviouslypointedout,mayverywellhavebeen rendered ineffective by the Laws of Lycurgus,[177] considered now, apointofgreatsignificance,tohavebeenenactedintheearlysixthcentury.[178]From now on it was going to be forbidden to Athenian merchants to settleunfavourable trade balances with slaves, and almost profitless to settle suchbalances with silver, either as coin or bullion. Henceforth the bankers wouldhavetoserveAthenianinterestsandwouldhavetoderivetheirprofitsfromlocalbusiness, I.E., there would be much more money circulating in Athens, andtherefore a healthier industry; which history records as being exactly whattranspired.AccordingtoGrote, thebankingsystemassumedafterSolonamorebeneficialcharacter.Theoldnoxiouscontracts “mere snare for the libertyof apoor freeman and his children,” disappeared and loans of money “took their placefoundedonproperty andprospectiveearningsof thedebtorwhichwere in themain useful to both parties, and thereforemaintained their place in themoralsentimentofthepeople.”[179]ThustosuchanextentdidAthensabjuretheinternationalbankerswhomustbelooselydescribedascenteringinBabylonia, that, insignificantassherelativelywas, through theseisachtheia (‘shaking-off-of-burdens’), she in reality severed

from Babylonian Imperialism and its financial hegemony world wide, andestablished herself as minor competitive force, as was shown by the Persianefforts at encirclement; towardswhich their seizure of control of theThracianminesintheyear512B.C.constitutedthefirstclearstep.EvenifthereformsofSolonwerenotsoabsoluteasthoseofLycurgusinSparta,andstillleftsilverasthe material of the basic monetary unit, and therefore still left Athens at themercyofthoseforceswhosesecretactivitiescontributedtowardsthefunctioningof what is known as Gresham’s Law, “Bad money drives out the good,” thePersianmoveof512B.C.,bynomeanstookthestrengthoutofAthensandherallies.While securing ship timbers for the fleets theywere planning, and alsofurthersilversupplies,Persia,whereinnestedinternationalmoneypoweratthattime, thought that shewouldbecuttingoff fromAthens thesecommodities soessential to thepromotionofwar industry.SomehowAthens still continued tomaintainitselffreeofthisBabylonianImperialismwhichnowshelteredbehindPersia, and despite the enormous resources of Persia, was able to defeat the“GreatKing,”bothonlandatMarathon,490B.C.;PlateaandMycale,479B.C.;and at sea atSalamis in the famousnaval battle of 480B.C. Itmay safely beassumed that the huge issues of the owl drachmas during the decade thatfollowed the discovery of the 3rd level or contact at Laureion[180] and itsfantasticallyrichore,substantiallycontributed to thissuccess.Thosedesigninginternationalmoneypowerwerejustthat:international!Iftheotherfellowtoo,lookedtobeontoagoodthing,andcouldofferwhatitscontrollersneededmostof all, which was precious metals, then a way could always be found to dobusiness! Out of war could only come good to them and theirs.Whether the“GreatKing” remained great, orAthens took his place,was not of thatmuchimportance.Theywouldseetoitthatnonewhomightbearealthreattothem,wouldachieveasimilarpowertotheirs;thatis,fromaninternationalstandpoint.So to sum up the situation so far as pre-Solonian Athens was concerned, asimpleunletteredpeopleofferedalltheluxuriesofanotherworldasagainstthenewmoneywhosefunctionissolittleunderstoodbyletteredpeopleeveninthisday,withoutgoingback2500years,hadbecomeswampedindebt.Thelawinrespect to this debt had been upheld by a corrupted nobility in favour of thebankers.Nodoubt ithadbeen represented to themby thesesamebankers thatthispressureof debt on thegrowingpopulationwouldkeep themassesdocileandtiedtothelandaswasindicatedbytheprevalenceofthemortgagetabletsonthe farms of Attica.[181] This condition, favouring the corrupted nobility ofGreece and the internationalmoney power, ignored the needs of the new-richmanufacturers ofAthens,whowere neither able to obtain sufficient supply of

localfreelabour,nortoobtainslaves.WherecreditinstitutionshadlongsinceexistedasintheGrecianports,[182]inaland of relatively simple folk, where the ways of money were no moreunderstood than they are today, by loans of ledger credit page entry moneyagainst collateral, demanding in repayment silver coinage, Money PowerobviouslyhadmadeaverygoodthingofitinGreece.Bythebankersofagivenarea using the same standard of weight in its precious metal coinage, callingloansinunison,themoneysupplycouldbeshrunktoalmostnothing;onwhich,their agents abroad could send ships, and buy crops andmen andwomen andchildrenforasong.TheLawsoftheArchonSolon,bymakingnoprovisionforemploymentforthefreeddebtslaves,norprovidingforredistributionoftheland,gavetheAthenianmanufacturerthatlabour,whichhemostofallneeded.TheSolonianordinanceofferingAtheniancitizenshiptoanyfreemanfromthecountrysidewhocametoAthensandtookupatrade,furtherimprovedthelabourmarket.ThemonetaryreformsofSolonreducingtheexportofcoinorbullion,gavetheAthenianmanufacturersthemoneytheyalsoneeded,fortheyremainedtheonlymarketforthe“funds”ofthebankers,nativeorPeloponnesian;thelatterhavinghadnooptionbut tofindnewlandsto“conquer,”asitwere,after theirvirtualejectionbythelawsenactedunderthepatronageofLycurgusofSparta.[183]Finally, it might be said that the laws of the Archon Solon were themanifestation of the growth of the Athenian principle and the rejection,compulsory or otherwise, by all classes, of the Babylonian Money Power;includingthatgrowingclass,whoforthetimebeing,seeingwhichwaythewindlay,mightnowbecalledNationalMoneyPower.

TPHRYGIA,FINANCE,ANDFRONTMAN

heAssyrian conquestsmusthave releasedavery floodofbullionon tothe markets of the Middle East. Steeply rising prices that would havefollowed must have made it more profitable for bankers and money

lendersandmanufacturersfromthismostancientareatolookfurtherafieldforlandswheremoney as denoted by treasurewas not so plentiful, and thereforewherein such treasure might serve them best. The gold, silver, and electrumbullionwithwhich,after671B.C.andtheAssyrianthrustintoEgyptduringthesecond phase ofAssyrian conquest, their store houses and strong roomswereoverflowing, couldbeput tobetteruse than lying inactive in these same storehousesor strong rooms, atNineveh,Babylon,Lagash,orUrorwherever theyweresituated.Theprivately issuedelectrumstatersofLydiaof theseventhandsixthcenturyB.C.denotedahighlysignificantpossibility.LydiawasthesourceofsomethingAssyriabadlyneeded.ThefirstthingsuchmilitaryorganizationsuchasexistedinAssyriawouldneed,wouldbefinancialorganization,andsecondly,stemmingfromitsfinancialorganization,organizationabovealltowardsthepurposeofthepurchaseofthebestofarms.Phrygiawasfamousthroughouttheancientworldforitsarms.[184]LydiaborderedonandindeedmayverywellhavebeenpartofPhrygiainearliertimes.Hencethesecretoftheelectrumstaters.AssyrianeededPhrygian arms and at the same time had to accept such financial terns as thesuppliers of such arms decreed, and it may safely be assured that such termsstipulatedpaymentwastobemadeingold,silver,orelectrum.TheextraordinarytreasureofsuchasSadyattes,latterdispossessedandexecutedbyCroesus,cannotbeexplainedanyotherway.Ithadtoderivefromtheplundergathered up by Assyria from all its conquests, as much as from the riverwashingsofLydia.Theevidenceofthegoldartifacts,oftheancientcivilizationsofAnatoliaof thousandsofyearsprevious to this time, suchasHacilar,CatalHuyuk, Dorak,[185] would indicate that the Anatolian rivers had been wellwashedforgoldmanyagesbefore[186].AlthoughaccordingtotheGuidetotheprincipal coins of theGreeks published by the BritishMuseum, pages 12-13,electrumfortheLydiancoinagescamefromthePactolusriver,thequestionstillstands: “whathappened to theenormousgold, silver, andelectrumplunder,ofAssyria; that had been taken from Aram, Israel, Arabia, and above all fromEgypt?”

The great temple cities such asKarnakmust have literally gleamedwith goldandsilvermonumentsandfinishing.AccordingtoDiodorusin57B.C.:“Sothattherewasnocityunderthesunsoadornedwithsomanyandstatelymonumentsofgold,silver,andivory,andmultitudesofcolossiandobelisks,eachcutoutofanentirestone..The decorations of these buildings were as magnificent as their design. Thewallsandpylonswerecoveredwithpaintingsandsculpture,thegatesandpillarswereoverlaidwithgoldandthefloorswithsilver,which,totheEgyptianswasametalhardlylesspreciousthangolditself.”[187]The electrum obelisks of Hatsepsut[188] as removed by Ashurbanipal frombefore the Temple of Amon at Karnak in 661 B.C., contained, according toBreasted2500talentsofelectrum,[189]andaccordingtootherwritersasmuchas2900talent;nottospeakofothermoremassiveplunderstrippedfromtempleandtomb.Theelectrumfromtheobelisksalone,assumingthecorrectnessofthepercentages of gold, silver, and copper given on the cylinder reported byDesroches-NoblecourttobeintheLouvre,asbeing75%,22%,3%,respectively,[190]wouldvalueat$186,648,000(166,650lbs.atapproximately$70.00tothefine ounce), having a buying power infinitely greater than in today. Skilfullyusedas thebasisof apyramidof ledger creditpageentrymoney, itwouldbesufficienttomaintainthefinancesofgreatenterprise,ifnotofkingdoms.Lydia,peasant kingdom that had emerged from the ruins of Phrygia after theCimmerianinvasion,[191]couldverywellhavefunctionedinitsinstitutioninasimilarmanner toSwitzerlandduring the last fewhundredyears; somewhat inthe nature of a bullion broker’s or international banker’s refuge.[192]Whichmight account, perhaps, for the ferocity of the destruction by Cyrus of thehaplessCroesus,whowassaidtohavebeenflayedalive;asexamplenodoubttootherkings,andtoremindthemthatwhiletheirpowerwasnational, therewasanother powerwhichwas international; above and beyond the power of pettykings.Similarly,theothermetals,copper,bronze,andiron,nolongerdeemedprecious,andwhichthereforewereoftenleftonthebattlefield,wouldfallintothehandsof members of those semi-criminal castes such as Sadyattes, previouslymentioned, whowould control the camp followers that stripped the dead andthusgarneredthisscrapmetal.Thesemetalsofferedconsiderableprofitbywayof manufacturing counterfeits of the currencies of those states wherein basemetalcurrencieswereused.Many Northern states and cities to which considerable industry was beingtransferred,usedcopperor iron fiduciarycurrencies inearlier times.Suchwas

theironcurrencyofClazomenaementionedbyAristotle[193]andtheironspitsofPre-PheidonArgos,examplesofwhichwerededicatedtotheGoddessintheTemple ofHera atArgos at the commencement of silver coinage byPheidon,and were actually exhumed from the place of their dedication by thearchaeologistswhoexploredthatsite.[194]HereinwouldhavebeenfertilefieldforprofitforthosethatdealtinmoneyinGreeceorelsewhere,forthatmatter.Though theGreek himself obviouslymust have been the foundation ofGreekindustry, the Aramean or the Phoenician, bringing the ways of money andbanking and who brought an alphabet and writing to Greece, became thecornerstone of that industry.He also brought agencies from the great bankinghouses of Babylonia such as that firm mentioned by Professor Sayce inBabylonian Literature, which flourished from the reign of Nabopolassar, thefatherofNebuchadnezzar,tothereignofDariusHystaspes;approximatelyonehundred years; and ofwhich evidence remains in the clay cheques and deedsfound by someArabs in a great earthen jar.[195] Since the time of ProfessorSayce, which is nearly a hundred years ago, much more evidence of theexistence of powerful banking and merchant institutions has come to light;outstandingly those of the Egibi Sons, and the Murassu, who, according toProfessorHumphreyMichellinhiswork,TheEconomicsofAncientGreece(p.334),carriedonverylargeandcomplicatedbusiness;evenbymodernstandards.JustasBabylonianbusinessandbankinghousesmaintainedextensivebranchesin the Sumerian cities, such as at Lagash where their records were found toexceed the records of the king,[196] so it may safely be assumed that theymaintainedbrancheswithinanystatewithinthelimitsofthecommunicationsoftheday,andwhereprofitwastobemade.The sturdy intelligent people ofGreecewere a fertile field for the renewal ofindustryandtradeafterthedisturbancethatmusthavefollowedtheriseinpricesderiving from the augmentation of precious metal reserves resulting from theflowofAssyrian plunder on to the bullionmarkets, and later,withBabyloniaonceagainsupremefollowing thevictoriesofNabopolassar in605B.C., fromthesimilarflowofBabylonianplunder.AtthesametimeGreecewasaplaceofrefugefromthewarcloudsdriftingoverallthatNearEastworld,andthestenchofslaughterthatfollowedthewarringhosts.It would not be long before the skill of the Aramean at letters, money,counterfeit or otherwise, and in organization of industry, stirred the peasantkingdomsofGreece.Industriesroseundertheguidanceoftheserefugeessimilartothoseoftheirhomelands,tobelaterfollowedbyamoneyeconomyastothesilver standards of Babylonia, and by the systematic spreading of money

madness amongst the landed aristocracyofGreece, thus separating them fromtheir peoples forwhom theyhadbeen thehereditaryguides.For their peoplesand their labours had now become but cyphers; desirable wealth assessed asaccordingtothefiguresinthebanker’sbook.The people who drifted into the cities as slave or freeman, and foundemploymentintheorganizedmanufacturiesofthesestrangerswhobynowwerecalling themselves Greeks, and were by now bearing Greek names, notunnaturally gave their allegiance to that new hand that seemed to feed them.Eagerly, just as in today, they drank at the fountain of hatred of their formermasters,whothroughtheirsanctionoftheactivitiesofthese“NewGreeks,”andconnivancewiththeminrespecttothenewmoneysystemtheysetup,betrayedboththeirpeopleandthemselves.AmongthefirststepstowardsthetotalmonetizationofthewealthandlabouroftheGreekpeoplestoapreciousmetalstandardcontrollablebythegreatbankinghousesofBabylonia,wasthepermittingofthestrikingofasilvercoinageontheisland of Aegina by Pheidon,[197] “progressive” King of Argos in 680 B.C.,similar to the private coinage that was issued in Lydia prior to Croesus.“Progressive” King of Argos meant in this case a king ready to listen to theblandishmentsofmoneypower, luringhiminto that trapwhichwas theuseofpreciousmetalcurrency,overwhichhecouldhaverelativelylittlecontrol;sincesilver as its basewas to be obtained only at great expense by slave labour atlocalitiestoooftenfardistant,and,relativetolocalitiesyieldingironorcopper,fewandfarbetween.True,thesilverusedbythemoneyersofAeginaprobablycame from Laureion, in sight across the sea. But even though the source ofsupplywassocloseathand,acoinageofwhichsosmallaunitrepresentedsomuchvalue,placedtheeconomy,throughthepracticesofbanking,inthehandsoftheinternationalbullioncontrollers.That thebankers,knownas trapezitae, conductedalmost the samebusinessasbankerstodayisclearlyindicatedbythearticleinSeffert’sClassicalDictionary,even if, as theword trapezitae indicates, theybut satat abench in themarketplace, insteadof sitting ingildedhalls surmountedby sixty storybuildings, asindeed they do today. Within the limits of clay tablet and stylus, the sameconfidencegamewasoperated,thoughprobablytherewerefewwhounderstoodit as being such; yesterday itwas a conspiracy against themenof a city, or arelatively small state; today a conspiracy against thewholeworld. Those thathave theirhandson the throttleof thisallembracingevildonothoweverbearthefaintest resemblance towholehearteddemons inhell,orgodswhoin theirmountain halls contemptuously plan the total eradication ofmanwhomay be

their complete failure. They are but pudgy and sly little men as muchoverwhelmed by themonster they have raised, as are the foolish nations thatpermittedthemsotodo.Of Ancient Greek banking Seffert says: “Bankers were called by the Greekstrapezitae because they sat at tables in the market places, the centre of allbusiness transactions. They acted as money changers exchanging for acommissionheavymoneyorgoldintosmallercoin,andthemoneysofdifferentsystemswitheachother.Incommercialcitiestheywoulddoaconsiderabletradein thisway, the different standards and the uncertainty of the stamping of thecoinsinGreececreatingagreatdemandfortheirassistance.Theyalsoactedasmoneylendersbothonasmallandalargescale.Finallytheyreceivedmoneyondeposit. People placed their money with them for safe custody, partly tofacilitatethemanagementofit.Thedepositors,accordingtotheirconvenience,either drew out sums of money themselves, or commissioned their banker tomake payment to a third person. In this line the business of the banks wasconsiderable. Ifacitizenhada largesumofmoneycirculating inbusiness,heprobably preferred to put it in a bank and to hand over to the banker thebusiness of making his payments. Strangers too found that the banks offeredthemsuchfacilitiesthattheyweregladtomakeconsiderableuseofthem.[198]Thebankerskeptstrictaccountofallmonies in theircharge.Ifapersonweremakingapaymenttoanotherwhowasadepositoratthesamebank,thebankerwould simply transfer the requisite sum from one account to another. Thebankers were generally well known from the public character of theiroccupation, and they naturally gained great experience in business.Consequently their advice and assistancewere often asked for in the ordinaryaffairsoflife.Theywouldbecalledintoattesttheconclusionofcontracts,andwould take charge of sums ofmoney, the title towhichwas disputed, and ofimportant documents. Business of this kind was generally in the hands ofresidentaliens.”[199]TheabovequotationfromthegreatGermanscholar,OskarSeffert,leavesthoseofuswhounderstandtheoriginsandmeaningoftoday’sbanking,littledoubt,aspreviously pointed out, that within the limits of clay tablet and stylus, everyfraudulent practice known to banking would have been practised. Also thecommonlyacceptedideathat instrumentsusedinforeigntrade,suchasLettersofCredit,BillsofExchange,etc.wereadiscoveryofthe12thCenturyA.D., isfurtherclearlyprovederroneousbythesentence:“Strangerstoofoundthat thebanksofferedthemsuchfacilitiesthattheyweregladtomakeconsiderableuseofthem.”[200]

ThereforebehindthemonetaryreformsofKingPheidonofArgoswemustseenotthewonderofwhatsomanyso-calledscholarswouldcallthearrivalofthe“Invention”ofcoinageinGreece,butthecomingsandgoingsofstrangealienswith letters frommysterious“Important”menwhodwelt inTyre,orSidon,orSardis, or who dwelt in Babylonia itself; everything to be in the name of“progress,”everythingtobejoyandlight!Theonlythingourpoorpeasantkinghad to ask himself was. “Joy and light for whom. Us or these panders,pornographers,andluxurypedlarswhonowflocktoourshores?”Verysoon,nodoubt,theanswerbecameapparent.BehindtheAramaicspeakingbankercametheslavetrader,anditwasnotlongbeforethepoorpeoplefoundthattheking’slawwasnolongerforthem,andwasbutameasurebehindwhichtheseglibanddoubletalking“Bankers”operated.“Wemustprotectthepeople’ssavings!”nodoubtwastheircry,yesterday,asintoday.Such silver coinage aswas produced atAegina orArgoswould havebeennomore than a few seen symbols, the apex of an inverted pyramid of unseen orabstractsymbolsofwhichonlythemoneymasterreallyunderstoodthemeaningand purpose, and only he knew how tomanipulate. Throughmanipulation ofthese“Credits”inrelationtothesilverthatpeoplenowthoughtwastheirmoney,King Pheidon himself could have been tricked into believing himself a slavebecausehecouldnotrepayhisso-called“debt.”Howeverthebankerneededthekingassuch,forawhileyetnodoubt.In the meantime peasantry and lesser nobility were drawn into this trap ofirredeemable debt, and, as the king’s law had to be upheld, they and theirfamilieswouldbesoldintothatcruelslavesystemthatwasgrowingupallovertheMediterraneanworldandthroughwhich,moneyeconomy,nowgrownintoaverymonster,couldfinddocilelabourforthedrearygrindofthenewmethodsofsemi-massproductioninmanufacture,suchasithadbroughtintobeing,andagainstwhich the reformsofSolon as described in theprevious chapter,weredirected.HistoryshouldnotbemisledbytheGreeknamesofthosesignificantfiguresandfamiliesconcernedwithmoneyandmoneypoweratthattime,whetherinLydiaor in Greece. Oskar Seffert states quite clearly that the bankers or trapezitaewere resident aliens.[201] Controlling the undercurrents of city life asundoubtedlytheywouldhavesodone,inthosedaysitwouldhavebeennomoredifficultthanitisinthesedaystosecuretheservicesofafrontmantopromotetheirinterests,andsecurethemcitizenshipifnecessary.Justasalienswhoseektrade and power amongst whatever people theymaybe, so often change theirnames to suit the circumstances while retaining allegiance to that group into

whichtheywereborn,soitwasinthatday,nearlythreethousandyearsago.Inthe early days of theGreek cities, citizenshipwas easy to obtain and personswith pretence at power, influence and money, in a society where worship ofmoneyhadreplacedworshipofthegods,intruth,wouldhavenogreatdifficultyinthatdirection.OutoftheweakeningofwhatwasleftofthetruepowerofkinglyruleatAthens,such as descended from Mycenaean Greece, and consequent growth of“Aristocratic” democracy, doubtless deriving from concession to internationalmoney power for its assistance against theDorian previous to 1100B.C., andbeforewhomitappears thecityofAthensnever fell,came the replacementofthe titleWanax indicating god-king reigning in earthly splendour, for that ofArchon-Basileus of lesser degree.[202] Out of the further weakening of sucharistocracyof theGreeksas laterexisted,whetherAchaean, Ionian,orDorian,and the soul destruction sown amongst them as consequence of their betrayalintoslaveryandabuseoftheirfollowerswhohadsotrustedthemandlookedtothem for guidance, derived those conditions out of which the so-called tyrantrosetopower.Outoftheinvolvementofthenaturalleadersofthepeople[203]with things ignobleandinimical to theirownkind,suchas tradeand“Money-making,”andwith strange luxuriesandvices, rose thosemen,often traitors totheirownclass,whofrontedfortheconspiratorialmoneypoweroftheage.Suchmen steered the restless aspirations of the wage slaves of the cities; thosedispossessedmasses so easily stirred to active resentment against their formerleaders deriving from the ancient nobility; and who, of course, had no moreunderstanding than themselves of that force by which they were both beingmanipulated.

OTYRANTANDTRAPEZITAE

f the tyrants of Greece and AsiaMinor in ancient times, the learnedProfessorHeichelheimwrote:[204]“These tyrants were for the most part members of the nobility

themselveswhohadmade thegradeusing thenewpolitical and economicpossibilitiesoftheirtimetooverthrowtheirownequalsandtosubduetheirwholehomestatetemporarily.Thetyrantswereoftencompelledtointroducethecoineconomypatternintotheareaoverwhichtheyruled,orat least topromoteitsdevelopmentofficially,inordertogaintheupperhandovertheirenemies.Tostabilizethepositionofthepeasantryontheland,andtoexpandandrebuildstateeconomy,acentraldistributionofmoneyandgoodsinkindpartly directed towards mercenaries, bodyguards and various politicalfriends, and partly indirectly to the masses of poor people in the form ofwages paid for extensive building operations and improvements, ischaracteristicoftyranteconomy.”

TheaboveremarksofProfessorHeichelheimindicatetherewere“newpoliticalandeconomicpossibilities”inthatperiod650-500B.C.whenthetyranniesmostofallflourished.Thequestionthenbecomes,whatwerethese“newpoliticalandeconomicpossibilities?”Theanswerisarrivedatreadily;theyderivedfromtheactivities of the agents of the international silver bullion brokers, who, fromports such asArgos,Athens, andAeginawhereKing Pheidon struck the firstGreek silver coinage c.680 BC., promoted the luxury traders who sold theirwaresfromwigstoharlotsasagainstthenewsilvercoinageorpromisethereof.Theopportunitiesclearlywereforthosewhoassistedinthemonetizationofthecity,andallitsactivitiesandpossessions,anditspopulation,man,woman,andchild,andtheirpossessionstoo,andtherebyassistedinthefirmestablishmentoftheruleofbankers, trade,andtraders,asagainst thegodsrulingovermankindlivinginhisnaturalorder.“The aristocracies refused political equality to the landless traders andmanufacturers, the peasantswere oppressedby the rich and encouraged to getintodebtand thenwere reduced toslaveryandexile; slavesbegan tocompetewithfreelabour.Ambitiousindividualscapitalizedthisdiscontenttooverthrowtheconstitutedgovernmentandestablishthemselvesas tyrants inall theGreekcitieswiththenotableexceptionofSparta.”[205]The situation is very clear. The kings and aristocracies as descended from

ancientdays,asaderivativeoftheirfollyinpermittingtheunrestrictedactivitiesof the new bankers,whowere nowwell established in all themajor cities ofGreeceoutsideofSparta,sawaclassofmanufacturersandentrepreneurscomeintobeing, largely foreignersandmenof lowlyorigin.Thesemen,moreoftenthan not with themeans of nobility but the outlook of slaves, were clearly aseriousthreattokingsandnobilityandtheordertheyrepresented.In the same manner during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries A.D., theworthytradesmenofLondon,whilestilldeferringtothenaturalnobilityoftheland, more and more realized, that they too were lords of the land throughcontrolof labourby thewage rates andneeded little encouragement from thattrue source of their power, the bullion brokers, towards hatred of agovernment[206] which still gave them little say, for all the wealth that theywere possessed of according to the new standards. This government stillcontinued, at least until Charles I, to consider one of its main duties was toprevent the oppression of the poor and the trusting,[207] regardless of the so-called“needsoftrade.”ThesimilarclassthatroseinGreecesometwothousandyearspreviously,moreandmore realized that they were the new reality, and that they were now inactuality the lords of the land through labour, which they owned outright asslaves,orcontrolledas throughdailywages. If the land itself theystilldidnotownandcontrol,itmatterednot;fortherewerethosevoicesthattoldthemthatland too was but a trade and a tool in the new order. As their textiles (as atMegara),orpottery(asatCorinth),thateveryshipleavingharbourcarriedtotheendsoftheearth,sothelandofthegreatlordwasbutthecapitalinvestmentthatgrewthefoodthathethemanufacturerpurchasedforhimselfandhisslavesortherawmaterialsneededforhisparticular trade;andhehimself, in themoneycreator’skingdomonearth,wasasassessableincoinaswaspotter,weaver,orarmourer. The land owning nobleman was a man controllable as themselvesthroughtheartsoftaxationintermsofmoney,couldtheybutinstituteasystemof government in which the natural ruler had no more power to rule thanthemselves.Nodoubt theseworthy tradesmenofMegara,orCorinth,orAthens, ledonbythe attitude of their truemasters, the trapezitae, themoney creators, agents ofthosegreatandancientbankinghousesofBabyloncity,saidtothemselvesofthenatural lords ofHellas “Who are thesemen?” “For all their finemanners andclothing,wecouldbuythemupahundredtimesdidtheybutknowit!”Andsothestagewassetforthearrivalofthetyrantfinancedintoexistencebythebankers towardsthetotaldestructionof theoldwayof life,whichstillhad

withinittheseedsofastrengthsufficienttorootoutitsenemiessuchas,inthecaseofSparta,hadbeenoutstandinglyprovenbytherenewaloftheancientlifesystem through the financial and social reforms of Lycurgus. Classes ofmanufacturers and entrepreneurs, contemptuous of a nobility that seemed tohavebetrayeditstrust,wereeasilystirredtoenvyandresentment,andtheworkofdestructionbythetyrantreceivedlittleornoopposition.“In order to level the class of large landowners and nobles economically,Theagenes of Megara simply allowed their herds of cattle to be slaughteredwithoutremuneration.AfrequentpoliticaldeviceoftyrantsfromAsiaMinortoSicily was to murder or banish nobles, confiscate their possessions, andredistributetheirwealthamongstthepoor.”[208]Thepoor,needlesstosay,soonreturnedtobeingpooragain.“Thepooryeshallalwayshavewithyou.”Thepoormerelybeingthosewhotrustthattheirrulersareattendingtoseriousmattersasindicatedbytheirpositioninthescaleoflife,suchasgoverning.Theword“poor”havingexisted,ofcourse, longbefore thecrafty banker, standing in the shade beside the ways of life, arranged it thatmeasureofpovertyandricheswasinthatnumberof(privatelyissued)unitsofexchangeinwhichamancouldbeassessedaccordingtosuccessorfailureintheconflictoflife,ashethebankerhadestablishedit.The tyrant, therefore,was that forcebywhich internationalmoneypoweras itderived from the control of silver bullion and the slavemarkets, destroyed allresistancetoitstotalownershipoflifeandlabourandhumanhope.Thestatusofall,slaveorfree,insomedegree,dependedontheirrelationswiththetrapezitaewhopresidedat their table in theagora; andshould theybekingsor rulersofstates, no doubt their destinies would be much influenced by those shadowyfiguresfurtivelywatchingfromthecountinghousesof farawayMesopotamia.Accordingtothespecialnatureofthetimes,thetyrant,inhiscapacityasruler,wouldaboveallbeguidedinstrument;butthatthetyrantnomoreunderstoodthetruesignificanceofhisexistencethandotheseso-calledrevolutionary“leaders”oftoday,isacertainty.Theso-called“revolutions”oftodayareclearlysimilarintheiroriginstothoseofthetimeofthetyrants;themaindifferencebeingmoreofatechnicality.Until1870A.D.thearbitraryvaluationofgoldbullionasaccordingtothedecisionofthe bullion brokers, was common denominator of values internationally, withsilverbullion in secondplaceat the ratio asdecidedby the leading states;butstillrarelyvaryingagreatdealfromthatratiodecidedonnearly2000yearsagoby Julius Caesar and his financial advisors, of 12:1.[209] After thedemonetization of silver in almost all the major states of the world, in the

seventiesofthelastcentury,[210]thecommondenominatorofvalueswasgoldalone, with silver just another commodity moving up and down on worldmarketsaccordingtosupplyanddemand.More than ample evidence exists of those persons designated internationalbankers in “Modern Times” as also the instigative factor in the principle so-calledrevolutionsofthelastthreehundredyears.AccordingtoCommanderGuyCarr,[211] the so-called English revolution was totally the work of theinternational bullion brokers who seem at that time to have been lodged inAmsterdam,althoughtheloanofsilverbulliontoQueenElizabethI[212]fortherecoinagethattookplaceshortlyafterheraccessiontothethroneasnegotiatedbythefamous“Sicile,”[213]laterLordBurghley,camefromAntwerp.Some of the Crypto-Jews of the Commonwealth,[214] of whommany wouldhavebeeninEnglandduringthereignofCharlesI,wouldalsoappear tohavebeenafactorinsuchrevolutionaswittingorunwittingagentsoftheAmsterdambullion brokers.[215] Themain designer of the events of those days seems tohave been a Manasseh Ben Israel, “a remarkable character,” who apparentlytooktheinitiativeinthefinancingofCromwell;[216]whichenabledCromwellto obtain the best of arms, the first requisite of the would-be conquerorthroughouthistory.The arrival of the Spanish and PortugueseMarranos[217] inHolland in 1593A.D.,withtheconsequentharnessingoftheDutch,aseafaringpeople,naturallyaggressive, to their world wide trade activities, and the resultant so-called“prosperity,” immediately produced its impact inBritain. The regrowth of thecommercialpowerofthese“NewDutch,”moreespeciallyasderivingfromthebullion trade which they seemed to continue to control internationally,principallyduetotheconnectionstheycontinuedtomaintaininSpain,directedtowards themagreatpartof the floodof thepreciousmetalswhichwasbeingwrungoutofthewretchednativesofSouthAmericaparticularly;nottospeakofthatwhichcamefromJapan,China,andIndia,ofwhichnotsomuchseemstobeknown.[218] No sooner did these preciousmetals arrive in Spain or Portugalthan almost immediately they moved on to other parts in settlement of tradedebit balances created largely by the Spanish wars in Europe, particularly inItaly.[219]ThissuperfluityofthepreciousmetalsinNorthernEuropecertainlywasoneofthe instigative factors, in the growth of “Banking,” which had spread fromVenice and Genoa, to Amsterdam, and from thence to London,[220] where,evincedbytheactivitiesofthegoldsmiths,ithadsetitselfupagainstkings,asthewholestoryofthedownfallofCharlesIwouldindicate.

The political picture of Northern Europe derived a great deal of its changingcharacter from the rise in prices which came about both as a result of therelativelytremendousinfluxofnewpreciousmetalsatthattime,andasaresultof the growth of “Banking,” that is private abstract money creation, whichaffectedpricesequallywiththatpreciousmetalthatcouldbeseenasitcirculatedasmoney.Kings,ofteninthehandsofthevenaladvisorstowhomtheagegaverise,werenolongerabletomakebothendsmeet,andnotunderstandingthetruenatureof theactivitiesof thebankersorgoldsmiths, theyneitherknewhowtoputastoptosuchactivitiesnor,iftheypermittedthem,howtotaxthem.The sullen resistance experienced by Charles I from the puritanical and self-righteous burghers of the City of London,[221] most of whom were by thendeeplybeholdentothegoldsmithsfortheirfinances,who,intheirturnwerenodoubtbeholden to theAmsterdambullionbrokers for thegold theysometimesneededinahurrywhenrumourwentroundthat theirreceiptswhichcirculatedasmoney,were largelyfalseandhadnothingbehind themexcept lies,maybetracedtothesesamebullionbrokersofAmsterdam.Their policy above all required theweakeningof kingship inEngland, for the“Banking”monopoly they saw theymight come to institute inEngland, couldnotflourishwithakingonthethronesuchasCharleswhotrulyregardedhimselfastheLord’sanointed.Akingwhowasawareofthesourceofhispower,evenifnotwidelyinstructedtherein,thatistosay,whowasawareofthetruemeaningofmonetarycreationandemissionrelativetohiskingship,wasnotmuchtotheirliking.ThereinstitutionoftheofficeofaRoyalExchanger,abolishedbyHenryVIIIin1539ontheadviceofaSirThomasGresham,[222]wasalsonotmuchtotheir liking,northeseizurebyCharlesof the£130,000depositedintheTowersupposedlybytheLondonmerchants,reputedtohavecomefromSpainenroutetoDunkirk, Spanish possession at that time. The reinstitution of the office ofRoyal Exchanger meant that one of the major sources of revenue of thegoldsmiths, and therefore their masters, the bullion brokers was cut off: thatwhichobtainedfromtheexchangeofcoins,foreignordomestic;whichmeant,therefore,theyweredeniedtheopportunitytoclip,orsweat,orretainforexportthosefull-weightcoinsthatcametheirway.[223]“TheunsafeconditionofaBankunderaMonarchy.”[224]ThesewordsofPepysindicatethetrendofthoughtofcertaincirclesatthetime.Although Charles I could not be considered the most effective opposition tobankinganditsproponents,nevertheless,hewasintheway;evenifthecuretohim—Cromwell— proved perhaps to be even more in the way! Cromwell’s“BillsofPublicFaith,”ofwhichverylittlerecordremains,atruecurrencybeing

intrinsicallyvalueless,stateissued,andinconvertible,musthavebeencauseforgravemisgivingsonthepartofthegoldsmiths,andallconcerned,astowhethertheyhaddonerightinsupportingtheenemiesoftheking!Itwasnotlongafterthe return to the throne of England of the Stuart Line in the person of theamenableCharlesII, in1660,that these“BillsofPublicFaith,”therealkeytosovereignty, were repudiated;[225] showing that the son had even lessunderstandingoftherealitiesofmoneythanhadthefather.[226]ToreturntoCromwellandtheprincipalfactorsthatleaduptohissuccess,andhis assumptionof thepowersof tyranny:when it becameclear thatCromwellwas as “suitable” a man as could be found to fit the needs of the occasion,ManassehBen Israel supplied himwith the giftedFernandezCarvajal, for thereorganizationofhisarmy,whichbecameknownasthe“ModelArmy”.Trainedrevolutionaries then poured into the country, presiding over whom was thePortugueseAmbassador,aDeSouza,wholoanedthemthediplomaticimmunityof his house for their meetings. One such revolutionary was the man knowntoday as Calvin, whose father had been fiscal agent to a prominent FrenchBishop.[227]These revolutionary leaders, besides developing the technique of spreadingreligiousdifferences,alsoexploitedtheuseoftruculentmobs,apracticeknowntothisclassofpeoplefrommostancienttimes,forthegainingofpoliticalends.According to Commander Guy Carr, who is a relatively recent writer on thissubject:[228] “The evidence which absolutely convicts Oliver Cromwell ofparticipating in the revolutionary plot was obtained by Lord Alfred Douglas,who edited a weekly review known as Plain English published by the NorthBritishPublishingCompany. Inanarticlewhichappeared in the issueofSept.3rd 1921, he explained that he and his friend, Mr. L.D. Van Valckert ofAmsterdam,Holland,hadcomeintopossessionofamissingvolumeofrecordsoftheSynagogueofMuljeim.ThisvolumehadbeenlostduringtheNapoleonicWars.Thevolumecontained recordsof letterswritten to andansweredby thedirectorsoftheSynagogue.TheyarewritteninGerman.OneentrydatedJune16th,1647reads:FromO.C.(i.e.)OliverCromwelltoEbenezerPratt.‘InreturnforfinancialsupportwilladvocateadmissiontoEngland;thishoweverimpossible while Charles living. Charles cannot be executed without trial,adequategroundsforwhichdonotatpresentexist.ThereforeadvisethatCharlesbeassassinated,butwillhavenothingtodowiththearrangementsforprocuringanassassin,thoughwillingtohelpinhisescape.’

InreplytothisdispatchtherecordsshowE.PrattwrotealetterdatedJuly12th,1647addressedtoOliverCromwell.‘Will grant financial aid as soon as Charles removed and. admitted.[229]Assassinationtoodangerous.Charlesshouldbegivenanopportunitytoescape.His recapturewill thenmake trial andexecutionpossible.The supportwill beliberalbutuselesstodiscusstermsuntiltrialcommences.’OnNovember12th,thatsameyear,Charleswasgiventheopportunitytoescape.Hewas,ofcourse,recaptured.HollisandLudlow,authoritiesonthischapterofhistory, are both on record as considering the flight as the stratagem ofCromwell.AfterCharles had been recaptured, eventsmoved apace.CromwellhadtheBritishParliamentpurgedofmostofthemembersheknewwereloyaltotheKing.Notwithstanding this drastic action,when the house sat all night onDecember 6th, 1648, themajority agreed ‘That the concessions offered by thekingweresatisfactorytoasettlement.’AnysuchsettlementwouldhavedisqualifiedCromwellfromreceivingthebloodmoneypromisedhimby the internationalmoneybarons through theiragentE.Pratt,soCromwellstruckagain.HeorderedColonelPrydetopurgeParliamentofthosememberswhohadvotedinfavourofasettlementwiththeKing.Whatthenhappenedisreferredtoinhistorybooksas‘Pryde’spurge’.Whenthepurgewasfinished,fiftymembersremained.Theyarerecordedasthe‘Rump Parliament’. They usurped absolute power. On January 30th, 1649, hewaspubliclybeheaded in frontof thebanquetinghouse atWhitehall,London.OliverCromwellreceivedhisbloodmoneyjustasJudashaddone.”[230]Onthesamesomewhatobscurepageofhistory,ProfessorAndreadespointedoutin his History of the Bank of England,[231] that Cromwell’s best knownhistorians pay little attention to the subject of his relationswith the Jews andtheirreturntoEngland.CarlyleandMorleydevotingnomorethanapagetothishighlycontroversialevent.[232]Thereadergainstheimpressionthatmorewastobesaidonthesubject.Heassertshimself:“ItiscertainthatassoonasCharlesIwasdead,theJewsattemptedtoreturntoEngland.”[233]ThefollowingstatementsbyBenjaminFranklininreferencetothecausesoftheAmericanRevolutionareequallyilluminating:“About this time (the time of the Treaty of Paris, 1763), Benjamin Franklinmade a visit to England.While there hewas asked how he accounted for theprosperousconditionsofthecolonies.Hisreplywas:‘Thatissimple.Itisonlybecause in thecolonieswe issueourownmoney. It is called“ColonialScrip”andweissueitintheproperproportiontothedemandsoftradeandindustry.’”

(See Senate Document No. 23, Page 98, by Robert L. Owen,[234] formerChairman,CommitteeonBankingandCurrency,UnitedStatesSenate.)Robert L. Owen continues: “It was not very long until this information wasbroughttotheRothschild’sBank,andtheysawthatherewasanationreadytobeexploited;herewasanationsettingupanexamplethattheycouldissuetheirownmoneyinsteadof themoneycomingthroughtheBanks.TheRothschild’sBankcausedabilltobeintroducedintheEnglishParliament.,therefore,whichprovidedthatnocolonyofEnglandcouldissueitsownmoney.TheyhadtouseEnglish money. Consequently the colonies were compelled to discard their‘scrip’ and mortgage themselves to the Bank of England (the AmsterdamBullionBrokers!) togetmoney.For the first time in thehistoryof theUnitedStatesourmoneybegantobebasedondebt.”“Benjamin Franklin stated that in one year from that date the streets of thecolonies were filled with the unemployed, because when England exchangedwith them, she gave them only half as many units in payment in borrowedmoney from the Rothschild as they had in ‘scrip’. In other words, theircirculating medium was reduced 50%, and everyone became unemployedaccordingtoBenjaminFranklin’sownstatement.”ContinuingthequotefromSenateDocumentNo.23:“Mr.Franklinwentfurtherthanthat.Hesaidthatthiswastheoriginalcauseoftherevolutionarywar.Inhisown language: ‘Thecolonieswouldgladlyhaveborne the little taxon teaandothermatters had it not been that England took away from the colonies theirmoneywhichcreatedunemploymentanddissatisfaction’.”[235]TheFrenchRevolution,socalled,leftmuchlessevidenceofitsoriginsthantheso-called Russian Revolution 120 years later, though the instigating factor isclearenough.TheFrenchRevolutionbyNestaWebster,TheLifeofNapoleonbySirWalterScott,almostunobtainable,andaboveallthechaptersinGodandtheGoldsmithsbyMcNairWilson,onNapoleonBonaparte,givesomelightonthismatter.AstudyofLouisXVandhisrelationstothePârisBrothers,thestatetaxfarmers,especiallythroughMadameDuPompadour,formerlyPoisson,possiblyillegitimate child of Pâris Duverney and god-daughter of Pâris Monmartel,yields impressions. The writings of Necker, front man for the internationalbankersof thetime,andwhoMirabeaudescribedas“theHerowhoarrivedbyfamine” should be read, and also the writings of Turgot, finance Minister toLouisXVI,who foughtagainstNeckerand theevil fraternitybehindhim,andwhonicelysummedup thesituation inhis firstmemorandumtoLouisXVIasfollows:

“Solongasfinanceshallbecontinuallysubjecttotheoldexpedientsinordertoprovideforstateservices,yourMajestywillalwaysbedependentonfinanciers,and they ever will be the masters, and by the manoeuvres belonging to theirtradetheywillfrustratethemostimportantoperations.Thusthegovernmentcannever feel itselfatease, itcanneverbeacknowledgedasable tosustain itself,becausethediscontentsandimpatienceofthepeoplearealwaysthemeansmadeuseofbyintriguingandill-disposedmeninordertoexcitedisturbance.”[236]Clearly theMinister Turgotwas aman of sincerity and integrity, a trueGod-servant,andthefactthatitwasonlyafterprolongedschemingonthepartoftheinternationalbankers,whomostlylivedoutsideofFrance,thathewasdismissed,[237]wouldsuggestthathismasteralsosoughttodothatwhichhewasbornetodo, that is, love, guide, and protect the people. But neither master nor manunderstoodthestrengthoftheundercurrentswhichflowed,nor,itistobefeared,thetruemeaningofl’etatc’estmoi!whichinessencemeans“IamthefountofLife. I am that point through which the Almighty God injects your moneyamongstyouthatbindsyoutogetherasone.I,andnoother;notmysteward,norservant,faithfulorunfaithful.”The men of intrigue he referred to, were such stewards, the internationalbankers.Thesemen, standingbehind thrones intercepted thatGod-Power fromonhighwhichwastheforcebehindl’etatc’estmoi!,and,controllingthevalueof money of whatever kind, and therefore international price levels, withresponsibility only to them and theirs, confused the nations with their slyschemesoffatuouspurpose.TheinstigatingfactoroftheRussianRevolutionso-callediscommonknowledgeand is detailed in a hundred books. Perhaps one of the best sources ofinformation relating to the financing of the sameRussian “Revolution” is thebookCzarismandRevolutionwrittenbyArseneDeGoulévitch,aformerofficerof the Czar’s army and founder of the Union for the Defence of OppressedPeoples.According to information deriving from the French Secret Service, one of theprincipalsourcesoffinancesfortheInternationalRevolutionaryMovementpriorto1917,wasJacobSchiffoftheInternationalbankingfirmofKuhn,Loeb,andCompany,basedinNewYorkCity.ItwasrecordedthattwelvemilliondollarshadbeendonatedtotherevolutionariesbySchiff,intheyearsprecedingthewarof 1914-1918. This fact is apparently confirmed and amplified from sourcesotherthantheFrenchSecretService.[238]Themainfundsforthesocalled“Revolution”andtowardsthestepswhichled

uptoit,donotappeartohavecomefromthatclassofnouveaurichebredintobeinginRussiaoutoftheactivitiesovertheprevious50years,ofthejointstockbanks, and the men such as Sawa Morozov, and Tereschenko,[239] thesocialistic sugar magnate. The extensive funds so necessary towards theeffective disruption of amajor state appear to have come from certainBritishand American circles, which it seems, had been lending their support to theRussian revolutionary “cause,” for a long time. In his book,MyLife, Trotskyspeaks of a large loan granted in 1907 by a “Financier” belonging to the so-called “Liberal” Party in Britain. This particular “British” financier wasapparentlynotaloneinhismonetarysupportofthe“Revolution”inRussia.[240]The conduct of Jacob Schiff, previously mentioned, towards Czarist Russia,oncehewasinstalledasheadoftheNewYork“InternationalBanking”firmofKuhn, Loeb, and Company, was that of an apparently unyielding enemy.Referencestohisanti-czaristactivitiesexistinthebookbyCyrusAdler:JacobSchiff,hisLifeandLetters.[241]FurtherverificationoftheactivitiesofJacobSchiffisaffordedbytheNewYork“Journal American” of February 3rd, 1949; a time when pro-revolutionaryactivitieswere “TheThing” inNewYorkCity:[242] “today it is estimatedbyJacob’sgrandson,JohnSchiff, that theoldmansankabout$20,000,000.00forthe triumphofBolshevism inRussia.”[243]According toGoulévitch (p.231),various other persons well known in the world of international banking,whatever the expression “International Banking” might mean,[244] were alsoknowntobeassociatedwithsupportofrevolutionaryactivities.Theruintothestates of theworld set on foot by these immensely rich, but otherwise triflingpersons, whose solidarity, however, had enabled them to so profit from theunbelievable expansion of the use of Ledger Credit Page EntryMoney in theAnglo-Saxon banking systems, could not better demonstrate the absurdity ofallowing private, and therefore irresponsible, persons to exercise that powerwhichshouldbelong to thegodsalone, thepower inherent in thecreationandissuanceoftheUnitofExchangeamongstthepeoples.InaspeechmadesixweeksbeforethefalloftheKerenskyGovernment,Leninmade one of hismost significant recommendations and perhaps the onemostsuggestiveofthepossibilityofhissincerity,evenifintherestheseemstohavebeen misguided. It was the one recommendation most indicative of hisawareness of the deep-seated causes of the conditions that had given rise tohimself and what he stood for. Additional to proposing nationalization of thegreat monopolies already existing in Russia, (primarily as the result of theadmissionofjoint-stockbankingintothecountryasconcessiontothevictorsof

the Crimean war), above all he recommended the total nationalization ofbanking. In his ownwords he says: “all banks to bemerged into one and thestatecontrolitsoperations,thatisthenationalizationofthebanks.”“Totalkaboutregularizationofbanks,”continuesLenin,“meanseithertobetraycomplete ignorance, or to fool the simple folk with high sounding words, tocontrol the delivery of bread, or in general, the production and distribution ofgoods,withoutcontrollingbankingpractices, isanabsurdity(CollectedWorks[1964],vol.25,p.329).[245]Ofcourse,sixweekslater,whenLeninhadphysicallyseizedpowerwiththeaidof his “armed bandits,” itwas a smallmatter to set up printing presses in themajorcitiesinRussiathatcommencedtopouroffpaperroublesbythebillion.Some fourteen or fifteen thousand workers were busily engaged in thegovernmentprintingshopsofMoscow,Leningrad,Penza,Perm,andRostov-on-Don, turning out tons upon tons of paper money. The printing of notes wassimplifiedtoapointwherecounterfeitingbecameeasy.[246]Atthesametimesafetydepositboxeswereseized,allaccountsfrozenandthebanks were closed, so that there was no addition to the circulation existingoutsideofbanksatthestartofthis“operation,”agreatpartofwhichcirculationwould have been gold; and no newmoney came on the scene other than thepaper roubles of the Bolsheviki printing presses which immediately took theplaceofthatLedgerCreditPageMoneybymanipulationofwhichthebankshadpreviouslycontrolledagreatdealoftrade.ForayearortwotheMonarchistroubleswereprintedasiftherewasintentiontokeepthepeoplehalfexpectingthat theCzarwouldbecomingback, thenforashortwhilea‘Kerenki’roublewasprinted,presumablyissueoftheshort livedKerenskygovernment,asiftopreparethepeoplefortotalresignation,andthenfinally,theBolshevikiroublewhichletthepeopleknowthatallwasindeedlost.This continuing the money of a destroyed king seems to have been no newpolicy of internationalmoney power, especially in the case of those kings, itsparticularenemies.Anillustrationofwhich,occurringinancienttimes,wasthecontinuedmintingat theSardismintof thesigloiofCroesus longafterhehadbeendestroyed.TheprintingpressmoneyoftheRussianRevolutionenteredthecirculation against government expenditures and against gold coin which itbecame illegal topossess,nodoubtbeingaccompaniedbyanequalamountofcounterfeit,alsoexchangedagainstgold.Thesevigorousmovesmusthavebeencauseforsomemisgivingsamongst thebankerswho continued to finance the “Revolution” so far aswentBolsheviki

needs in foreign exchange.But no doubt so closely surroundedwasLenin bytheir agents,[247] theywouldhavebeen justified in reasoning that theywouldcomeoutontopagainwithouttoomuchtrouble,especiallywiththenewroublesbeing so easy to counterfeit. And during that period of the so-called “NewEconomicPolicy,”approximately1920-24,theydidsocomeoutontop.In the archives of the State Publishers of Moscow is recorded the followingeulogytotheprintingpressasbeingasgreataforceintheso-calledrevolutionasarmies:“Papermoneyof theSovietRepublicgave support to theyoung regimeat themost critical period of its existence when there was no possibility of raisingdirecttaxestomeettheoutlaysofthecivilwar.Hailtoourprintingpress!Itistruethatitsdaysarenumberedbutithasalreadycompletedthreequartersofitswork.Inthearchivesoftheproletarianrevolutionalongwiththecannon,rifles,andmachinegunsofourepoch thatvanquished theenemiesof theproletariat,theplaceofhonourwillbegivento theprintingpress, themachinegunof thecommissariat of finance that poured fire into the rear of the bourgeois systemandthatmadeuseofthelawsofcurrencyandcirculationofthatregimeforthepurposeofdestroyingit,andoffinancingtherevolution.”[248]Typicallyenoughthe“Tyrant”himself,VladimirI.Lenin,sawlittleornoprofitoutofallthis,forhimself,theRussianpeople,orthatidealofworldrevolutioninwhichitappearshesincerelybelieved.Ifhetrulywastheauthoroftheabovestatements regarding banking, then, when he died not so long after all theseevents, itwasasawearyanddisillusionedman.For thatgold,stillverymuchthebasefor totalcontrolofworldfinance,whichwaswrungfromtheRussianpeopleduringtheperiodofterrorbetween1917and1922,seemstohavealmostall found its way back to the “Benefactors” of the original revolutionaries,Messrs.Kuhn,Loeb, andCompanyofNewYork (JacobSchiff’s firm), and itmusthavebeencleartoLeninbythetimehediedin1924thathewasbutagentof a force that regarded him as merely another tool to be used towards themakingofthatwhichtheydesigned.“Mr.Bakhmetiev, the lateRussian ImperialAmbassador to theUnited States,tellsusthattheBolsheviks,aftervictory,transferred600millionroublesingoldbetween the years 1918 and 1922, to Kuhn, Loeb, and Company (Schiff’sfirm)”[249] which makes pretty good return for the mere 20,000,000 dollarsgrantedby thephilanthropicMr.Schiff andwhichwouldhavebeenas creditsagainstpurchasesatthat!Atthattimesuchamountofgoldcouldbeusedtoformtheapexofaninverted

pyramidofabstractmoneyequalinamounttobeyondthirtytimesthenumberofunitssuchgoldrepresentedinU.S.currencyaccordingtoitsofficialprice.

TPOTSHERDSANDOTHERFRAGMENTS

heglimpseat thesecataclysmiceventsof relativelymodern times,as inthepreviouschapter,willassisttowardsunderstandingoftheimplicationsof similar events in ancient times of which but the most fragmentary

informationexists.Aswaswrittenthreethousandyearsago:“Isthereanythingwhereofitmaybesaid;Seethisisnew?Ithathbeenalreadyofoldtimewhichwasbeforeus.”[250]Soreturningtothatsmallerworldofancientdays,thethemeofthisbook,itmaysafelybesaidthatsimilarconspiracyandsecretmanoeuvreleduptoallthatfastchanging sequence of social events that clearly followed a definite design, inAttica;particularlyfromthecollapseofhereditarykingshipin683B.C.;whichdatemarks,itmostreasonablymaybeassumed,thecommencementofrulebyMoney Creative Power either international or home grown. A king createdannually by vote has even less chance of ruling effectively than the so-calledpresidents of today, elective kings as they really are, though sorry enoughspectaclessomeof themmaybe,andwhohaveasmuchasfiveyears toservethepurposesofwhoevertheyfrontfor.Some writers dismiss the idea of a capitalism in antiquity, but acceptingdefinitionofcapitalismastheconditionoftheunrestrictedpromotionofhumanactivitythroughtheinstrumentofthedrivingforceofthatpowerofcreation,andloanagainstcollateral,andatinterest,oftheunitofexchange,orofpromisesofthe unit of exchange as denoted by Ledger Credit Page Entry, and whichfunctionasthesamethinginexchangesbetweenpersonsdealingwiththesamebankerorinterlockedsystemofbanks,verylittleanalysisofthecircumstancesthatgaverisetothetyrantswillshowthataformof“capitalism”didexist,evenifmorelocalincharacter,andrestrictedtotheindividualcity,orstate,asarule.The tyrantwas frontman towards the totalmonetization of the state, the landand its labour, and towards the transfer of that independent labour formerlyfirmlyplacedintheNaturalOrderofGod-Life,toaconditionofdependenceona wage of money, directed towards being able to keep on living as with thenotionofbeingafreeman.Todaywe but repeat themistakes of the past; however today it is notmerelydisaster to a small city or state and its way of life, but with the existingrefinementofthatwhichcanonlybedescribedasthemoneyswindleasitwasconductedinancienttimesbythetrapezitaeattheirbenchinthemarketplace,

made possible by mass paper manufacture and the printing press, and theenormous potentialities therein towards quickening the speed and drive ofhuman life and endeavour, it almost certainly will prove to be, one way oranother,totaldisaster,andtoallmankind.ThoselinesofSolonsayenough:ButofthemselvesintheirfollythemenofthecityarewillingOurgreatcitytowreck,beingwonoverbywealth.Falsearetheheartsofthepeople’sleaders.[251]Afurthercoupletindicatesthemeaningof“ourgreatcitytowreck.”Greatmenruinacity:forlackofunderstandingUnderadespot’syokelieththepeopleenslaved.[252]These lines written after the seizure by Peisistratus of the Tyranny at AthenswouldindicatethatthesamePeisistratushadtheassistanceinhisrisetopowerofthoseformergreatlandowningfamiliesofAtticawhohadbeendrawnintotheschemesof theforeignmoneymasters to theirundoing.These landownershadforgottentheirdutytowardstheirownpeople.Fascinatedbystrangeluxuriesandthe stranger talk of the money men, the trapezitae, they had permittedthemselves to be absorbed with visions of that new wealth measured by thenumbersindicatedbythepreciousmetalsymbolsofthesesametrapezitae.Theyforgotthatintheabsoluteanalysistheythemselveswerebutstewardsofahigherpower. Lacking understanding, above all, of the true nature of this money asbeingabovealltheirownlawtowardsthefacilitationoftheexchangesamongstthemselves and their people, they had been lead astray from their duty. Byconnivingwiththebankersandtheirprotégéesthenewmanufacturers,todrivetheir own people off the land into the cities, and into the industries rapidlyspeedingupfromthenewmoneyeconomy,theyforgotthatintheircapacityasrulers, the whole land was theirs in trust to their people, and that the peoplethereforewereexpectantofthemtobetheirguidesandshepherds.These plausible aliens who set up the money economy via their so-called“banks,”ownednothingbutunmitigatedgall,avastcontemptformankind,andsuchastheycoulddouble-talkthenaïvepeasantrulersintogivingthem.ThefollyoftheserulersinequatingpossessionwiththemastermoneyerstriflingpiecesofgoldandsilverdatedbacktothosegrimKingsoftheHomericSagasorbefore,who,beinglainintheirgravesatMycenaewithalltheirriches,thussetoff on their eternal journey with that small store of gold that the craftyBabylonianmoney-menhadtrainedthemtoregardaswealth,asopposedtothe

realwealthof anorganized statewhosemoneywas thebenevolent lawof therulerinrelationtosurpluses,anddirectedtowardsthegoodandcontinuinglifeofthepeopleandnomore.Thosewhohadpowerandmadementomarvelattheirriches.[253]This line indicates thatSolon, likesomanyequallyworthypeopleof thisday,knew thatmoneywasanevilwithoutunderstandingwhat itwasaboutmoneythat made it so. Not the having of the precious metal pieces of the bankerrecording the number of units represented, for such metal money lying inertbeneath the floors[254]hasnomeaningso faras thequickeningorslowingofthepulseoflifeisconcerned.Ithasnomoremeaningthanhaveabstractunitsofexchangemediathathavenotyetbeenrecordedintheledgeronaccountofnosuitable(tothebanker!)demandforthem.and,ofcourse,theyarewithoutlimit.Noreventhespendingofitastheholder,accordingtolaw,mightchoose.Theevilisintheforgetfulnessoftherulerthatmoneyisnomorethanarecordingofhis law of exchange, its magnitude being governed by the number of unitsindicated. It canneverbe treasurewhich ismerely itemscarryingwith themahigh valuation in relation to such units, relative to their desirability andportability. The evil about money derives in consequence from lack ofunderstandingof its truenature, andparticularly from the confusingofmoneyandtreasure.It is thepersistentfailureofmankindtorealizethatmoneyisbutthe result of agreement being arrived at amongst a sovereign people throughtheir ruler, to provide themselves with a system of numbers by which theirexchangesmightbe facilitated,andsohelp them to liveabetter life.Treasurebeingbutcommoditybywhichtheunitofvalueofwhateverstatemaybe,canbestbestored;eventhoughsuchstateceasetoexist;becauseofthatancientandinternationalconventioninrespecttothevaluationofsuchtreasuresuchashaslastedfromagetoage;fromthemostancienttimes,Palaeolithicorearlier,untiltoday.Theevillayanditmaybesaid,lies,intheforgetfulnessoftherulertorespecthis duty to provide an adequate money supply for his people regulated byhimselfandfreeofobligationtoexternalforces,insuchmannerashadexistedin theAncientOrientalcivilizations inearlier times. It lay in thepermitting toprivateandhenceirresponsiblepersonsthepowertointerveneinthatwhichwasthemost sacred responsibility of the ruler through the priesthood, the creationandregulationofthemediumofexchange:hispeople’smoney.Therefore the hidden force behind the setting up of a tyranny was the farreaching power of a conspiratorial secret society, international in scope,controlling money emission in all countries which it penetrated through its

continuingcontrolofthesourcesofsupplyofthatsilvertreasurebyweightsuchasconstitutedthebaseoftheexchangesystemslongagoestablishedbyitself.The tyrant, therefore,wasclearly thefrontmanfor the localbankermore thanactuallybeingthebankerhimself.Heitwaswhogavelegalitytothebankerandtheactivitiesof thatcoterieofmerchants, traders, andcaptainswho flourishedonthebanker’sfinancialorganization,and,thoughthistheydidnotunderstand,hisconnectionwiththoseinternationalbullionbrokersoftheday.Theseworthybusinessmendependedfortidingthemselvesoverdifficultperiodsonthatwhichthebankerloanedthemasmoney:maybeanentryinaledgertransferabletotheaccount of a fellow merchant, visiting captain, or trader in slaves, or othermerchandise; they also depended on the banker to be safe custodian for suchtreasureascametheirway.Thetyrantwastherefore,eithernaïveorcorrupt,theinstrumentsetupbythebanker,firstlytowardsthelegalizationofhisstatus,andsecondlytowardstheremovalofthatclasswhomightyetchallengehispeculiarandsecretpower,thenaturalaristocracyofHellas.Thisnaturalaristocracy, inagrowingsystem thatclearly sought thealienationand subversion of its free dependents with the purpose of ultimately leadingthem into paid day labour or into slavery final and absolute, was uncertainlysituated in states which now owed their existence to the bankers, and theircoterie of entrepreneurs, and manufacturers, and merchants, as clearly did somanyoftheGreekstatesoftheGreekindustrialrevolution.The banker, lurking in the shade apart from men, knew that these proudnoblemen, formerly lords of this lovely landwhichwasGreece, had forgottenthemeaningoftheirownexistence,anditsrelationtothetotalorderingoftheirsociety,andhedespisedthemaswellhemight,forpermittinghimtounderminethetrueorderoflifeandcausethesesimplefolk,theirpeasantry,tobedrivenoffthelandonewayoranother, tothewageslaveryofthepotteriesatCorinth,orAthens,orwhereveritmightbeorwhateveritmightbe.Inthesameway,theLordsoftheManorsofEnglandandScotlandhaddriventhe peasantry off the common lands some 2400 years later; land nowrepresentingthatmagicofmoneyofwhichpreviouslytheyhadseenlittle.Thesame peasantry drifting into the newmanufacturing andmining towns, dazedandleaderless,thenformedaplentifullaboursupplyforthatsimilarputrescentwickednesswhichwastheindustrialrevolutioninEngland’sgreenandpleasantland.Iftheywereluckytheywereabletoemigrate.InthelinesofTheogniswhosepoliticalaimwastopreventarecurrenceoftheTyrannyinMegarawhichwasacentreforthemanufactureoftextiles:

Tradesmenreignsupreme:thebadlorditovertheirbetters.Thisisthelessonthatallmustthoroughlymaster:Howthatintheworldwealthhasthemightandthepower.Manyabadmanisrichandmanyagoodmanisneedy.Notwithoutcause,OhWealth,domenhonourtheeaboveallthings.Mustmenreckontheonlyvirtuethemakingofmoney?Everyonehonoursthosethatarerichanddespisestheneedy.[255]Thebanker,trainedfromthemoneyshopsofBabylonia,knewthatforhimtheonlydesirablepoliticalsituationwaswhere the lowlyandvulgar[256]held theappearanceofpowerandwealthand“money,”forsuchwouldnotquestiontoointently the source fromwhence they derived that “money,” nor the nature ofthat “money” such as had paved their way to so-called power, for fear its sonecessarysupplymightbecutoff.InthewordsofAristophanes:OftenhasitcrossedmyfancythatthecitiesapttodealWiththeverybestandnoblestoftheCommonwealJustaswithourancientcoinage,andthefinenewmintedgoldThese,sir,oursterlingpieces,allofpureAthenianmould,Allofperfectdieandmetal,allthefairestofthefair,Allofworkmanshipunequalled,provedandvaluedeverywhere,Theseweusenot.Buttheworthlesspinchbeckcoinsofyesterday,Vilestdieandbasestmetal,nowwealwaysuseinstead.Evensooursterlingtownsmen,noblybornandnoblybred,Menofworthandrankandmettle,menofhonourablefame,Trainedineveryliberalscience,choraldanceandmanlygame,Thesewetreatwithscornandinsult.Butthestrangersnewliestcome,Worthlesssonsofworthlessfathers,pinchbecktownsmen,copperyscum(WhominearlierdaysthecityhardlywouldhavestoopedtouseEvenforherscapegoatvictims)theseforeverytaskwechoose.[257]Where,asinacitysuchasMegara,onebankinghousemightcontrolallcreditormoney creation, to question and seek to know how thiswas donewould alsomean search for knowledge of the banker’s secrets and this, our tyrantinstinctivelyknew,wasdangerousforhiscontinuedsuccess.Whatarethegainsthatleaduptoatyranny?Isitnotmoreprobablethattheyare some formofpayment receivedby thecommons (those thatarebad) fromthewould-betyrant?Notatall.Merelythewordwaspassedbythatbankinginstitutiontowhichthemajorityoftradesmenormanufacturersinthatparticularcitywereindebted,that

thebanker,giverofall,(andtakerofall!),favouredthismove.Ah!andindeeditwouldbegoodforall,andtopleasethecommonpeopletherewouldbeplentyofwork! Itmay safely be considered that the first legislation passed by our newtyrantwouldlegalizethepositionofhisbackers,whichpreviously,aslikelyasnot,hadbeenillegal!Thetyrantat thisstageofhistory,wasanecessity toMoneyPower,andwhilepossibly having the appearance of being wealthy, he depended for his realfinances on that backer whose interests he promoted. Those two officers ofAlexander forexample,whoaccepted the tyrannyofAsiaticcitiescould innoway have understood the reality of finance, international or otherwise, exceptperhapsiftheyhadbeenclerksinthepaymastercorpsofofficerstatus.Iftheyhad so understood such finance, it is doubtful that they would have beenpromotedastheywere.Thetyrantwasonewhothebankercouldrelyontoputthroughhis“Levelling”programme,or in thedouble talkof today, couldbe reliedon to “Press aheadwith Democratization,” and to work against the class from which he wassupposedtohavecome.[258]Hewasonewhocouldbereliedontoputthroughprogrammes of publicworks,maintainmilitary expenditures etc.; for all suchactivities strengthened the banker’s position as creator and regulator of theexchange unit, and therefore, from those exclusive courtyards wherein heschemed,designerofthelifeofthecity.Thebankercouldnotmaintainhisholdover the city, except his product, ledger credit page entry money, howevercreated,wasinconstantdemand,andthelocalgovernmentdeeplyembroiledinhisschemes.Thetyranthadtobeonecompletelyinaccordwiththatso-called“democratic”politicalattitude,whichthebankeralwaysseemedtoespouse.Hisostensible purpose had to be to “Level”; such levelling meaning of course,tearingdowneverythingabovethemselves,(andabovethebankertoo!)Those fragments of verse as quoted here, reputed to be by Solon, leave littledoubtofthesincerityofSolon,atleastsuperficially.Thefactremainsthatasamerchant, whether of necessity or otherwise, hemust have beenmarkedwithsomeoftheoutlookofthatclass.Hisfamouslaws,amongstwhichwasthatlawreleasingthepeasantryfromthedebtslaveryintowhichtheirnaturalrulershadpermittedthemtobedrawn,andthatwaseatingintotheveryvitalsofAttica,inviewofthefactthatheofferedcitizenshiptoanyfamilymovingtoAthenswiththe intention of taking up some manual trade, might very well have beenpromotedbyhisbackers.Thecitywasclearlyveryshortofsuitablefreelabour.Itverywellmightbethathisbackerswerethosemoneylendersandbankersthatcontrolled the growingmanufacturies of Athens, and who saw that there was

more profit and work for that which they loaned as money, in bringing thepeasantrytoAthensasfreemen(ifawageslaveisreallyanymorefreethanaslaveownedoutright!)[259]andinhavingthusaplentifulsupplyoflabour,thanin tyingsuchpeasantry to thesoilbydebtslavery,and in thecaseofdistraint,their sale on to a surfeited market abroad. While there was still a healthypopulation of small holders as well as the great landlords, there was alwayspossibilityof recoveryby the enslaved state, and themselves, the enslavers, ashappenedatSpartainthetimeofLycurgus,drivenoutofthelandforhundredsof years.With amassive proletariat beholden to themen of the city for theirfreedom (as day labourers!), the former aristocracy even if they should everawaken to their duty, would have no chance. Nor did they. All those“liberalizing” lawspromulgatedbySolonandhissuccessors,steadilydeprivedtheancientfamiliesofAtticaoftheirformerpowerandprerogative.Theshadowofpowerwasputintothehandsofignoblepersons,asindeedwouldhavebeensomanyofthe“Demagogues,”andother“Democratic”officials,who,toooftenwould have been nomore than blind creatures lifted up from themob to theservice ofmoney power.By the devices existing as part ofwhat is known as“democracy,” such as Ostrakism through rumour put into circulation by thesecret societies in the city, controlled, as in today, by the bankers without adoubt,“Leaders”nolonger“suitable”couldberemoved.“The tyrants themselves are repeatedly foundmaking it part of their policy tokeeptheirsubjectsemployedonbigindustrialconcerns.Inmorethanonecasewe shall see their power collapsing just when this policy becomes financiallyimpossible.”[260]In other words if that tyrant proved unsatisfactory to hismasters,money thatsourceofstrengthinpoliticallife,wascutoffjustatthetimeitwouldbemostneeded, such as when he had become involved in heavy spending. Herein isfurther proof of the tyrant being not money power itself, but front man formoneypower.“This part of the tyrant’s policy is noticed by Aristotle who quotes thededications (buildings and works of art) of the Cypselids at Corinth, thebuildings ofOlymphianZeus atAthens by the Peisistratids, and theworks ofPolycrates around Samos. To these names we add Theagenes of Megara,PhalarisofAgrigentum,AristodemusofCumaeandtheTarquinsofRome,allofwhomareassociatedwithworksofthiskind.”[261]It is pointed out by ProfessorUre that it can scarcely be an accident that theTyrannyofAthensendedalmostimmediatelyaftertheremovalofoneofitstworoots;theminesofthecountryoftheThraciansandPaionians.[262]Whichisto

saythatifthesourceofbulliononwhichthemoneypowerofaso-calledbankerwas founded, petered out, or was lost to enemy action, the tyrant he hadpromotedcouldbediscardedashavingnofurtherpurpose.Suchactivitiesbeingorderedbyaclassofpersonswhohadachieveddespoticpower in the same period of history, roughly the eighth, seventh, and sixthcenturiesB.C.,theperiodwhichsawextensivedevelopmentofmininginallofEurope includingLydia,Cyprus,Spain,[263]Carpathia,Epirus, Illyria,Thraceand Greece itself, without mentioning the flow of precious metal plunderderivingfromthedepredationsoftheAssyrian,canonlyhavebeentheresultofa policy deep laid, and far reaching in its consequences. This policy can onlyhavebeencreatedinsomecentralpointfromwhichflowedthespringsofworldpower suchaswouldhavedesigned,wittingly,orunwittingly, somuchof theancientworld.The same period also coincided with the development of mining tools ofhardenediron,highlyefficientmethodsofreductionofsilverbearingores,[264]andthegrowthofanadequatesupplyofslavelabourfromvarioussourcesandduetotheabovementioneddepredationsoftheAssyrianetc.;allofwhichwasso necessary towards profitable mining operations at that time. It may notunreasonablybesupposed that thiscentralpointwasstill in thecitiesof lowerMesopotamia, such as Babylon, Ur, Lagash, Uruk etc. From this area themerchanthouseswouldhavecontinued tohave spread theiroperations aroundtheworld[265] in the sameway, as, it is recorded, hadbeendone fromUr asmuchasfifteenhundredyearsbeforeduringtheso-calledIIIrdDynasty;[266]orfor that matter during the period of seeming glory and empire that so oftenfollowstheaccessiontopowerofprivatemoneycreativeforceinanyorganizedand potentially vigorous state. A most outstanding instance of the latter inmodern timesexists in theperiodofempire thatcame toBritain following theestablishmentoftheBankofEnglandin1694A.D.[267]The silverwhich the international bankers drew fromGreeceetc. at a ratio of10:1ormore,wouldhavebeenusedinsettlementoftradebalanceswithIndia,Bactria,orChina,ataratioof6:1orless,astogold.AccordingtoAlexanderdelMar, thismovement of silver to theOrient fromAthens,was arranged by theAthenian Government;[268] but except this early Athenian Government wasfrontingforthebankers,thiscouldnothavebeenso.Internationaltradebalanceshavealwaysbeensettledfromtheworld’sbankingcapitalorheadquartersoftheinternational bankers or bullion brokers, such as was London during the lastthree centuries until very recently. In the days of which we write, this worldbankingcapitalwasstilllocatedinBabyloncity,itmayreasonablybeassumed.

ThemoneyofthecitiesoflowerMesopotamiaandthewholeNearEastforthatmatter,hadbeenbasedforalongtimeontheinternationalvaluationofsilverbyweight, and therefore these cities had long ago sought to obtain control of allsourcesofsupplyofsuchsilver.Asfarbackas2470B.C.,KingManishtusuofAkkadinvadedSouthernPersiawithnopurposeotherthangainingcontrolofitssilver mines.[269]When the rapid expansion of mining, as mentioned above,broughtontothemarketsoftheworldarelativedelugeofsilverandgold,thelatter taking no mean second place, those groups controlling Internationalfinance fromBabylonia, andpossibly fromNineveh,decidednodoubt to seekforfurtherworldstoconquer,asitwere.Thethingwastofindausefortheirsurfeitofbullion,particularlysilver,andofwhichmetal theywere now in a position to arrange extensive supplies to anybankerwhowouldbeabletousesuchadvantageouslytowardsthepromotionoftheirgeneralworldwideplans.ThegrowingcommercialandindustrialvigouroftheGreeksshowedthemananswertothisproblem.Thusthesignificanceoftheadvent of the tyrants as promoters of heavy public spending ofmoneys basedoriginally,onthesilverstandardsofBabylonia,cannotbedismissed.Thepolicyofthebankers,forwhomthetyrantsfronted,wouldbetospreadthemainpractice,atleasttheirmostprofitableone,ofprivatemoneycreation,oneway or the other. Using silver as base, they knew full well the tremendouspossibilities that existed towards the creation of an abstract money whoseequallyefficientunitscost themnomore thanentryby theslavescribeon theclay tablet that sufficed as his ledger. Such policy spread, together withcompetitioninmanufacture,theneedforthatwhichtheinternationalbankersofthatday,facelessasinthisday,loanedagainstcollateralasmoney.Thismoneywasbasedon thesilverbullion they let itbeknowntheywerepossessedoforheldondepositfortheircustomers,betheyindividual,corporatebody,orstate.It is reasonable to assume that therewas little difference as between that firsttangible money of private issuance in England as denoted by the goldsmithsreceiptsofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies[270]andthemoneyasissuedbythebanksoftheGreekcities.Itsefficacyintheexchanges,althoughitwasinrealitynomorethanahighlyorganizedsystemofcounterfeit,derivedfromthetotal secrecymaintainedby those involved in its issue.Littleclear informationexistsonthissubjecttodayasinancienttimesandmuchofwhich,evenifallthemillionsof tabletsunearthed inMesopotamiaareever translatedandevaluatedbyscholarscompetenttodoso,mustremainasbutfaintoutline.One such faint outline of particular interest, though not deriving from theMesopotamiantablets,isdiscernibleinthisinformationofServiusTullius,slave

kingofearlyRome:“According to Charisius, Varro wrote:Nummum argenteum flatum primum aServioTulliodicunt,isIIIIscripulismajorfuitquamnunc.”“Itissaidthatsilvermoney was first made by Servius Tullius and was IIII scripulis heavier thannow.”[271]AsitwasServiusTulliuswhoorderedtheestablishmentofthecensusatRomethat gave the basis for both taxation and military service, both essentialorganizationsas toa statebeing takenoverby internationalmoneypower, thetruthofthisstatementbyVarroneednotbequestioned.It is interesting to note in passing that althoughServiusTulliuswas a usurperundoubtedlyofslaveorigin,LivycarefullydrawshiminrathermorefavourablelightthantheTarquins,particularlySuperbus,thelastoftheline.BythetimeofLivy(59B.C.-17A.D.)themostpowerfulsectoroftheRomanpopulation,theequites or knights, was taken over by wealthy freedmen and enfranchisedforeigners.[272] Livy, when writing in that day under the threat of LexMajestus[273]would clearly have seen the value of finding and extolling truevirtueinthecharacteroftheslaveking,whethersuchvirtuewasthereornot.However,ifServiusactuallydidexist,andthereseemstobeaschoolofthoughtamongstthescholarsthatquestionshisexistence,thenitwouldbemorelikelyasone who had raised himself up in a similar manner to Gyges of Lydia,[274]having at the same time a special backing by localmoney power; possibly inopposition to thatmoneypoweremigrant fromCorinth toTarquinii inEtruria,which,accordingtoLivy,wastheTarquinfamily.The establishment of a silver standard as a base formonetary issuancemightverywellhavebeentheirrewardfortheirassistancetowardsraisingServiustothe throne. The Census, supposedly established by Servius, while being thefoundation of the organization of the whole state for defence or aggression,would give that money power a complete picture of the people it was theirintention, one way or another, to exploit. In the same manner the doomsdaybooksoftheMiddleAges,whilerecordingforthereferenceoftheking,allthatin thekingdomwas, alsomadevaluable record for themoneycreativepower,whichhadkings,nobles,ecclesiastics,andthecommonpeople,groaningunderaburdenofdebtquite impossible tomeet (whichcertainlywasoneof themaincausesof themoodof theEnglish thatgaverise toMagnaCarta,andof thoseevents which followed until 1290 A.D. when the tax-collecting and money-lending classes, such as had followed the “Conqueror” across the EnglishChannel,werefinallyevicted).[275]

In a similarmanner some2500years later,William III ofEngland, owinghisthronetotheintriguesoftheinternationalbullionbrokersatAmsterdam,grantedthemasrewardthatwhichtheywantedmorethananythingonearth,whichwastheestablishmentofthelegalityofanundeterminableamountofabstractmoney,ledgercreditpageentry,orpapernotes, tobebasedon theirgold loans to thestate,andthecreationofa“Bank”atLondonfromwhichtheymightissuethismoneyknown as “Credit” as loan against real collateral throughout thewholekingdom.Thisbankwastobegiventheappearanceofastatedepartment.Inthiscase such status was obtained by permitting it to be named: “The Bank ofEngland.”[276]Consideringtheaboveknowninstanceofrewardtointernationalmoneypowersfortheirservices,farreachinginitsconsequences,andmanyotherinstancesofwhichthereisneithertimenorplacetowriteherewith,conjectureinrespecttothe establishmentof a silver standard atRomebyServius,maynot be too farafield.ThatRomans later rejected this standardasabase for theirmoney,andthecalamityandlossofsovereigntyitbroughtthemalsoisclear,forthereisnofurther reference to silver money until that period when Rome was driftingtowardstheall-outstrugglewithCarthage: theyearof theestablishmentof theboardofMoneyersforthestrikingofbronze,silverandgoldmoney(289B.C.):tresviri aereargentoauro flando feriurado;[277] therebynodoubt yielding totheimportunitiesoftheInternationalBullionbrokers,withtheensuingoutbreakofwarthusbeingmadeacertainty.One of the main purposes of those extensive public works which almostinvariably followed the establishment of a tyranny, would be towards theestablishmentofsomekindofNationalDebt, inwhich is,andwas in thatdaytoo, most control and profit to those manipulating international finance. Thatthere is no evidence of the existence of such state indebtedness in those daysdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatsuchdidnotexist.Excavation,orothermethods,2500yearsfromnowwouldnotrevealthisindebtednessforinstanceinthecaseof England, so far as its relation to the Bank of Englandwas concerned, for,unbelievable though it may seem, there is “remarkable absence of officialrecords”forthefirsthundredyearsofthebank’sexistence![278]Inthetimeofthetyrants,failuretokeepbooksorrecordswouldbeevenmoreofacertainty.Valuableby-productsoftheirextensivepublicworksprogrammeswouldbe:

1.Thepeasantswouldleavethelandenticedbythemoneywagesofferedfor work on these projects, and the pleasures and excitement that could bebought in thecitywithsuchmoneywages.There,once theconstructionboomwasover,theyformedaleaderless,hungry,andeasilyembittered“Proletariat.”

2. Thesame“Proletariat”couldbemanipulatedbytheagentsofMoneyPower as amob, towards suchpoliticalpurposes as suchMoneyPowermightdesire; including, besides removal of the natural nobility, removal of the so-calledtyrantwhenhispurposewasserved.ProfessorUre,authorofTheOriginsofTyranny,venturesasclosetothetruthinrespect to the meaning of a tyranny as any others who have written on thesubject.AlthoughattributingtheriseofthetyrantstoMoneyPowerhedoesnotdefinewhat thisMoneyPowermaybe;whethermoneycreativepower,or justthose of considerable possession and treasure. In this omission he cannot beblamed.ProfessorUreforinstancetracesthesourceofthepowerofPeisistratus,Tyrant of Athens 561-527 B.C. according to Herodotus,[279] as being partlyfrom those silver mines in the district in Thrace through which flows theStrymonriver,andpartlyfromtheLaurionminesinAttica.However, itmustbepointedoutthatamanwhoapparentlywasaminingmanand lived thereforewithin that restriction,wouldbeunlikely tounderstand thefinershadesofmonetaryemission.Itseemsquitereasonabletosupposethattheclass of persons hidden within the Aramaic speaking middle classes thatpermeatedthewholeLevantandNearEastduringthefirstMillenniumB.C.,andwhose businesswasmoney and all that stemmed therefrom, in that theywereinterferingwiththatwhichclearlywasapowertobeexercisedonlybytheverygods themselves,were scarcely likely to instruct their instrument, Peisistratus,therein.Therefore,itmaybeconcluded,thetyrantrosebecausehewastheonewhohadfoundfavourwiththeall-pervadingmoneypoweroftheday.Hewasnotmoneypoweritself!In that most of the great public works of the Greek cities had been carriedforward by the tyrants is the evidence; for as the secretive money power oftoday,worldwideinscope,thrivesprimarilyupongovernmentloansdirectedtopurposes of war and the enormous spending that wars involve in order tostrengthen their outrageous claims against the nations, in ancient days similarheavyspendinghadtobedevised.Inthatday,aspreviouslypointedout,agreatAcropolisorsomeothersuchmagnificentpublicworkwithwhoseconstructionandfinancialorganizationMoneyPowerwasfullyconversant,sufficedequallywellwithwar;which, all said and done,with hardy aggressive peoples couldalsoproveconsiderabledangertothemselves,ortheirpurposes.So, with the tyrant, we see the force by which Greece, previously living innatural order, was moulded to an instrument more suitable to those bankers:privatemoneycreativepower,who, lurking in theshadeasneeds theyhad to,burned with rancour at the natural rulers who but treated them as stewards,

althoughtheessenceofpowerforallthat,layintheirhandsformorethansuchrulersunderstood.ThuswerethesimpleandindustriousandbraveGreeksnowraiseduptobethenew vehicle through which the final and destructive purposes of thosecontrolling international bullion and slave trades would be achieved, as theyshepherd the peoples of the world further down that road of no hope forthemselvesortherestofmankind.

APERGAMUMANDPITANE

ristotle, author of some lucid thinking on the subject ofmoney, if notruthlessly penetrative, was himself married to the niece of a bankerinstalledasco-tyrant(or“FrontMan”)withanothersuchtyrant-banker.

“(Hermias theTyrant ofAssos andAtarneus)was a eunuch slave of a certainbanker:hewenttoAthensandattendedthelecturesofPlatoandAristotle,andreturning,he shared the tyrannyofhismasterwhohadpreviously secured theplacesaroundAtarneusandAssos.SubsequentlyhesucceededhimandsentforAristotleandmarriedhisniecetohim.[280].Inthisslave,banker,philosopheranddespotLeaf[281]seesatyrantwhoowedhispositiontohiswealth.HequotesEuaion,thepupilofPlato,who,notfartotheNorthatLampsacus“lentmoneytothecityonsecurityoftheAcropolis,andwhenthecitydefaulted,wantedtobecomeatyrant.”[282]While bankers in the present dream of entrapping the whole world via their“UnitedNations,”inthepasttheycontentedthemselveswiththeentrappingofacity!Justas in thepresent theycreateanentirely falsepictureof thenatureoftheiroperationsandcarefullypromote the legend theyare lending thepublic’smoney, so they did in antiquity, we may rest assured. No doubt they spreadexactly the same story in the time of the tyrants, and people in that day,understandingnomoreaboutmoney than theydo today,believed it.[283]Thefollowingmaybeacceptedasinstanceoftheiractivitiesinancienttimes..Pergamum, that city that arose in South West Asia Minor, lasting asindependentfrom283-133B.C.,wasoriginallyfoundedasthefortifiedtreasuryof Lysimachus, successor to Alexander in Thrace. This fort and the treasurethereinamountingto9000talents,wasinthechargeofaeunuchstewardnamedPhiletairoswhojustifiedthetrustreposedinhiminsofarasthemanagementofthistreasurewasconcerned.DuringthequarrelsoftheDiadochoiorSuccessorstoAlexander,presumablyatthestrategicmoment,hetransferredhisallegiancefrom Lysimachus to Seleucus, doubtless on condition he be guaranteed hiscontinuedpositionasMasteroftheTreasury.DespitethemurderofSeleucusbyPtolemyKeraunus,thewilyPhiletairosclungtothefortunesoftheSeleucids,probablyunderstandingintheirparticularcase,the political purposes of the International Money Power of Babylonia andAlexandria in these respects, and ingratiated himself with Antiochus, son ofSeleucus,bybuyingthebodyofSeleucusfromPtolemyforreturntoAntiochus,

[284]thus,throughitallmaintaininghispositionatPergamum.Philetairos proceeded to use the treasure to which he had so masterfullyestablishedalmost total right,withaskillwhichcouldonlysuggest training inthemoneyshopsofBabylonia,orAlexandria,orascloseadvisor,onesotrained.Theconceptionofthe9000talentsoftreasureinitselfbeingthesolemaintainingforcebehindtheextendedpowerofPergamum,wouldbequainttosaytheleast;asquaintindeedasthestoryofthe6000talentsofsilverheldinreserveintheAcropolisatAthensasthesolefinanceswithwhichthePeloponnesianwarwasfought;orinalaterdayofthegoldsupposedlyexistinginthevaultsoftheBankofEnglandoritspredecessor,anditsparentbank,theBankofAmsterdam(thevaultsofthelatteroninspectionbyNapoleon[285]afteroccupationofHolland,proving absolutely bare!). 9000 talents drawn on for military and civilianexpenditures,extensivebribes,etc.,wouldnotgoveryfar.ReturningagaintoProfessorAndreades,inhisFinancesDeGuerred’alexandrelegrand,[286]theannualexpendituresofAlexanderduringtheearlieryearsofhiscampaigningwere5000-7000talents,whichwould,inthefirstyearortwo,certainlyuntilthebattleofIssus(Oct.333B.C.),havebeeninhardcashforthemost part, to use the terminology of today’s banker; that is, coinedmoney orsilverbullion,orthegoldbullionofwhichtheminesatPhillipihadmadesteadyyield. In the later years of campaigning, Andreades estimated the annualexpenditures ofAlexander at 15,000 talents. If themoney for this expenditurederived from coined preciousmetal plunder, it would go even less far, for innewlyoccupiedterritories,theexploitationofthemiseriesofthepeopleusualtothese circumstanceswould exist, and therewouldbe a collapseof “Credit” orabstractmoney,untilreorganizationsetin.Therewouldbetotaldisturbanceofthe revenues deriving from taxes. Silver, particularly, would either moveeastward against luxury trading, which seems to continue asmuch as ever insuchtimes,orwoulddisappearintohoards.During the firstMillenniumB.C., the ratioof silver togoldneverwentbelow10:1, being usually 13:1 in Europe and the so-called Middle East. In fartherBactria,IndiaandChina,itwasrarelymorethan6:1andinsomepartsaslowas1:1.[287]Therefore,oncepreciousmetal coinagewas spent,particularly silvercoinage, and passed into the hands of merchants, contractors, etc., finallyreturningtothebankersormoneychangers,withthatfieldforassuredprofitbysettlementoforientaltradebalanceswithcoinedsilverorsilverbullionsuchasclearlyexisted,asaccordingtoGresham’slaw,[288]itslocalcirculatingvolumemightbeassumedtodecreaserapidly,andwithoutadoubtdidsodecrease.ItmightsafelybesaidthatthemoneypowerwhichenabledPergamumtosecure

controlling interest over the cities of Pitane andCyzicus,[289]was not drawnfromwhatmight be left of that store of 9000 talents (the loan in the case ofPitane,probablyaveryminortransaction,wassufficienttosubstantiallyeasetheburden of a debt of 380 talents). Itwould have been part of a credit inflationwhichwouldhaveusedthe9000talents,orthelegendinrespectthereto,asitsbase,andmorethanlikelythoseinterestsholdingthedebtofthecityofPitanewere themselves indebted by another ledger entry transaction to Pergamum.Thusthat“CreditMoney”transactionwherebypitanewasloanedmoneywouldbe no more than an entry in the books of pergamum as a credit to pitane,automatically being thence debited and transferred to the credit columnof theholderoftheloanaspreviouslyexistingagainstpitane,andthusreturninghimtosolvency.Inotherwords,Pergamum,atcostofpen,ink,vellum,[290]andslavescribeorperhaps(andmorelikely)costofclaytabletandstylusbookentry,wasnowinaposition to dictate the political affairs of Pitane. Perhaps the agent for theBabylonianbankersortheirAlexandriancounterparts,asthepreviousholderofthePitaneloanmayhavebeen,consequentlyrecoveredhisliquidpositionsofarasPergamumwasconcerned,andwasnowabletolookaroundagainformoreprofitableinvestments.The extent of the semi-military operations of the Attalid Money Power ofPergamumwas shown above all by their purchase of the islandofAegina forthirty talents.[291]This island theymost likelysetupasacentre forentre-pôttradeandafinancialoutpost,i.e.,“BranchBank”:whichhadtobeinoppositiontothedecayingathenianmoneypowerwhichatthattimedidnothavethesilverresourcesofitsearlierdaysonwhichtobaseitsmoneypower,andthelegendofitsgreatwealth.TheLaurionmineswerepeteringout,andthosemarkets inSouthRussia,[292]Thrace, etc., formerly supplied byAthenianmanufactured products, were fastfailingatthetimeofPergamumandtheAttalids;havingsetuptheirownlocalmanufacturies. Athens, no longer centre of an Empire, neither military, orfinancial power, with fewer markets ready to settle debit trade balances withthoseslavessomuchrequiredforsilvermining,ashadbeenSouthRussia,waslikely just a pleasant place to live in; the storms brewed by settlement ofInternationalMoneyPowerasindaysgoneby,passedover.AsPergamummarksthebeginningofthatperiodwhenDelosandRhodeswereleadingmoneyandslavemarketsoftheworld,itwouldseemthatsomekindofagreementmusthaveexistedbetweenthosewhocontrolledtradeandfinanceatallthesepoints.

Consideringtheessentialsecrecythatnecessarilyattendsthecorruptoperationsof so-calledbankers, itmaybequite reasonable to suppose, that inPergamumitself,inAegina,Delos,Rhodesandforthatmatter,adozenothertradecentres,therewas a class of personswho verywell understood each other’s interests,whovery likelywere relatedby racialand religiouscustom,andwhosesupra-nationalismtranscendedallcityboundariesandbordersofstates.Moneywas their trade,and theymarriedonlyamongst theirowngroupas thebest protection towards maintaining inviolable the secret of that financialhegemonytheyhadestablishedinternationally,andwhichinawayhadputthemabovekingship;nodoubtinthefeveredimaginationofsomeofthem,onewiththegods.Through the illusionof theestablishmentofsilveras thestandardofvalueinternationallyornationally,andwhosesupplytheytotallycontrolled,itistrue, they actually did wield that power which formerly had been the soleprerogativeofthegodsinthecitiesofancientSumeria,throughtheirsonsuponearth, the Priest-Kings; even if only as the venal and self-interestedmen thattheywere.The activities of this group towards the instigation of wars, and disturbancesneverceased.Outof theneedsofpeoples indespaircame theiradvantageandstrengthened control; and because they controlled the fiscal affairs of thetemples, whose very existence became completely intertwined with theiractivities,[293] it may safely be said that they controlled the oracularpronouncementswhichsooftencoulddecideyeaornaytowar.Outofrumourgenerally theyguided themoodsof thepeoples.Suchwarswerenecessary,asmuchas today, towards themaintenanceof theirgreat arms industryand theircontinuedcontrolthroughthesaleofthebestandnewestofweaponstothatnew“conqueror”whopromisedmostofalltoservetheirpurposesintherenewaloftheirstocksoftreasure,sonecessarytomaintain“confidence,”andtheirstocksofmineslaves.waralsorevived that feverishandcompetitivedemandfor thattreasure;andinthehurly-burlyitcreated,merchantsgladlyacceptedasmoneyanything offered from seemingly reputable sources including that abstractmoneydenotedbyledgercreditpageentry;theloanofwhichbutcostthelendertheentrybyslavescribeontheclaytablet,thoughimmenserealwealthmightbeofferedas“collateral”asagainst failure to repaysuchalleged loanby thedatestipulated.The far-flung activities of Apollonius, economic manager to PtolemyPhiladelphus, as recordedbyProfessorRostovtsev,[294]givebut aglimpseofthisinterlockingcontrolbyanAramaicspeakingmiddleclass,withinwhichtheHebrewmay alsohavebeen an interwoven thread.Perhaps theweft, although

nottheweftandthewarp.For indeed there is no evidence that he was all, and that such magnates thatcontrolled the economy of the ancient world were many of them Jews.Nevertheless the claim by the Universal Jewish Encyclopedia[295] that theHebrews,asapeoplewhoabsorbed foreigncultures,yet rigidlymaintain theirnational identity caused them to be most appreciated by the brilliant andambitiousAlexander,shouldnotbelightlydismissed.AlexanderwastraineeofAristotle,who,ashusbandofthenieceofHermias,Banker-TyrantofAssosandAtameus,certainlyshouldhavecometolearnsomethingofthetruemeaningofMoney Power.Alexander therefore, presumably had substantial understandingofthemeaningofmoneyrelativetoKingship.TheHebrew,asequallyskilledinmoneyandtradeastheArameanandequallyfluentinAramaic,sincehewasestablishedinmostoftheimportantcitiesoftheancientworld,fromthePillarsofHerculestoIndiainwhichAramaic,certainlyexisted as lingua franca, at least in those citiesbetween India and theLevant,couldverywellhavebeenamajorpartofthatvehicleconstructedbyAlexandertospreadhisdreamofPan-Hellenism.HisspecialconcessionstoJaddua,HighPriest in Jerusalem in 333 B.C. in respect to those Jews of both Judea andBabylon, and also in respect to the foundation of Alexandria,[296] certainlysuggestdeferencetoapowerfarbeyondthatpowervisiblyrepresentedbythatrelativelysmallgroupofpeoplewhodweltatJerusalemandonthehighlandsbywhich it was surrounded. According to the Universal Jewish Encyclopedia:during the siege of Tyre byAlexander, Jaddua,High Priest of Jerusalem, notwishing to offend Persia and Darius, had refused Alexander the troops andprovisions he sought.[297] After the fall of Tyre, Alexander advanced onJerusalem,ancientallyofTyreastheassistanceofHiram,KingofTyretowardsthebuildingoftheTempleofSolomonwillcalltomind;[298]undoubtedlywiththeintentionofreducingthatcityshouldnosatisfactorysettlementbereached.AsAlexanderneared theTemple, so thestorygoes, theHighPriestclothed infullvestmentsofgoldandpurple,andthePriestsintheirsacerdotalrobes,andagreatmultitudedressedinwhite,wentout tomeethim,thedecisionhavingnodoubt been arrived at that discretionwas the better part of valour.Alexander,seeing theHigh Priest and hismitre onwhichwaswritten theName ofGod,reverencedtheNameandsalutedtheHighPriest.Hesaidhehadseenafiguresuch as the High Priest in a dream, who had told him he would give himLordshipoverthePersianHosts.ThenAlexanderenteredthecity,and,aswashisusualcustomwithsubmissivecities,hesacrificedtotheirGod.

Thefact thathegavetheJewsofPalestinesuchspecialconcessionsasayearsremission of taxes which was also extended to the Jews of Babylonia, andspeciallyinvitedanyJewtosettleinhiscityofAlexandria,wouldsuggestthatthe visible help refused him by Jaddua had been more than made up for byassistanceofalessvisiblenaturesuchas,itmightreasonablybeexpected,hadhelpedtosecurethefallofBabylon,toCyrus,ancestorofDarius,andfounderoftheAchaemenidDynastyofPersia.[299]ThestressontheAramaicspeakingmiddleclassofallthose“Empires”fromtheassyrian, until the successors to alexander, and perhaps beyond, is more thanjustifiedinviewoftheresultsofthestudiesofvariousscholars.ifaramaicwasthelanguageofofficialdomundertheachaemenidrulersofthepersianempire,and remained so under alexander and the successors, it may reasonably besupposed that the official and merchant classes that used aramaic as theireverydaylanguage,hadgonefarbeyondthebordersofthepersianempire,bothtotheeastandtothewest.ashasbeenpreviouslypointedout,withthataramaicinterstratummoved also to the east andwest, the agents of thatmoneypowercentredinmesopotamia,heirtothesecrets,notonlyofthesumerianpriesthood,butofthepriesthoodofmuchmoreancienttimes,sellingastheywentalongtheideaoftheuseofpreciousmetalmoney.Nosoonerhadshort sighted rulers instituted theuseofpreciousmetalmoney,thantheagentsofsuchmoneypower,towhombynowtherulerwasbeholdenforsuppliesofbullion,weresettingup“modern”bankinghouses.inshortorderthevariouspracticesofdubiouslegalitythatarethefoundationsofsuchmoneypowerwouldbeinstituted;firstlythatofthecreation,relativelywithoutlimit,ofabstractunitsofexchangeasthroughtheinstitutionof ledgercreditpageentrymoney,underwhatevercover tocreate legality, andwhich thebankerclaimedwas backed by his “Credit”!--(As if he could have more “Credit” than anysovereign people and their ruler!)--and which was usually backed in finalanalysisbylittleornothingotherthanthesanctionofafoolishprince.Secondly,fromthepointofviewofmaintenanceof“confidence”sofaraslessertradewasconcerned,wastheissueofintrinsicallyvaluelessfacsimilesofexistingpreciousmetal coinage, for every one of which a customer who accepted them in theexchanges, thought that therewasapreciousmetaloriginal lodged in the localtempleoracropolis.ToourLordJesusChrist,Aramaicwastheeverydaylanguagethatwouldhaveenabled Him to travel, and converse freely with scholar, poet, priest, andmerchant, certainly as far East as Peshawar. Aramaic is used in the SyrianChristianChurch,intheJewishliturgy,andstilllivesinthevillagesoftheAnti-

Lebanon, inSouthEastAnatolia, andon theEastern shoresofLakeUrmia inArmenia.[300]ThustheopinionofEmilG.H.Kraeling[301]thattheArameanwasthevehiclebywhich the socalledeternalvaluesofHellas and Israelwerecommunicatedthroughout the Orient, in a way concurs with the Opinion of the JewishEncyclopedia referred to above.[302] That those values denoted by Hellaswithered and almost disappeared, while those as denoted by Israel throughChristianity, flourished until relatively recently, is merely further proof thatmoneypowermustdestroythebodyonwhichitfeeds,andisnourished,andthebodyitfedonatthetimehereinrecorded,thatis,immediatelyafterAlexander,wasHellas,andindeed,Israelitself.Itcannotflourishalongsideblindbeliefandsimplefaithwhichinstinctivelytearoff its impudentclaimsastheygnawtheirwayintotheveryheartoftheTreeofLife.Nevertheless, out of Babylonianmoney power itself, oblivious it seems to itsownrealselfinterest,carryingChristianityasfarasthoselimitsuntowhichitstotal hegemony prevailed, Christianity itself rose as an island of love andgoodnessinanoceanofhatred,confusion,greed,anddepravitythathadcometoexistastheultimateresultofatleastthreethousandyearsofthedepredationsofsuchprivatemoneycreativepower.Withoneconvulsiveshrugit threwoffthesnakelikecoils,reestablishingthereafterthenaturalorderoflife,ofgod,priest-kingandpriesthoodandthepeople,alllivingaswasordained,withfaith,piety,andsurebelief.Thereafter,forathousandyears,InternationalMoneyPowercanonly be faintly discerned, as a smouldering ember; a fire not entirelyextinguished;evidence thereofbeinganoccasionalwispof smokeas itwaitedforadaywhenacertainevilwindmightblow,andflamescomeforthagaintodealmantotalwoe.

BVOICESFROMTHEDUST

efore ever the lust seized theGreeks for the preciousmetal pieces onwhichwererecordedtheirlawsinrespecttotheunitofexchange;thatis,beforeGreecebecamecompletelythrall totheinternationalbullionand

slaveinterests,moneyhadexistedamongtheminvariousformsforalongtimepreviously.[303] Little knowledge remains of such systems of exchange asexistedpriortotheassumptionofinternationalbullionandslaveinterestsoftotalhegemony over a great deal of Greece, but exist such systems did, and thesignificanceofitsmonetaryunitsissuedagainststateexpenses,andasopposedtoissuebyprivatepersonsasagainstcollateralsecurity,wasunderstood,astheevidenceoftheSpartaofLycurgusindicates.OnthissubjectBabelon,FrenchNumismatistofthe19thCenturysays:“Havingestablished the existence of these salmons or spits of iron that were thecirculatingmoneyof thePewloponnese, itwillbeeasyforus todefineclearlythepartplayedbythisprince(Pheidon).Hewasnotinventorofmoney,butthesame as Servius Tullius, a reformer. He introduced into the Peloponnese adefinitesystemofweightsandmeasures, insteadof thenumeroussystems thathad thrown confusion and disorder into commercial relations; he adapted theweight of the new money to the new system of weights, and he officiallyabolishedtheoldandcumbersomeironmoney,ofwhichheconsecratedseveralsamplesintheTempleatArgos.”[304]Numismatists airilydismiss the suggestionsof the symbolsofmoneyasbeingindicated inancient timeson leather,wood,orbakedclay,whichare found inboth Cedrenus, Suidas, and Seneca,[305] but study of so-called primitivecurrenciesoftoday,suchastheshellmoneysofOceania,leavelittledoubtthatourforefathers,fullyunderstandingofthetruephilosophyofmoney,mayverywellhaveusedsuchintrinsicallyvaluelessmaterialstorecordthevaluesoftheirtangiblemoney, prior to the commencement of preciousmetal coinage; in thesame way as the Melanesians and Micronesians have used shells for suchpurpose,fromtimeimmemorial.[306]Therecanbenodoubtthatthosesocialorganizationssuchasexistedpriortotheestablishmentofpreciousmetalsasa standardbywhichvalueswereassessed,wereoften,inthecaseoftheNorthernMediterraneanandAnatolia,erectedonastructure,ofwhichintegralpartwassystemofexchangeconstructedaccordingtotheteachingsofsuchphilosophy.

However, that the numismatists dismiss the significance of such money andquestionitashavingeverexisted,isnotsurprisingconsideringthattheymerelyrecord the money towards the creation of which the controllers of bullionsupplied the material; thus in a way controlling its issue and such order ofsociety as it gave rise to, and therefore the numismatists themselves.Consequently the dismissal by the numismatists of othermaterials formoneyand its symbols, not internationally desirable or controllable by their mastersmightbeexpected.According to Professor Fritz Heichelheim in his Ancient Economic History,Suidasascribesthemonetaryuseofleatherand“ostrakina”(piecesofshellandpottery)totheromansprevioustonumapompilius.shellsappearonthecoinsofmagna graecia, especially those of tarentum,whichmay be an indication thatshell money was known in the italy[307] of historical memory, at that time.OystershellsdiscoveredbyHeinrichSchliemanintheRoyalgravesatMycenaetogetherwithobsidianweapons,indicatethatinanagewhenobsidianweaponswerestillinuse,alsoremainedrespectforcertainshellsthatinformertimeshadbeen evincement of stored wealth.[308] But equally as any other, such acurrencyonlyhadvalueinsomuchasitcarriedwithitthewilloftheruler.IntheHittitelanguagetherearemanywordsalmostidenticaltotheircounterpartinLatin:[309]TroyfelltotheGreeksunderAgamemnonin1250B.C.accordingtothemoderndating and the opinion ofHerodotus.ThatTroywas the outpost of theHittiteempirethatcontrolledtheDardanelles,andthattherulersofTroyspokeaHittitelanguage, is reasonable supposition.[310]ThedestructionofBog-HazKoi, theHittitecapitalisnowacceptedasbeing1225B.C.Thisevent,whichcouldonlyhave taken place as the result of investment by experienced, disciplined, andwellorganized forces,withanexcellent engineeringcorps, considering that somany well walled cities had fallen before them, brought the Hittite world tofragmentation.[311]ThereforeduringtheyearsfromthetimeofthecrossingoftheDardanellesandthe sackofTroy, to the timeof the total collapse thatmusthave followed thedestruction of Bog-Haz Koi, refugees would have sought freedom by sailingwestward,whichdirection it seemswas theonlyway togo.To theNorthandNorth-West were the “Peoples of the Sea,” to the south-east was Assyria,obviously ally of the same “Peoples of theSea,” and to the south,Ugarit andAlalakh were empty ruins, and the coast to the sinai border occupied by theenemiesofthehittites.

Therefore it seems reasonable that the legend of the settlement of Aeneas,refugeefromTroyintheterritoryofLatinusasrecordedbyLivy[312]thesameas most legends, had a basis of fact. This is further shown by the closeresemblancebetweentheHittite,Trojan,Latinlanguagesaspointedoutabove.AccordingtoDawson[313]theproductionof leather intheHittiteworldwasastate monopoly. Such monopoly of leather production would suggest thepossibility,ifnotthelikelihoodofleatherasthematerialonwhichthesymbolsoftheirmoneywererecorded.ForanystatetobeasstrongasindeedwastheHittitestateforarelativelylongperiodof time,and,moreover,stable, ithadtocontrol,notmerelytheissueofthe unit of exchange, but also thematerial of which its visible symbols weremade;which,ofcoursehadtobetotalmonopoly.ThefactthattheHittitestateappears to have been one constructed to the same order as those earlyMesopotamiancities,thatis,ofGod,Priest-Kingandpriesthoodandthedevotedlivinginnaturalorder,makesthisdeductionthemorelikely.The similarity of language, together with the legend relative to Troy wouldcertainly suggest the forefathers of the patricians of Rome derived fromNorthern Anatolia, and therefore from within the Hittite (or Bog-Haz Koi)sphereofinfluence.Ifso,woulditnotbenaturalforthemtoreinstitutethesamemonetarysystemamongstthemselvesastheyhadknownintheirhomelands?Thenumismatistsandhistoriansdate theAesGrave,consideredby themtobethe first true metallic currency of Rome, from 338 B.C.[314] accepting theopinionofProfessorHaeberlin.[315]What thendidRomeuseformoneypriorto that date considering the relatively exact property valuations and taxes ofServius?Thattheyusedroughlumpsofcopper(AesRude)aseverydaymoney,cannotbeaccepted.ThereisnovestigeofadoubtthatarefinedsystemexistedbynomeansunrelatedtotheexchangesystemsdefinitelyknowntohaveexistedinGreece,andinwhichaformof“Credit,”toooftenaprivatelycreatedabstractmoney,wasmadeuseof.Thissystemmayhavebeennomorerelatedtosilverbullion,thanitmayhavebeentoanyothercommodity,andinternationalsilverbullioninterestswouldexercisenodefinitecontroltherein.TherewouldbenoreasonwhatsoevertodiscreditSuidas’remarksinrespecttoleather and claymoney previous toNuma Pompilius. The clay “scarabs” stillbeingunearthed inEtruriamayverywell represent evidenceof the clayunits.Leathermoneyofcoursewouldlongsincehaveperished.noristherereasontothink that the fiduciary money of clay undoubtedly issued by the bankers ofathens in the5thCenturyB.C.,[316]was inanywayanewidea.As throughouttheNearEastclaywastheprincipalmediumforthekeepingofrecords,theuse

of clay money follows naturally, and might well be expected in Etruria orwherever the agents of theBabylonian orGreek bankers traded; the clay coinitself also being record; a tangible evincement of the creation of a unit ofexchange,ordivisibleormultiplethereof.AccordingtoLivy,relativetothefinancingofthecavalryofRomeoftheKings:“Eachcenturyhadagrantfromthetreasuryof10.000aesesforthepurchaseofhorses, with a further grant levied on rich widows of 2000 a year for theirfeedingandmaintenance.”[317]IfthentherewasneithermintedsilverorcopperatthetimeofServius,arewetounderstand that the rich widows came to the treasury with bags of pieces ofroughcopper?[318]Wheretaxeswithdrawunitsofexchangefromcirculation,theremustbeaforcewhichinjectssuchunitsofexchangeintothecirculation.Whatthereforewasthesourceofsuchunitsofexchangeormoneysaswereinjectedintothecirculationinorder that thepeopleofRomeof thekingsmight estimate theirworthwithsomeexactitudeandaccordingtoacertainstandard?ClearlythereisnoreasontodoubtthisrecordofLivy.InthePanadectsofJustinian,TenthBook,occursthisremarkablepassagefromJuliusPaulus,jurisconsulofthethirdcenturyofourera:“Theoriginofbuyingandsellingbeganwithexchange.Ancientlymoneywasunknownand thereexistedno termsbywhichmerchandisecouldbepreciselyvaluedbuteveryoneaccordingtothetimesandcircumstances,exchangedthingsuseless tohimagainst thingswhichwereuseful; for itcommonlyhappens thatoneisinneedofwhatanotherhasinexcess.Butasitseldomcoincidedintimethat what one possessed, the other one wanted, or conversely, a device waschosen whose legal and permanent value remedied by its homogeneity thedifficulties of barter. This device being officially promulgated, circulated, andmaintained its purchasing power, not so much from its substance as from itsquantity. Since that time only one consideration in an exchange was calledmerchandise,theotherwascalledprice.”Whether those devices such as governed the exchanges of early Rome andEtruriawereclayorleatherorwooddoesnotreallymatter.Assuchtheyweretruemoneybeing intrinsicallyvalueless,andonlyofvaluebecauseof that lawwhich ordered their acceptance in the exchanges and that they be of value asaccording to their scarcity or otherwise relative to the goods and services forsale.Whatwouldaboveallmatterwouldbetheeasewithwhichtheycouldbecounterfeited, no doubt the source of their ultimate failure, and whether they

were loaned into circulation by private persons against so-called collateral, orpaidintocirculationasagainstgovernmentexpenses,asweretheAesGraveatalaterdate.This fragment fromPaulus repeating thewordsofacommonwealth scholarofwhoseworkeventhenlittleremained,didnomorethanexpresstheopinionsofallthephilosophers-scholarsofantiquity,atleast,thoseofwhomrecordexists.Almostallof themwroteofnumericalorfiduciarysystemsofmoneyasbeingtheonlynatural systems.Noneof them,howeverentered intodiscussionas towhetherissuanceshouldbeasagainststateindebtedness.Itwassoobviouslyanecessityforgoodorderandwell-beinginlife,thatsuchdiscussionneverseemstohaveoccurredtothem.Thesuccessofprivatemonetaryemissioninthisdayand its boldness now that its former criminal activities are recognized andaccepted as inevitable, such men could not even imagine, not even Aristotle,who it is certain by reason of his family connections, must have knownsomethingoftheundercurrentsofthefinancialworldasitexistedatthattime.Aristotle,Plato,Socrates,Zeno,allseemedtohavebeenclearonthesubject,andall lived at a timewhen fiduciary systemswere still in existence, both in theGreekstatesalthoughthereislittlerecord,andelsewhere.[319]Platowasmostclear on the subject and no doubt had studied the numerical system that hadobtainedatSpartanot longbeforewhenhewasayoungman.Livingbetween429B.C.and347B.C.,hemusthavebeenatAthensduringthePeloponnesianWarwhensuchsystemcertainlymuststillhaveexistedinSparta,orhavebeenarecentmemory;evenif,asseemsmostlikely,asaresultofthewar,ithadbeenreplacedbytheAtheniansystemofprivatemoneyissuebasedonthefictionofpreciousmetalsorvaluables in reserve.AsAeschines, alsopupilofPlatowasconversantwith that fiduciary system ofCarthage,[320] it ismore than likelythat Plato was so instructed. As no coinage in precious metal was struck atCarthage itself until 340B.C.,[321] itmay reasonably be supposed that at thetimeofwritingTheLaws,either348B.C.or349B.C., therewouldhavebeenCarthaginian agents at Athens, well able to explain their monetary system toenquirers.OnthesubjectPlatowrote:“FurthertheLaw(oftheidealRepublic)enjoinsthatnoprivateindividualshallpossessorhoardgoldandsilverbullion,buthavemoneyonlyfordomesticuse,suchasisnecessaryfordealingwithartisansandservants,sojournersandslaves.Whereforeourcitizensshouldhaveamoneycurrentamongstthemselvesbutnotacceptabletotherestofmankind.Forforeignexpeditions,journeys,embassies,the expense of heralds (abroad) and such matters, the government must alsopossessafundofcoinsinotherstates.Whenanindividualneedstogoabroad,

lethimobtaintheconsentoftheArchonandgo;butonhisreturnifhehasanysuch money remaining let him deposit it in the treasury and receive anequivalentsuminlocalmoney.Ifheisdiscoveredtohaveconcealedit,letitbeconfiscated,andlethimwhoknowsanddoesnotinform,besubjecttoanathemaanddishonourequallywithhimwhobroughtthemoney,andalsotoafinenotless in amount than that of the universal money which had been broughtback.”[322]GatheringtogetherfurtherfragmentsofevidenceweseethatAristotlelessthan400yearsafterPheidonofArgos,madecomment:“Numisma(Money)byitselfisameredevicewhichhasvalueonlybylaw(Nomos)andnotbynature;sothatachangeofconventionbetween thosewhouse it, is sufficient todeprive itofvalueanditspowertosatisfyourwants.”[323]In The Ethics, Aristotle states further: “By virtue of voluntary convention,Nomismahasbecome themediaofexchange.Wecall itNomismabecause itsefficacyisdue,nottonaturebuttoNomos(Law)andbecauseitisalwaysinourpowertocontrolit.”[324]Thus despite at least four hundred years of control of trade by themasters ofprecious metal bullion, the scholars still clearly understood the actuality ofmoneyandthatitwasanevincementofthelaw.Theystillunderstooditwasbutsomanynumbersinjectedintoacirculationamongstthepeoplerelatingvaluetovalue,andnotinanywayinfluencedbythematerialonwhichthesenumbersaslawswere recorded.The scholarsmust, however, have been aware that in thecaseoftheselawsbeingrecordedonpreciousmetal,iftheconventioninrespecttothevalueoftheunitofexchangewaschanged,sofarasfinancialhouseswithfacilitiesforsmeltingandexportofbullionwereconcerned,therewasnoloss.Ifthechangeinconventionwasdisadvantageoustosuchholderofpreciousmetalcoin,suchcoincouldbereducedtobullionandquietlyexportedtothatcountryofferingthemostadvantagetoholdersofsuchbullion.Tosaythatmoneyassuchbeganwiththestrikingofpreciousmetalcoinageisthereforeincorrect.Thestatementthataninternationalcontrolovermoneycameaboutasaresultofacertaingroupofprivatepersons,membersofwhichwerelocated inallmajorstatesof theworld,creatingamonopolyof thosepreciousmetalsofwhich itssymbolswerecoming tobemade,or,betterput,onwhichtheywereimprinted,wouldbemoretothepoint.The evidence that the earliest coinages in Greece had essentially a localcirculation in noway alters the picture previously outlinedof silvermoney asbeingpartofaninternationalconspiracy.AllGreekstatesapartfromAthensand

Samos,SiphnosandCorcyra,andpossiblyoneortwoothers,hadtoobtainsilverbullion for their coinage from abroad,which necessarily obliged them to dealwith those traderswho specialized in dealing in bullion. Such trade in bullionhadtobeinthehandsofasmallandhighlysecretivegroup,asmuchonaccountofthesourcesofsupplybeingrelativelyfewandscatteredasitwereouttotheendsof theearth,asonaccountof the fact that itwouldbeonlysuchagroupthat could also control those supplies of slave labour and their purchase fromtriumphantpeopleswhosewarlikeactivities,aslikelyasnot,theyhadinstigatedthemselves;slavelaboursonecessarytothesuccessoftheirminingoperations.For example, the fact that the Carthaginianmines of Spain show no signs ofeventheuseoftheordinaryproppingandshoringassociatedwithmining,[325]cannotbutindicatethattheminersweremostlikelycaptivesofwarfromdistantparts,purchasedforasongfromavictoriousgeneral,anddrivenunderthreatofthelash.At that period it would appear, such labour was so plentiful that the cost ofpurchaseofnew slaves,wouldhavebeen less than the cost ofordinary safetyprecautions. The silver mines of Spain as worked by the Romans, showinterestingly enough an entirely different story.[326] All safety methods,including the use of concrete,were used;which also agreeswith the fact thatRome,evenwhensilvermoneywasinuse,particularlyinforeigntrade,sofarasinternalexchangeswereconcerned,hadarelativelyamplesupplyofmoneyforthedetailsofday todayorganization in theovervaluedbronze fiduciaries, themostgrandioseaesanditspartsormultiples.[327]Historyhasprovenoverandoveragainthatapreciousmetalcoinagewillmoveoneway or another towhere itmight realize themost profit either as coin orbullion.Theso-calledlawoftheeconomistsknownasGresham’slawstatesjustthat:“Badmoneydrivesoutthegood.”whichmeansthatthesilverincirculatingwould be replaced by that less intrinsically valuable money, if such alsocirculated, andwhich the economists described as “the bad,” (the question ofcourse being bad for whom?); such silver being hoarded and exported towhatevermarketofferedthebestpriceoradvantage.Cases of wider application of this so-called law are without number, and asmuchasofapplicationtoalesserdegree.Afewoutstandingonesare:

a. ThedisappearanceofsilverfromAthensanditsreplacementbybakedclay facsimiles during the 5th Century B.C. and by yellowish copper (ororichalcum)attheendofthesamecentury.

b. ThedrainofsilverfromRomeduringthelatecommonwealthandthe

earlyEmpire,particularlytotheOrient,[328]wheretheratiovariedaround6:1togoldascomparedtothatestablishedbyCaesarof12:1,anditsreplacementbybronzeororichalcumfiduciaries.

c. ThedrainofEnglishsilvercoinagetoIndiaaftertheactof1666.[329]Suchsilverbeingreplacedbythe“Bad”moneyofthegoldsmith’sreceiptsandtheBankofEnglandnotesandledgercreditpageentries.

d. ThedisappearanceofthesilverroublesinRussia[330]duringthe18thCentury almost as soon as they left the mint, their place being taken by the“Bad” money of the copper roubles, and, later, after catherine, by the “Bad”moneyofthepaperroubles(assignats).

e. Thealmostcompletedisappearancefromthecirculationbetween theyears1967-1973ofsilvercoinsofourowncountryofCanada:suchsilverbeingreplacedbycoinsfabricatedfrombasemetalalloys,relativetothesilvercoins,withoutintrinsicvalue.Returning to Ancient Greece, Professor Heichelheim states: “Such hoards asfoundpreviousto560B.C.arefoundintheareasinwhichtheyweremintedandnever inothercountries.”[331]Whichfact indicates thatprior to560B.C. it isprobablethatlawsgoverningtheexportofcoinwerestrictlyenforcedinGreece.Any silver that left a state would do so covertly as bullion. The followingAthenianEdictisevidencethatsuchlawsexisted:“LetnoAthenianorsojournerlendmoney to be exported unless (to pay) for corn or some such commodityallowedbyLaw.”[332]By the time of Plato, something less than two hundred years later the realweaknessesofpreciousmetalsystemsofcoinagewerebeginningtoshow,hencethe increasingdiscussionof thematterofmoney in the schoolsofphilosophy,althoughsuchdiscussiondoesnotseemtohavegivenrisetoanyvigorousactionbytheGrecianStates.TheestablishmentoftheAesGravesystematRomemayhave been a direct result of such discussion, and the establishment of thisnumerical coinage of bronze certainly bears close resemblance to that internalcoinage as recommended by Plato for the ideal Republic.[333] By the dategenerallyacceptedas thecommencementof theAesGravesystem, that is338B.C., Roman scholarswould have been fully aware of the teachings of Plato.Thiscitystate,alreadystirredbyconsciousnessofitsworlddestiny,wouldhaveneglectednoinstrumenttowardsthemaintenanceofmoraleandstrengthinthestructure of its internal life. Such an instrumentwas theAesGrave system inwhich the national money was paid into circulation by the state, and only ofvalueinsomuchasthesymbolsonwhichitsnumberswererecorded,werescarce

orotherwise.The weaknesses inherent in precious metal coinage systems as becomingapparentinthetimeofPlatowereasfollows:

a.Thecoinsworeoutorwerehoardedoutofcirculation.b.Hardrockminingwasneverprofitablewithoutslavelaboursofarasthe

MasterMinerwasconcerned.[334]c. Themineslavesdiedandsometimes,therebeingnowars,theycould

notbereplacedsoeasily.d.Theminesthemselvesbecameexhausted.e.Inatimeofnationalcalamity,whencoinagewasmostofallneeded,it

disappearedintohoards,largelyheldbyforeigners,membersofthatsecretclassof persons to whom wars were but opportunity to drive harder bargains yetagain,withmankindandhisstatesandpeoples.

f. Evenintimeofpeace,captainsandmerchants,ifpermitted,wereeverseekingacargofortheirreturntrip.Ifsuchcargowasnotavailable,theywouldtakeawaytheirbalancesinpreciousmetalsorslaves.AcountrysuchasGreece,bynomeansrichagriculturallyaswastheEgyptianDelta, yet having a relatively large population to feed, in its declining dayswouldusuallyhaveanunfavourablebalanceoftrade;whichfurther,despitelawstothecontrary,drainedawayitspreciousmetalcoinageorbullion.AtthetimeofPlato,thisconditionmusthavebeenreallyshowinganditssignificance.TheLaureionmineswerepeteringoutdespitetheagitationbyXenophonfortheGovernmentofAthenstopurchasetenthousandslavestoleasetomineowners,[335] (presumably to be obtained from his financial sponsors), and where indays gone by there had been considerable silver circulating at Athensparticularly,nowithadbecomescarceandtherewasaninsufficiency.The numerous clay facsimiles of Eastern Mediterranean coinages, still beingfound at Athens,[336] show that the foreign bankers, in accordance withGresham’sso-calledlaw,werequietlyfillingthevoidnowappearingwithissuesofa fiduciarycharacter suchasourpapermoney,exemplified in theircasebythe baked clay facsimiles mentioned by lenormant which the bankers clearlywereinjectingintocirculationtotheirownprivateaccount,and,ofcourse,thatof theirmostusefulgreekagents.Thiswouldbe effectedbypointingout to acustomertowhomthebankerwaspreparedtomakealoan,howmuchsafertheactualsilverwouldbeifleftwiththebanker’sreserveintheAcropoliswhereitwouldbeguardedbythegodsthemselves,andhowtheseclayfacsimileswhich

all the customerswere accepting, could alwaysbe redeemed in silver if reallynecessary.(!)[337]Seltsman in Greek Coins[338] says that about this period, following thecompletecollapseoftheAthenianEmpire,Athensresumeditspreviousfinancialactivitiesthroughthegrowthofpowerful“Banks,”suchasthatofpasionwhichoperatedinallmajorGreekcities,providingamoneymarketforalloftheGreekworld. however, seltsman makes no mention of abstract expansions of themonetaryunit,noroftheclayfacsimileswhichwerethetangibleevincementofsuchexpansion,andwhosepowertoinspireconfidencewasthemainsourceofthatrenewedfinancialactivity,andwhoseexistenceandpurposewasdefinedbyfrançoislenormant,evenifsomewhatdiffidently.(p.27,presentwork.)What Seltsman really points out to us in stressing that Athens resumed itspreviousfinancialactivitieswithpowerfulbankssuchasthatofPasionoperatinginallmajorGreekcities, is thecorrectnessofourpreviousconjecture that thereal underlying purposes of the “Great” peloponnesian war was to establishprivatecommonmoneymarketacrossthegreekworldtotallycontrolledbythetrapezitaeorbankers inmodern terminology.Banks, too, couldnot thrive andrealize fullpotential except thatgovernmentwasbecome their instrument, andthat Government, the creator of the laws of the land, was in their debt, asaccording to these same laws of the land, as much as private citizens. Thefoundation of this god-power, to which, as a result of the utter exhaustion ofAthens and Sparta, and the death of their noblest, there were none to offerresistance,wasgovernmentborrowingofthebanker’sfictitious“Credit”money;andalthoughtheremaybelittleevidenceofsuchinathensatthattime,itisclearthat this situation had been brought about. the frantic efforts of the atheniangovernmentafterthewartodevisemethodstostimulateincreaseofgovernmentspending,suchasthedonativesandthetheorica,whileatthesametimedevisingmethods towithdrawmoney from the public circulation, such as by sales tax,[339] reveal thatAthenianGovernmentwasnowmore firmly than ever in thehandsofInternationalMoneyPower,ifSpartawasbutnowrearrivedthereafterabsenceofthreehundredyearsorso.[340]BothAthensandSpartawere innobetteraposition than theywerebefore thewar.Neitheronehadwonandneitheronehadlost.Bothlayexhausted,andovertheirprostratebodiestheservantsofthissamesardonicMoneyPowerdrewthechainsoftheirslavery.AlthoughSeltsman says the source of the renewal of the prosperity ofAthenswasthenewmarketsinCyrene,Chalcidice,andSouthRussia,RostovtsevpointsoutthattheSouthRussianmarket,themostimportantofall,wasclosingdueto

localmanufactures,andinthefourthcentury,AtticandIonianimportsdisappearentirely in SouthRussia,[341]where, in the sixth and fifth centuries they hadbeen extensive.[342] According to Rostovtsev, at Athens during the fourthcentury B.C., both population and unemployment increased, prices rose, andtherewasso-called“classstruggle”anddiscontent.[343]Increase in prices is usually indicative of increase of the number ofmonetaryunits incirculation, that is,of themoneysupplyrelative togoodsandservicesfor sale. Unemployment would not cancel out such increase in the moneysupply; for money had to be created for the Donatives and theorica whichbelong to this time. Herein is further proof of some artificial and invisiblegrowth of themonetary unit. Sowhile themarkets forGreek agricultural andindustrial products had shrunk considerably, andwere nomore able to absorbthegoodsthatwerebeingofferedtothembyGreece,[344]moneywasstillbeingcreated, inAthens particularly, and being put into circulation as against “FreeBread and Circuses,” such as indeed were the donatives and theorica;consequentlycausing inflationand the riseofpricesof record.considering thefindingsofprofessorrostovtsevasbeingmorelikelythanthoseofseltsman,itisclearthatwhatathensexported,andpossiblesomeothercitiesingreecewheresuchaspasionhadbranches,was,afterthe“Great”peloponnesianwar,privatelycreatedcapital.[345]ThusinwhatweknowofasAntiquity,thefullmeaningoftheunitofexchangeasapurelyabstractconception,regardlessofwhatmaterialit was recorded on for the purposes of day to day exchanges, was clearlyunderstood; andwithout a doubt this knowledgewas inheritance from ancientdays,longbeforetheadventofexchangesbasedonsilverbyweight.JudgingbySparta,perhapssomeoftheGreekstatesmentionedbyBoeckh,[346]and later by Rome itself, it seems that in ancient times there was someconsiderable understanding of the power inherent in preciousmetalmoney todestroy,bylendingitselftomanipulation,thestatusquoofanyraceorstate.Thetremendouspossibilities inherent initsuseas thematerialonwhichthevisibleunits of money were recorded towards the manipulation of prices and theconsequentmonopolizationofwealthwhichalwaysderivedtherefrom,throughthe process of loan against collateral security inflating themoney supply, andgivingrisetotheseemingprosperityofgreatactivity,followedbythe“calling”ofsuchloans,underoneexcuseoranother,whentheresultantprosperitywasatitsheight,waswellunderstoodbythe“Bankers.”Alsowasknownhowtocreateperiodsof“lackofconfidence,”duringwhichpricesfelltolessthanthepreviouscost of manufacture, and when consequently manufacturers becamedisheartened,andwereglad tosellout toanyone towhomthebankerdirected

themforwhatever theycouldget.That is, if theywere lucky.If theywerenotquite so lucky, then their stock and factory would be seized as against thesupposed debt, and sold at auction. No doubt such auctions were rigged inancienttimes,justasmuchastheyoftenaretoday.Thosestatespreviouslymentioned,understanding therefore theevilsofprivateemissionofpreciousmetalmoney,andthatpreciousmetalmoneymustalwaysbeprivatemoneyemission,exceptthestateownsthemines,andtakesabsolutelytotalprecautiontopreventtheexportofitsmetalexceptbyitsowndecisionasagainst its own needs, clearly, when all other states and princes weresuccumbingtotheworlddriveoftheinternationalbankers,rejectedbankingassuch,andthebullionbrokersitsfounders.Itwasnotuntil the4thCenturyB.C.thattheyfinallygavein,towhatwasundoubtedlyanunremittingpressure,andthismorelikelyasaresultoftheconquestsof,firstly,theAchaemenidPrincesofPersia,andsecondly,theconquestsofAlexander.After Alexander there do not seem many states left in which precious metalmoney did not constitute the circulating medium, and therefore could not beinfluencedbytheactivitiesofthatsecretandinternationalgroupofpeoplewhomade the so-called Gresham’s Law very much of a reality to the undoing ofrulersandtheirpeoples.Thesequenceof“Boom”and“Bust”justasintoday,canbetracedasfollows:Inthefirstplacebankersandtheiragentsnodoubtworkedtogethertocausethismoney,whichitmaysafelybesaid,originallycostthemnomorethanentrybyslave scribeon the clay tablet, tobe seeminglyplentiful.As a result, businessflourished,wagesincreasedandpricesrose.Thisriseinpricesultimatelycausedasituationinwhichforeignmerchandisesoldcompetitivelyonthehomemarket.In consequence some home manufacturers, unable to compete, went intobankruptcy. The panic thus created amongst manufacturers beholden to thebanks,prepared themfor the inevitabilityof the likelihoodofdemandby theirbank for repayment of loans outstanding. By now the bankers were tellingeveryonethatTimeswerebad.“TherewasafreezeinCredit.”and“NoMoneyabout”.sowhensuchloanswere“Called,”themanufacturersdutifullyhuntedupall the silver theycould find,and if theywereable,paidoff thebanker.whenthis collapse of industry, and consequently prices, reached a certain point, itbecame no longer profitable for foreign merchandise to sell on their homemarket, creating the opportunity for resumption of their own industries. thebankers,satisfiedthatthe“Depression”hadyieldedsufficientrewards,andwitha new crop of industrialists now directly under their thumbs, or in control oftheir trustedagents, industrywouldbe resumed. loansagainwere forthcoming

from thebanker’s overflowing strong rooms, or simply the sameplace as thatfrom which originated the previous loans, his ledger; being therein merely acreation of stylus and clay tablet. Thus were the foundations laid for a newsteadyriseinprices.Herein, in this everlasting “Boom”and“Bust”of the so called “Empires” and“Civilizations”ofthelastfewthousandyearsistherootcauseofthedesperatesituation in which the indo-european peoples now find themselves, and, inwhich, seemingly having everything, in reality they have nothing except totalexhaustionand thespectreof totalanarchyanddestruction loomingevermoreclearlybeforethem,fortheynolongerhavethewilltobe.Withplannedmiscegenationandwhatcouldverywellprovetobeplannedraceself-extermination through the promotion of the use of conception aborting“medicines,” andof abortion itself by “operation” involving the tearing of thelivingfetusfromthewomb,theso-calledindo-europeanpeoples,whowritheintormentasaresultoftheseincredibleplansundoubtedlyoriginatinginthefirstplacefromthemuddledmindsofthemoneymastersortheiragents,fastdwindletoafractionoftheworld’spopulation;soon,asmayverywellcometopass,tobeentirelyobliteratedbythoseotherracesoftheworldwhowatchwithgleethisself-destructionof thosewho theyhad so recentlybelieved tobeonewith thegods,suchwastheirseemingsuperiority.InternationalMoneyPower,whateveritreallyis,orwhoevertheyreallyare,couldnotcareless!Hereinwasitsowndesign.But one thing such designers of all this forget. In the magnitude of the totaldisasterthatloomssothreateninglyintheselastdaysoverthepathoflife,isalsofinal disaster to the planners of this evil; whether this they had expected orotherwise;theirowncompleteobliterationforsurealongwiththerest.ForifGod’skingdomonearthistoarise,itistoariseinaworldwherelittleofthe sicknesses that trouble us today, will be left, and the binding threads ofincompetent thinking, and of evil itself, will be totally unwound. it will arisewherethehumbleandthemeek,suchasremain,bowdownintotalacceptanceof that natural order as was ordained: of god, which is the self-consciouseverlastingitself:ofpriest-kinginwhomisthevoiceofgodreigninginearthlygloryunderstandabletomen:ofpriesthoodtrainedtototalunderstandingofallthe forceswhichmouldmen,and thedevoted themselves, thosewhogoabouttheiraffairstrustinginthesincerityandabilityoftheirrulers,andwhoseeknomore in life than the glory of their eternal master, and that they themselvesalwayswalkinthewaysofrighteousness.

Thus, returning toAthens and itsmoney in ancient days: the emission by thebankersofAthensof thebakedclayfacsimilesof thesilvercoinage theywerereputedtohaveinstorageinthevaultsoftheAcropolis,wouldhaveexactlythesameeffectonpricesastheemissionofsilvercoin;itwouldcausethemtorise.Conversely,contractionofthatclaycoinagebycallingofloans,wouldsimilarlycausepricestofall;andthus,asintoday,“whenthedepressionisover,”thatiswhenpricesareatrockbottomwithouttotallywreckingthestate,the“Banker”merelyentersafewfiguresinhisledgertothecreditofoneofhisagents,soitwasinathensinthatday.didtheso-calledcustomerrequirereadymoneyoverandabovethemoneyrequiredforsettlementofbalancesowing,suchascouldbemet by debit, and transfer, and recredit, i.e., by cheque, then the so-calledbankersatathensorthepiraeus,merelysetslavestoworktocastandbakeclaycoinsasfastastheycouldgo!Admittedlythebakingofclaycoinswasalittlemoreexpensivethanthepenandinkrequiredforledgerentrymoney,orthanthehighspeedprintingpressnecessaryforthepaperfacsimilesoftoday.Hence theenormouspotential for theaccumulationofwealthbyabanker inacitystateengagedinmanufacture,andwhosemerchantsandcaptainsdependedonhimalonefortheirfinances,especiallywhentheirbusinesswaslargelywithforeign parts. According to Professor Ure,[347] the tyrants of the city statesderivedtheirpowerfromthenewformofcapitalknownasmoney.While in agreementwith the general idea of ProfessorUre, itmust be asked:Whynewformofcapital?Metalmoneyascapital,orwhat?Itmaybeassumedthatthosereferencestobakedclay,leatherandwoodenmoneyinancientRomeprevioustoNumaPompilius,thefirstbySuidas,thesecondbySeneca,andthethirdbyCedrenus,alsoappliedtoancientGreece;especiallyiftheconjectureinrespect to the leather monopoly of the Hittite state is correct. Suidas makesreferencetoleathermoneyatLacedaemon.ThereisnoreasonwhyotherGreekcity states should not have availed themselves of such readily obtainablematerial[348] (and cheap at that!) in those days before the augmentation ofbullionsuppliesinternationallybythenewmethodsofmining,andthemassivewarswhichgaverisetoplentifulsuppliesofexpendablelabour.Itseemstobereasonablethatthemoneythatenabledthoseindustriesthatgrewup in early Greece to get off the ground, as it were, was of such relativelyintrinsicallyvaluelessmaterial.Behindeveryindustrialistwasabanker,andthebanker had to be the secret heart of the city. The early use of preciousmetalcoinage inGreecehad tohavebeensimilar to itsuse inBabyloniaa thousandyearsbefore,orasgoldinBritain2000yearslater,astandardonwhichtobasepricesandestablishconfidenceinthe“GreatBanker”asbeingawealthyman;a

base on which a pyramid of ledger credit page money might be erected,representedinthecirculationbyleathernotes,claytokens,etc.AsStanleyJevonsremarkedinourera in1914:“Goldalreadyacts inEnglandonlyassmallchangefornotes.”[349]Inasimilarmannerwithmoneybasedonasilverstandard,yetrelativelylittlesilverincirculation,suchsilverwouldhaveacted as small change in those ancient times. For evidence of greater wealth,leather notes, or clay tokens, or documents denoting cattle,which indeedmayhavebeencurrencyinlargescaletransactions,seemmorelikelytohaveserved,atleastamongsttheIndo-Europeans.Thus right from the start it is safe to say that silver functioned as a balancingfactor in oral and written agreements of merchandise exchange in Greece,actually functioning as a circulatingmedium itself only afterKingPheidon ofArgos.Althoughsomeauthorities[350] say that thesilvercoinagewasof stateissuance,whether itwasorwasnot,wouldmake littledifference. In so-calleddemocracies,moneypowercannotbutbe theforcebehind thescenes.For thatmatter, anyone finding the paper notes of the British Empire three thousandyearsfromnow,becauseofthemythoftheQueen’sHeadandtheCoatofArms,wouldassume it toowas state issue.Theywouldof coursebe entirelywrong.Eversincetheestablishmentofthateverchangingmirageofthepreciousmetalmoneysystem, statesand rulers thatbecamecorruptedandunderminedby theextraordinary deceptions to which such system loaned itself, wittingly orunwittingly, have fronted for those persons, often of criminal background,sometimes designated bankers,who under their very noses, have operated themostunbelievableswindles.Itishardtobelievethatstatesandrulershavebeenawareofthemagnitudeofthefollytheycommitinpermittingprivatepersonstoexercise that power which is theirs as being representative of their peoplesbeforeGod.Assumingrulerandtemplelendtheirsanction,itisnotlongbeforetheso-calledbanker,nowabletofinanceanoppositiontoanypoweritisinhisinterest to destroy, or indeed, to withdraw financing from such power whosedestruction he seeks, can literally laugh at those people, foolish, corrupt, ornaïve,who, in lackof understandingof themeaning and sourceof thatwhichwastheirstrengthandpower,raisedhimupinthefirstplace.Oncethepowerofmonetaryemissionisyieldedbyarulerorstatetoprivateorexternal interests, it is rare that it can be recovered except as the result of allconsumingcataclysm.Immensemonopoliesandvastlyunequalmoneyfortunesareneithergainednorsavedbylawfullabourortrade.Ofnecessitytheyarethenaturaloutcomeoftheexerciseofthepowertodiscriminate,thepowertorejector prefer that follows as inevitable consequence, when, in any state, private

personsarepermittedtocreateandissuetheunitofexchange,whethertangibleor abstract; and by whatever device of law such as may be needed to createappearanceoflegality.Sofarasthefutureofmankindisconcerned,outofthedeceititpractisesonthesimple,kind, and trusting, this instrumentwillbe responsible for thecompleteenslavementandultimatedestructionofmost,ifnotall,ofthisworld.Thehandsthatguideitaredeclaredbythemselvestobemalevolent,andwittinglyfunctionandexertthemselvesindefianceofthenaturalorderoflifewiththeirheartsfullof pride and prejudice as for themselves as being some special breed, whenmerelytheyarebutunfaithfulstewards.Contemptforthosewhofrontforthemintheirsecretconspiracyoraredestroyedbyit,showsequallyinthearroganceoftheirmanner.InthewordsofW.CleonSkousenreviewingthegreatandcompendiousworkofDr. Carroll Quigley Tragedy and Hope, according to Dr. Skousen the mostauthenticanddetailedaccountofthemoderndayconspiracy:“As I see it, the great contribution which Dr. Carroll Quigley unintentionallymadebywritingTragedyandHopewas tohelp theordinaryAmericanrealizetheuttercontemptwhichthenetworkleadershaveforordinarypeoples.Humanbeingsare treatedenmasseashelplesspuppetsonan internationalchessboardwheregiantsofeconomicandpoliticalpowersubjectthemtowars,revolution,civil strife, confiscation, subversion, indoctrination, manipulation and outrightdeception as it suits their fancy and their concocted schemes for worlddomination.”[351].For theoriginalRothschild(Amschel)whoutteredthatnowfamousline:“LetmeissueandcontrolaNation’smoney,andicarenotwhowritesitslaws,”[352]onecannotbuthavesomegrudgingadmiration,roguethoughhewasandshouldhave been dealt with as such; but for those place-seeking persons, cynical ormerely naïve, who nowadays prostrate themselves before the doors of theinternational bankers, as members of the societies dedicated to One WorldGovernment,suchasTheCouncilonForeignRelations,TheCanadianInstituteofInternationalAffairs,TheRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs,etc.onecanhavelittlerespect.Thefirstrequisiteforamantobetrulyhonouredamongstthepeopleisthathebestowhonour.Amongstthesetowhomthepathsofmeaninglessambitioncomefirstbeforeanyconcernfortheirown,fortheyarelargelydrawnfromthatclassofdeadsoulsthatisinternationalinthis,thateveryraceandpeopleonthisearthis afflictedby them inmoreor lessdegree, thewordhonour toooftenwillbe

meaningless.According toanother recentwriter: “JamesP.Warburg isoneofthe most ardent propagandists and financiers of the World GovernmentMovementintheU.S.A.today.ThissameJamesWarburghadtheaudacityandarrogance toproclaimbefore theU.S.Senate (2-17-50): ‘We shall haveworldgovernment whether or not we like it. The only question is, whether worldgovernmentwillbeachievedbyconquestorconsent.’”[353]World Government is total government world-wide in which no independentrace or people shall be except the rulers, who necessarily will have to be anexclusivecaste.Total consentof allpresumptuous, ifnot imaginative,bankerswillneverbe;butoutoftheweaknessandconfusioncreatedbythemamongstustowardsthesetheirownvainpurposes,theworldGovernmenttheymutterabout,maycome throughconquest, though it isnot theywhowillbe theconquerors,thoughindeed,theywillbetheprincipalinstrument.Therewouldbenowayofbringing about that total monopoly of money, industry and empire, which isworldgovernment, save through themanipulationof thecredulityofmankind,and thepathetic trusthe stillmaintains thathis rulers are thevoiceofGodonearthforhim,asheblindlystumbleson,exceptitbebyarmedconquest.Armedconquest in its turn in these latter days, cannot be effected without theconnivanceofconspiratorialmoneypower,althoughsuchconspiratorialmoneypower in its virtually insane search for paths towards its own establishmenttowardsWorldRuleforeverandever,hasnowbecomeaninstitution,whichinthe horror of theweapons of total destruction and obliteration leading to finalsubjectionthatithascalledintobeing,and,initsblindness,hasalsogiventoourenemies,canonlybedescribedasajuggernautcompletelyoutofcontrol,anall-engulfingTerror,asmuchforitscreators,ashe,who,initsoriginalconception,suchTerrorwassupposedtoengulf.

SSPARTA,THEPELANORS,WEALTH,ANDWOMEN

parta, of all theGreekStates, is one that resistedmost of all, in ancienttimes, the encroachments of international money power, and thecirculationofpreciousmetals,andallthosedemoralizingfactorsderiving

therefrom. However, from those laws promulgated by Lycurgus in Sparta,reputedlyduringtheninthCenturyB.C.,but,asaccordingtothearchaeologists,the early sixth century B.C.,[354] it would seem that all those evils derivingfrom giving such international money power free rein, had already beenexperienced,andhadbroughtabout that reactionamongst thepeoplegenerallythatenabledLycurgustotakethosemeasuresbywhichheexpungedforeverthemaincausesof thesicknessofgreedandself-interestwhichateat theheartofthe Doric overlord class of the Peloponnese. To him[355] are ascribed thoselawsdirectedtowardsthispurposesuchasaredescribedbyPlutarch:“Notcontentedwiththis(redistributionofland)heresolvedtomakeadivisionoftheirmovablestoo,thattheremightbenoodiousdistinctionorinequalityleftamong them;but finding itwouldbeverydangerous togoabout itopenly,hetook another course and defeated their avarice by the following stratagem: hecommandedthatallgoldandsilvercoinshouldbecalledin,andthatonlyasortofmoneyof iron shouldbecurrent, agreatweight andquantityofwhichwasverylittleworth.Sothattolayuptwentyorthirtypounds,therewasrequiredaprettylargecloset,andtoremoveit,nothinglessthanayokeofoxen.Withthediffusionofthismoney,atonceanumberofviceswerebanishedfromLacedaemon for who would rob another of such coin? Who would unjustlydetainortakebyforceoracceptasabribe,athingwhichwasnoteasytohideoracredittohave,orindeedofanyusetocutinpieces.Forwhenitwasred-hotthey quenched it in vinegar, and by that means spoilt it and made it almostincapableofbeingworked.In the next place he declared an outlawry of all superfluous arts; but here hemight have spared his proclamation; for they of themselveswould have goneafter the gold and silver, the money which remained being not so properpaymentforcuriouswork,forbeingironitwasscarcelyportable,neitheriftheyshould take themeans toexport it,would itpassamong theotherGreekswhoridiculedit.Sonowtherewasnomeansofpurchasingforeigngoodsandsmallwares, no itinerate fortune teller, no harlot monger, or gold or silver smith,engraveror jeweller set foot inacountrywhichhadnomoney; so that luxury

deprivedlittlebylittleofthatwhichfedandfomentedit,wastedtonothing,anddied awayof itself. For the rich had no advantage here over the poor as theirwealthandabundancehadnoroadtocomeabroadby,butwereshutupathomedoingnothing.”[356]Plutarch,ofcourse,livedinacityandinanagewhenallwealthwasassessedinterms of precious metals by weight. Needless to say, in order to have thecooperation of the real ruler, local money creative power, towards thepublicationofhisworks,hewiselyfollowedthat trendwhichundoubtedlyhadbeen instigated in Athens of making a mockery of Spartan customs, a trendwhichisstillfollowedtothisdaybymanysocalledscholars.Sparta,earlyintheMillennium had come to understand the real significance of precious metalmoney,asbeingpartofan internationalconfidencegame.Spartaalso realizedthedestructiveforcesinherentintheactivitiesofitscontrollersandtheforeignluxury traders they encouraged and financed in order to debilitate the people,and somake absolute their own secret hegemony, such as destroyed all racialprideinthatpeopleonwhomtheywerebattening,andthusdestroyingtheirwillto resist through creating obsession with pleasure. The evidence is in thefindingsoftheBritishSchoolatAthensfromtheirexcavationsatthesiteofthecityofSparta:“TheexcavationsoftheBritishSchoolatAthensatthesiteofthecityofSpartarevealaflourishingstateof theartsandmanufactures inLaconiacarriedon, ifnot wholly by Laconian workmen themselves, at least by foreign artists whowere welcome and encouraged to ply their crafts without any of the darksuspicionofstrangersthatwassomarkedinlattertimes.”[357]Theso-calledSpartanwayoflifederivedfromthenecessityoftheSpartanstoalways be prepared for total war from abroad, as their final rejection ofinternationalmoneypowermadecertainwouldcome,andtobealwayspreparedforwarfromwithin;i.e.,insurrection;anequalcertaintyderivingfromthesamecauses.ThefirstMessenianWar(736-716B.C.)wasenteredintobyKingTheopompusofSpartafortheusualreasonsforanywarinastateindicatedbyarchaeologicalfindingsasbeingunderthethumbofinternationalmoneypower:instigationbythat money power in favour of its arms industry and its other long rangepurposes.ThelongdrawnoutcharacterofthewarindicatedthattheMessenianshad equal access to international arms industry with Sparta. Armies are notraised and maintained in long drawn out wars without finances acceptable ininternationaltradeandreadyaccesstothebestofweaponsandequipment;anditis clear theMessenians were not short of such. This war served that purpose

mostdesirable tomoneypowerof reducing thepowerofkings:“ThefirstandsecondMessenian wars were both followed by constitutional crises. The firstsettlementwas a victory of the Spartan peers over the kings and a curbing ofroyal prerogatives and powers.”[358] Such would have been typical of theprogressofinternationalmoneypowerinitsusualinsidioustakeoverofanystateorcivilization.“ThecrisisafterthesecondMessenianwarwasatleastwithintheranksof theSpartans themselves, a democraticone, if that verydubiouswordcanbeused.”[359]ThelongdrawnoutcharacterofthesecondMessenianWarindicated the same underlying factor of the original war of conquest:internationalmoney-powerextendingitsfavourstobothsides,totheinsurgentsandtoSparta.ThefinaledictsofLycurgusasaresultoftheconstitutionalcrisisthatfollowedthesecondMessenianwar,certainlyindicatehewasawareoftheloss of sovereignty that came to any state that based itsmoney systemon theproduct of the international bullion brokers, and which meant dependence ontheirgoodgraces;themoreespeciallyifsuchstatehadnominesofitsown.The Second Messenian war which was doubtless to have established total“Democracy,”thatis,totalruleoftheinternationalbankingfraternity,failedsofarassuchpurposewasconcerned.Lycurgus’sanswertoamanwhoinsistedhecreate a democracy in the state was “First create a democracy in your ownhouse.”Certainlyanaptanswer!The complaint of Theognis, admirer of Sparta, visitor from Megara, whos epoliticalaimwasdirectedtowardsthepreventionoftherecurrenceofaTyrannyatMegara,shouldnotbeforgotten,andborelightontheconditionsatSparta,aswell,andthatgaverisetoLycurgus:“Tradesmenreignsupreme,thebadlorditovertheirbetters,Thisisthelessonthatallmustthoroughlymaster.”[360]Of the reforms of Lycurgus, their cause, and those forces they were directedagainst, there is no doubtwhatsoever, and verification through the findings ofarchaeologysuchastheworkofDr.BlakewayinLaconiareestablishesthetimeasbeing,as remarkedabove,after thesecondMessenianwar,namelybetween600B.C.and550B.C.“Hehasdemonstratedfromarchaeologicalevidencethatbetween600B.C.and550 B.C., foreign imports into Sparta practically ceased. Corinthian potterywhich had been common in Sparta in the early or Proto-Corinthian period isexceedingly rare after c.600 B.C. Ivory, amber, Egyptian scarabs, andPhoeniciangoods likewiseceasebefore550B.C.and the same is trueofgoldandsilverjewellery.”[361]

There is no doubt that early in the sixth century B.C., the Spartans totallyexcluded the internationalmoneymarket,suchascontrolled therestofGreecethroughsilverandgoldmoney,andthebanker’spracticesrelatingthereto.Theyalsoexcludedforeigntradeasbeingequallydestructiveoftheorderoflifetheywishedtopreserve.The notion created by Plutarch of that national currency of iron as beingsomethingridiculousandrequiringalsoanox-cartmaybedismissedaspartofthe steady stream of propaganda no doubt being created in Athens againsteverythingofancientdays,particularlythecustomsspecialtoSparta.Ifitistruethat the pelanorswere of suchweight as ruled out their being readily passedfromhandtohand,thenitmayreasonablybeassumedthattheydenotedwealthinmuchthesamemannerasthestoneringsofUapandtheancientIndusValleycivilization;[362]more in the nature of a reserve, the circulatingmoneybeingtheleathernotesreferredtobySuidasascirculatinginLacedaemon,justasthecirculatingmoneyofUapwas shell strings, similar toTekaroroof theGilbertIslands.[363] It may equally have been a system whose origins were lost inremote ages; perhaps bearing relationship to that system existing in Europeduringthe4thMillenniumB.C.,[364]whenitisclearthatthespondylusshellhadgreater significance than that ascribed to it as “Prestige Possession,” andwaspartofaworldwideuseofshellsasmoney.Sparta was indeed fortunate to possess considerable reserves of iron ore, theprincipaldepositsbeingattheMaleanCapeandtheTaenarianPromontory.[365]Thus,bothforhermoneyandforherarms,shewasthereforeindependent,andneeded no assistance from abroad. The Laws of Lycurgus excludinginternationalmoneyandtrade,directlycontinuedthefomentationofthatwarlikespirit and racial andnationalpridebred in theSpartansoutof the trialsof thelong drawn out Messenian wars; and which brought them in as saviours atThermopylae, and, indeed, ofCarthage at the end of the first PunicWar (255B.C.) when the army of Regulus encamped before the city was destroyed byXantippustheSpartan.The very fact that the power of the kings had been undermined by the firstMessenianWar,althoughtheirpositionasabsoluteleadersofthepeopleinwarstillexisted,becameablessingindisguise.Historyhasshownthatthepointtowhich internationalmoneypower immediatelygravitateswhenpenetratinganypeople living in natural order, is the top, the king himself, either directly, orthrough the priesthood. Given his sanction and connivance in respect to theirschemes,thenpeopleswhoseverysoulshaveleanedtowardsthekingastotheLord’s anointed, are easily subdued, and their minds filled with arithmetical

calculationsandobsessionwiththeiranimalneeds,insteadofthatgreatgloryofaonenesswiththeDeity,aonenesswiththeharmonyoftheuniverse,andtheirbeinglordsoftheirownworldwithdominionoverallotherlife.Oneofthefirststepsofsuchmoneypowertowardstotalassumptionofrulehasbeen the eradicationof kings andkinglypower.Even though a kingmight beleadintoconnivancewiththebanker’sschemes,throughlackofunderstanding,healwayscouldstillawakenanddiscoverhismistake,andrealizingtheswordwasstillinhishand,takemeasurestoregainhisprerogative.Thereforehehadtobedisposedof,orreducedtopaidandwillingservant.In Sparta there seems to have been another obstacle to the promoters of that“Phony” democracy advocated by international money power, namely theEphoratewhoseexistencewasundoubtedlylinkedtothatnationalmoneypowerofSpartaas instituted,or reinstitutedunder theprotectionofLycurgus.Of theEphors it may be said their main objectives were: “First the maintenance ofhomedefenceandlimitingofSpartandominiontoMesseniaandLaconia(i.e.noimperial entanglements).[366] Second, the fostering of a steady policy whichlead to intervention in the struggle at Athens with the Peisistratids, and theexpulsionofthefamily;thirdanunrelentinghostilitytothepretensionsofroyalpowerinthestate.”“TheEphoratewasaprofoundlydemocraticinstitutionthatfeared and fought against tyranny both within and without the borders ofLacedaemon.”[367]Accepting the tyrantas frontmanof thosealienagentsof internationalmoneypower,thetrapezitae,inwhichcategorythePeisistratidscertainlyfell,thenthemeaning of the policies of the Ephorate becomes clear; with the limiting ofSpartan dominion toMessenia and Laconia, was the establishment of an areafromwhichSpartanscouldderivetotaleconomicfreedom,sufficienttomaintainthemselves,andthatwhichaboveallmaintainedtheirwayoflifeanditssource,theirnationalmonetarysystem.The intervention at Athens and the total opposition to the Peisistratids wasobviouspolicyinviewoftheunrelentingpressureofAthenianmoneypowerasa branch of International Money Power, against Sparta, city that had mademockeryofthepowerofthecountinghousesoftheworldfinancialcentres,andhadsetupexampleintheworldwhichwouldbecomeinspirationtoothers.The hostility to kingly power by theEphorate,would be guided bywhat theydoubtless saw was the need, if their national life was to be maintained, ofmakingsurethatkingsinnowayhadthepowertosurrenderthemselves,andthepeople they represented, to the blandishments of international money power,

whoseopportunity,alas!hasalwaysbeenaweakandill-instructedking.HowevertheremarkofArchidamos,KingofSpartaatthecommencementofthe“Great” Peloponnesian war reveals, even at that day, 428 B.C. how thecorruptive forces outpouring from Babylonia, with its immediate agents, hadcertainlyreenteredSpartatosomedegree.“Andwar is not somuch amatter of armaments as of themoney thatmakesarmamentseffective.”[368]InhisspeechtohisownpeopleArchidamosalsowarnsthemofthe6000talentswar chest supposedly held by the Athenians in the Acropolis. Both of thesestatements shownounderstandingof that inwhichaking shouldaboveallbeinstructed,NationalMonetaryEmission,andprovehowrightweretheEphorsinthe controls with which they surrounded kingship. Archidamos privately wasclosefriendofPericles,scionoftheAlkmeonidae,whosedestiny,Greekhistoryshows,tohavealwaysbeencloselylinkedtothatofinternationalmoneypower.DuringtheperiodwhenthenationalcurrencyofSpartamaintaineditsintegrity,itmightbesafetosaythattheSpartan,insofarasitispossiblefortruefreedomtoexist,wasafreeman.Indeedthehelotsweremorethanlikelymorefreebyalongwaythanarethelabouringclassesofthisday;andcertainlymorefreethanthoseclassesofthesemi-massproductionlinesoftheotherGreekCities,whosemonetarysystemswerealmostall,whetherfiduciaryandofstateissueornot,atthemercyofthebankers,andthereforethemanipulatorsofthevalueofbullionandslaves,wherever itwas theymaintained theircentre;generallyassumed tobe Babylonia and its outposts, Lydia, and Naucratis in the Nile Delta, andPhoenicia, andAthens, andCyzicus andColchis andmanyother cities in keypositionstotradewiththeworldbeyond.A monetary system, simple, inviting neither peddlers of luxury, panders orpornographerstomakemockeryofthelivesofthepeople,issuedandregulatedbyabenevolentstate,andundoubtedlywith itsunitspaid intocirculationwithcare and attention to the result on thenationalwell-being and strength, bred asturdyindependentpeoplecompletelycontemptuousofthegoldmadnessragingelsewhere.Theywereanexamplebywhichothergreatpeoplescametoprofit,outstandinglytheRomans.Theylivedwithafeelingofgreatsuperiority to theAthenians,who,whilehavingaplentifulcurrency,exceptduringtheperiodsofexhaustionoftheLaureionsilvermines,wereexposedtoalltheevilsofcontrolovertheirpoliticallifebyalienmoneypowerthroughthetrapezitae.Historygivesmuchinformationaboutthemeanswherebymoneywascollectedandraisedandspent,butnothingas to thoseshadowyfigureswho institute its

unitsinthefirstplace,and,asinthecaseofthebanker’s“democracies,”injectthemintothecirculation.As towhen internationalmoney power reenteredSparta, there is little enoughevidence.ButtheoutlookofKingArchidamossuggestedithadmadequitesomeprogressbythedateofthecommencementofthePeloponnesianwar,anditmaybesafelysaidthattowinthatwar,outofwhichcouldcomenothingbutgaintointernational money power, Sparta had to make almost total concession. Thefinal victory overAthens and her Empire,which ended thewar, achieved thepurposesof the internationalbullionand slave traders as surely as finaldefeatwould sohavedone.As itwill be remembered, the relaxation and luxury thatinundatedRomeafter thesecondPunicwar,asaresultof theconcessions thathadbeenmadetointernationalbullionandslavetradersinordertobeabletore-armafterCannae,andultimatelydriveHannibaloutofItaly,anddefeathiminhis own territory, within 25 years dragged the Romans down[369] to adebauched money mad mob, though still mighty through the employment atarmsofthedefeatedpeoples.Similarly, after the Peloponnesian War, like causes had done the same forSparta,anditwasbut25yearslater,in371B.C.,theSpartanPhalanx,softenedto thecore, crumbled intobloody ruinatLeuctra, toEpaminondas theThebanand never again recovered the élan that had made it the victor of a hundredbattles,fortheSpartansnow,morethanany,wereconsumedbythecorruptingdiseasesofmoneymadnessanditsattendantliberalism.Thatby360B.C.,theancientmoneysystemthathadbeenthefactorbehindthemorale of the Spartan of Thermopylae was little more than a memory, isrevealedbythefollowingquotationtakenfromAlexanderDelMar:“ThecrimeofGylipus,B.C.360andthedecreeoffereduponitsexposure,viz.‘ThatnocoinofgoldorsilverbeadmittedintoSparta,butthattheyshouldusethemoneythathadformerlyobtained,’showsthatasthisdecayofthestateandweakeningofcreditwenton,goldorsilvercoins,atorneartheirbullionvalue,gradually crept into circulation asmoney. The failure of the decree to pass isconclusivethattheironnumericalsystemwasnolongerpracticable.”[370]Inotherwords,thedamagetothatwhichhadbeenSpartaanditspeopledonebytherulerwhofirstofallturnedablindeyetodealingsinthepreciousmetals,theregrowthofinternationaltrade,andnodoubttheholdingofdepositsinAthenianBanks,andwhofailed todealwithferocitywith thosewhointerferedwith thepelanorseitherbycounterfeitingorspeculation,wasirreparable.Itseemedthistimetheclockcouldnotbeturnedback.

Thus while Sparta finally collapsed before the unremitting pressure of theAthenian, or better put, the international money market, seeming to yield itsancientstrengthandthesourcesofitsindependence,theAthensthatcarriedon,aswell,partly for reasonsaselsewheregiven,wasbutashadowof itselfwiththeapproachoftheexhaustionofthemines,andthencethefailureofthebaseofitsmoneypower and the “confidence” essential to itsmaintenance.Moreover,stillinthehandsofthebankersasacentreoftradefortrade’ssake,Athenswasbecomebut aname.AswithRomeby the timeof theCivilWars, itsoriginalpeople had disappeared into that mass of freed slaves, and immigrants fromelsewhere, the “sojourners,” who were now a large part of the Athenianpopulation, and for whose leaders Xenophon the journalist obviously frontedwhenheproposedthatspecialtaxesshouldbeliftedfromforeignerswhoatthesametimewerenottoberequiredtodomilitaryservice.[371](Hereitmightberemarkedthatitisperhapsunfortunatethatshouldstillsurvivethewritingsofapaidpropagandist,sosimilartothewritingsofsomeofhisbrethrentoday,whensolittleremainsofGreekliteraturerelativetothetotaloutput.)Of Spartan money as reinstituted under the patronage of Lycurgus, ErnestBabelon,famousFrenchNumismatistofthe19thCentury,wrote:“A long time after the use ofmoneyhadbeen spread throughout theHellenicworld,Spartacontinuedasthroughtradition,tomakeuseofingotsofironasameansofexchange.Thesebarswereknownunderthedescriptionof(gâteaudepâtisserie).EachoneweighedanAegineticMina,and tocarryonlysixof them, that is tosayabout536Kg.,awagondrawnbytwooxenwasrequired.Thisinformationsupplied to us by Xenophon and Plutarch agrees with that from central Italywhere cumbersome bars of bronzewere carried in carts; ‘AesGrave plaustrisquidam convehentes,’ said TitusVivius.All kinds of stories circulated on thesubjectofthefamousPelanorsofSpartathatseemtohaveremainedinuseuntilthePersianWars.Itwassaid,forinstancethattheironusedinthemanufactureofthismoneywasunsuitableforanyotherpurposeandwasrenderedbrittlebyanoperationconsistingofheatingituntilred-hot,thenquenchingitinvinegar.In theconservativecapitalofLaconia it appears that these ingotsof ironwerethesolemoneyinuseandallcitizenswereforbiddenunderpenaltyofdeathtopossessanyothermoney.WhenEpaminondasdiedhewassopoorthatnothingwasfoundinhishouseinthewayofwealthotherthananoldiron.AtThebesthenativelandofEpaminondaswheremoneywasknownandstruckatanearlydate,foundintheresidenceoftheherocouldhavenomorethanasuperstitiouscharacter.”

Thissurprisesuslessespeciallyassincethe7thcentury,Pheidon,KingofArgos,when he struck the first silver money of Aegina, and introduced a standardsystemofweightsandmeasuresintothePeloponnese,withdrewtheformerironspits from circulation that had served asmoney until then, and consecrated acertainnumberofsamples,“inEx-voto,”inthesanctuaryofHeraatArgos.AtthetimeofAristotletheycouldstillbeseenintheTemple.”[372]Babelon, most learned scholar as he was, however reflects the complacentattitudeofthebankersoftheendofthelastcentury,whichwasfoundedontheidea,suchhadbeentheirluckduringthepreviouscentury,thattheirmillenniumhadfinallycome.Withhim,moneywaspreciousmetal,andpreciousmetalwasmoney. Although of interest, his information, a repetition of Xenophon thejournalistandPlutarch,offersnotmuchmorelight.Thoughovertwothousandyearshadgoneby,preciousmetalmoneyanditspromotersstillruled,despiteadozengreatkingdomsandempireshavingrisenatitsbehestandhavingfallenatitsbehestDidBabelonseetheshadowwhichlurkedbehindthethrone,heclosedhiseyesandturnedhisheadaway!Lycurgus was without doubt inspired to reestablish this national monetarysystembytheclearunderstandinghemusthavecometohaveoftheevileffectsof this gold and silver madness, and its disastrous effects as a result of theoperations of the trapezitae or bankers, relative to the destruction of nationalmoraleandbeing.Preciousmetalcoinagewascurrencywhosetotalcirculationthe state could in no way control because of the desirability of its materialinternationally.Inthecommonmoneymarketofthesilverbullionbrokersitwasmaterial, which, whether minted into money by state authority or otherwise,producedamoneyalwaysofvalueregardlessoflocalconvention.Itsvaluewasdictatedby thearbitrarydecisionof that international fraternitywhocontrolleditsmining,andtheslavesthatminedit,andoutofmanipulationofthatpyramidofabstractmoneytheycreatedthereon,controlledthepoliticalaffairsofstates.ThemoneythathadbeenestablishedinSpartawasofvaluetoSpartansalone.Although no record exists of such matter, it may be safely assumed that thePelanorsandtheleathermultiplesordivisiblesofSuidas,enteredthecirculationas against state indebtedness; thus reducing taxation, that vicious destroyer ofpeoples, to relatively negligible amounts.Their pitted andotherwiseworthlessappearancederivingfromtheirbeing immersed invinegarwhenredhot,madethemofnovalueforanyotherpurposethanthatforwhichtheywereintended.TheuseofthisnationalmoneywastheforcethatgaveSpartatheleadershipofHellasuntiltheendofthePeloponnesianWar,evenifdeclinehadcommencedwith the execution of the great General Pausanias[373] by the Ephors in 479

B.C.,andwasthatwhichnecessarilydictatedthepolicyoftheextirpationofthetyrannies; the tyrant always being representative for the agent of internationalmoney creative power through precious metal control. There might betemptation to assume the pelanorswere a system of “Iron Greenbacks.” Butwhiletheyresembledthe“Greenbacks”inthisthattheywerethetotalwilltobeof the Spartans,[374] assuming the truth of their great weight, as pointed outabove, theymay have beenmore in the character of thatmonetary system ofvery ancient days of which the stone rings of Uap are a last remainingevincement.A healthy wholesome people who controlled totally their state and existencewould have little reason to accumulatemoney fortunes, andwealth as distinctfromthelandwhichwastheirpatrimony;andassuchmoneyfortunesbeginandendaslittlemorethanfiguresinthebanker’sledger,norcouldtheybeguidedintobecomingmouthpiecesforthepoliciesofthebankers.MealswereeatenincommonamongstmenasinCarthageofearlierdays,andagenuinecontemptforluxuryexisted.Asimplelifewasnotsoughtafter,somuchasitcameofitsownaccordasanaturaloutcomeofsuchmonetarysystemcreatedfortheirbetterandright living, and which preserved them from the encroachments of thatliberalizing,demoralizing,anddebtcreatingforceofinternationaltrade,anditsdestructiveeffectontheespritdecorpsofanyparticularraceorpeoplewhoarefoolishenoughtopermititsproponentstohavetheirway.AlthoughitwassaidoftheearlydaysoftheLawsofLycurgusandhismonetaryreforms thatpreciousmetalsseized inWarweredepositedwith theArcadians,oflaterdaysAugustusBoeckhwroteofgoldandsilverinSparta:“Spartaduringaperiodofseveralgenerations,swalloweduplargequantitiesofthe preciousmetals; as inAesop’s Fables, the footsteps of the animalswhichwentinweretobeseen,butneverofthosewhichcameout.Theprincipalcauseof this stagnationwas that the statekept thegoldandsilver in store, andonlyreissued them forwar and foreign enterprise; although therewere instancesofindividualswhoamassedtreasuresaccordingtothelaw.”[375]Xenophon stated that Lycurgus made the privilege of citizenship equallyavailable to allwho observedwhatwas enjoined by laws,without taking anyaccountofweaknessofbody,orscantinessofmeans;whichwouldmeanthatnoSpartansufferedinrespect to themessorsyssition towhichhewasentitledtobelong, on account of economic condition.Xenophon had lived in Sparta andwaswritingbefore the lossofMessenia.Aristotlewhodeclared failure topaydues entailed political disenfranchisement,wrote after the loss ofMessenia in370 B.C., and the certain penetration by the bankers of the Piraeus, and the

assumptionofcontrolofSpartanfiscalaffairswhichitmaysafelybesaid,theywere already conceded by an already corrupted Sparta, ready to accept anyhumiliation tosave itself fromtotal ruin.ThefinalmilitarycollapseatLeuctrarose from that weakened condition that followed the apparent victory of the“Great”PeloponnesianWar,andthoseconcessionsthatalreadywouldhavebeenmade to the international bankers, now in the Persian court, as a result of thedesperateneedof theSpartans for ships.The loanof5000 talents towards thebuildingofshipswhichwasgrantedtoSpartabyPersiaasaresultoftheTreatyofMiletus, 412B.C.,wouldnothavebeengrantedwithoutmajor concessionsbeing exacted; most likely abrogation of those Spartan edicts forbidding thesojournofforeigntradersetc.onSpartanterritory.Itwouldnottakelong,oncesuchtradershadbeenadmitted,forthemtounderminethemoraleofthatwhichhad been Sparta, by spreading the money madness, and the promotion ofluxury[376]andthecreationofunnaturalconcernwithsex,andbodyneeds.OfthissituationPolybius,asquotedbyHumphreyMichellwrotethefollowing:“AslongastheyaspiredtoruleovertheirneighboursoroverthePeloponnesiansalone, they found the supplies and resources furnished by Laconia itself,adequateastheyhadalltheyrequiredreadytohandandquicklyreturnedhomewhetherbylandorbysea.Butoncetheybegantoundertakenavalexpeditionsand to make military campaigns outside the Peloponnese, it was evident thatneither their iron currency nor the exchange of their crops for commoditieswhichtheylacked,aspermittedbythelawsofLycurgus,wouldsufficefortheirneeds. These enterprises demanded a currency in universal circulation andsupplies drawn from abroad, and so they were compelled to beg from thePersians,toimposetributeontheislanders,andexacttaxesfromalltheGreeks.FortheyrecognizedthatunderthelegislationofLycurgus,itwasimpossibletoaspire, I will not say to supremacy in Greece, but to any position ofinfluence.”[377]The fact is however, Sparta, while following the Laws of Lycurgus haddominated Greece in more or less degree. As soon as she lost sight of themeaning and purpose of such laws, she became just another petty state; anagency for the subterranean control by international banking throughmanipulation of the silver and gold bullion basis of her currency; each man,concernedwithhisownneedandgreed, aimlessly following theprettybubblewhichwastheillusionof thebanker’s“wealth.”Theoldorder,andthatwhichhad given them strength and nationalmorale,was soon destroyed through thepromotionof foreignersand the lowercastes,and thehelots,whomerely tookthe name but not the meaning; also by the stirring up of women towards

rejection of their subordinate place in life, and therefore instituting insidiousattackonthenaturalorderofthehome,outofwhichisbredthenaturalorderoflifeitself.ThelaterageofAristotle,withitshardandrealisticfactsasreferredtobysomewriters,wasnomore realistic than the earlier ageofXenophon.Rather itwasless so. It was the age of the triumph of those international interests whosearming and instigation of theMessenian helots in an earlier age had decidedSpartanstoacceptthatstructureoflawasadvocatedbyLycurgus,whichmeantsurrenderofsomucheaseofliving,ratherthanbecomethesameasmostotherGreek states, an alien money manipulators paradise, with, as Theognis ofMegaraput it: “Tradesmenreigningsupremeand thebad lording itover theirbetters.”AstheearliestfindsoftheclayfacsimilesofpreciousmetalcoinageatAthens,seemtodatearoundthemiddleofthefifthcenturyB.C.,[378]itmaybeassumedthatonewayortheother,eitherthroughSpartanspermittedtoresideatAthens,or through those Spartan mercenaries who travelled the world seekingemployment for their skillatarms, the lust forhaving,onemanmore thanhisneighbour,slowlybecameinjectedintothem.PerhapsSpartanmercenaries,whoalways required tobepaid in those international currenciesof silver andgold,returningfromabroadviaAthens,hadbeeninveigledintodepositingtheirpayinsuchgoldorsilver,withthebankersofthePiraeus,withwhomitmight“grow”frominterest;takinghomethebakedclaycoinsasevidenceoftheiraccount,andthusevadingcontraventionoftheSpartanlawsinrespecttopossessionofgoldandsilver.With the resumptionof the ruleof internationalmoneypower in laterSpartanhistory,oneofthemostoutstandinginstancesofthatsicknessrottingthefibresoftheirracialmorale,wasthetaleofthoseHomoioiwhoseemedtohavefallenin the social scale andwere no longer able to take their places in those greatmesses, the syssitiones, the breeding places of that esprit de corps that wasSparta. Scholars give various reasons for these “disenfranchised” Spartansapparently known as the hypomeiones. The reason for their coming to be ishowevermorethanclear.Theyarethedirectresultofthepowertodiscriminate,whichisthenaturaloutcomeinfavourofthebanker,ofthatactualgod-powerheexercisesonceinstalledaslocalmoneycreator.More than likely after thePeloponnesianWar, andcertainly after thebattleofLeuctra in 371 B.C., the reestablished bankers, following usual policy, wouldhavetakencarethatcertainfamilies,whothiscasteofmeninstinctivelyrealizedmightyetcreateoppositiontothem,weredispossessedbyonemeansoranother.

With that banker createdmoney as being now the necessary qualification formembership to the syssitiones, it was a small matter to make sure that suchpersonswhosedisenfranchisementtheyplanned,neverhadenough.[379]Clearlyinsuchlaterday,thesyssitionormesscharges,beingassessedinsilvermoneywhoseissuethebankerscontrolled,thosetowhomsuchalienbankersextendedno favours, and therefore ultimately dispossessed through mortgage andforeclosure,nothavinganylongerthewherewithaltopay,nolongerbelonged.Further, seeing their former helots raised up to place of honour and riches bybankerscreatedwealth,andcertainlybythereignofKingCleomenesIII(228-219 B.C.),[380] actually sitting in their place in the syssition, little desire toretrievesuchadistinctlylostcauseremained.TheSpartan,whetherpoororwhetherrich(inland),inthedaysofthenationalcurrencyhadbeen the social equalofanyotherSpartan;however, asmuchasanything, the slow decay of the Spartan principle derived from a mostoutstandingomissionintheconstitutionwhichwastotallackofprovisionfortheredistributionofwealthatcertaindefiniteintervals,andthecancellationofdebtasintheHebrewcustomofthe49thyear.[381]Needlesstosay,eveninthedaysofthenationalcurrency,theremusthavebeentendency towards economic inequality resulting from such omission;[382] butthe rapid increase of such economic inequality after the return of the bankers,thatcertainlyfollowedthe“Great”PeloponnesianWar,additional tofurtheringthebreakupofthecastesystemthatpreviouslyhadobtainedinSpartainsomedegree,andwhereineachmanhadknownhisplaceintheorderofsociety,alsocausedafurtherbreakupinthenaturalorderoflifeofSpartanmanasmasterofhomeandfamily.InthatSpartansocietywhereinwomenhadalwaysknownconsiderablefreedomrelative,say,totheirAtheniansisters,thecontrolofwealthhoweverdesignated,passed substantially into thehandsofwomen.[383]Concern for thegrowthof“Money,”nodoubt,justasinthisday,replacedcarefortheirmen,andconcernfor themselves as mothers of the race, and concern for the growth of theirchildren.“Two fifthsof the landandwealthhadcome into theirhands, simplybecauselack of men left them as heiresses, and this wealth they used extravagantly,maintaining race horses which they exhibited at the Olympic games, costlyequipages and fine clothes. They meddled in the affairs of state and broughtundueinfluenceupontheconductofthegovernment.”[384]Insuchsociety,thisstratumofwealthywomenhavenorespectformenassuch,

toooften.Whileperhapsnotclassifiedashetaerae,whoallsaidanddone,hadservedsomeusefulpurposetomen,theyclearlylivedpubliclivesverymuchthesameasthehetaerae.Such women, their heads full of figures and pride, would have served mostusefully those alien money powers who ever have sought to further theirpurposes throughcorrupt andmalleablepersons.Women, rarely corrupt in thesensethatamanmaybecorrupt,becauseoftheirnaturalneedtoshelterbehindwhatseemstobestrength,asarrogantMoneyPowerwouldappeartothem,aremalleable. Their own Spartan men, either dead, and if not dead, completelyconfusedwith thenew liberalizationprogrammeof the returnedbankers,werevirtuallyenslaved; thereforetheyturnedfor theprotectiontheyneededtowhatseemedtobethenewstrength,pudgyandgrossthoughitmayhavebeen.

IMONEYCREATORSANDTHEPOLITICALCONTROL

n their inception, so-called political parties were other expression of theprinciple of rule of tyrant or dictator. Though apparently instituted inopposition to each other, such societies, or groups, or even persons,

representingsuchseeminglyconflictingpoliticalinterests,weretheverynaturaloutcome of complete usurpation of the essence of sovereign power, the god-force from on high that gave life to a people or state, through conspiracy inrespect to interference with the issue of the unit of exchange. Such frontorganizationsarethenaturalresultoftheexistenceinanysuchstateorpeople,of semi-secret societies in one form or the other, religious or racial, alien byorigin or otherwise, arrogating to themselves that privilege which formerlybelonged to the god alone, of the creation of exchange units, abstract orotherwise. The only limit to the amount of such private issue, especially ifabstract,i.e.,asbytransferableledgercreditpageentry(indicatedbytheuseofassignments or cheques) would be the limit dictated by caution against over-saturationofthatmoneymarket,nationalorinternationalbeinginterferedwith.Naturally itwasusuallyborn inmind that the (silly)goose that laid thegoldeneggs,mustnotbealtogetherdestroyed,andcarewastakenthattherealmeaningoftheseactivities[385]wasdeeplyconcealedforfearthatrulerandpeoplemightcometorealizethetruenatureoftheforcesatworkintheirmidst.Eachofthesegroups of persons in the case of so called political parties, or each of thesepersonsinthecaseoftyrantsordictators,couldnotbutbeinstrumentforprivatemoneycreativepower.Such establishment of conflicting groups, each claiming to have the answertowardsperfectgovernment,and,inthecaseofaconstitutionalmonarchy,eachswearingallegiancetothemonarch,nowbutpaidservantofmoneypower,orinthe case of a republic, each swearing allegiance to a president, in reality anelectiveking raisedup from the “People,”was avery efficient deviceof suchprivatemoney creative power towards themaintenance of its own hegemony.Hereinwas venality and corruption enthroned. Such “Politicians” as turned tolook a little too closely at the hand that fed them, promptly found their“Perks,”[386]or“PoliticalRewards,”cutoff.Shouldanygovernmentbegintoberestless,andunwillingtoaccepttheaxiomthat it should have no real say in that most serious matter of all, monetaryemission,thelineofcommunicationfromthegodinheaventothepeople,then

itwouldbebutashorttimebeforeprivatemoneycreativepowertransferreditsfavourstotheso-calledopposition.Fundswouldbemadeavailablesufficienttoguarantee under normal circumstances their winning the “Election” and theirconsequent assumption of the government. At the same time funds would bewithdrawnfromthe“PoliticalParty”previouslyincontrolofthe“government”;which would very likely mean that, in the following confusion, men more“suitable” and “pliable”would force theirway to the top; so that even if thatparticulargovernmentwasreelected,privatemoneycreativepowerwouldhavenofurtherfears.Thepricewasalwayscontinuanceofthosepoliciesmostneededbysuchprivatemoneycreativepowernecessaryforitsownrealpurposes,andthereforethecontinuanceofitshegemony.Thegreaterpartof theunitsofexchangeasemittedbyprivatemoneycreativepower areof no intrinsicvalueother, perhaps, than thosedenotedbypreciousmetalsymbols,andwithwhichtheconfidenceofpeoplesandrulerswasgained.Thereforethecostof institutingthat totalcontrolofanystateso“captured”byprivatemoneycreativepower, i.e., thebankers,wasvirtuallynil, sinceclearlysuchstatefinanceditsownlamentablecondition!Itisclearthateachunitissuedintocirculation,offraudulentoriginorotherwise,reduced by an exact valuation, the worth of previous units as worked in theexchanges;transferringsuchlossofworthtotheholderofthenewunit.Iflater,withgrowthof industryderiving from thecreationof suchunit, all circulatingunits increased in worth, such increase in worth rarely caught up with theoriginaldeclineinworth,orpurchasingpowerofthosepreviouslyexistingunits.Thesteadydeclineinworthorpurchasingpower,oftheunitofexchangeatanyplace and in any period of history, will be sufficient proof in itself of theexistenceofsecretcreationandmanipulationofabstractunitsofexchangebyarelativelyinvisibleforce.Onlyundermostunusualcircumstanceswouldevenasharp rise in thenumberofpreciousmetalunitscirculating,causedistinctanddisturbing inflation of values,without an accompanying fraudulent, and secretexpansion of the total number of working units, through issuance of falsereceiptsagainstnon-existingvaluablesornon-existingwarehousedgoods,orbycreation of transferable ledger credit page entrymoney against assignment of“collateral”. Precious metal units in themselves soon wear out, disappear forpurposesofspeculationabroad,orarehoarded.Thusthecreationandissuanceofmoneyconstitutesfreegifttotheissuerwhensuchissuerbeprivateperson.Itautomaticallyandimmediatelydespoilshewhothinkshimself tohavemoneyor tobe apersonofworth. It is an indirect andhiddenformoftaxationnolessthananyothersuchindirectorhiddentax.[387]

If, continuing to speak of ancient times, such units of money, fraudulent orotherwise, were accepted by the simple folk as money, and seemed to serveequallywellashadserved that lawfulmoneyofearlier timesyetagain,whichhad been an order on the treasury or warehouses of the god of the city, thenindeed, such units were money to all intents and purposes of the immediateneedsofexchange.Thefactof their legal issuanceasa loanat interestagainstgoodsandservicesascollateralpledges,placedinthehandsoftheircreatorandissuer thepowerof totaldiscrimination, formerly recognizedasbeing the soleand absolute prerogative of the god, through his servants the priest-kings ofancienttimes;thosewhowerethecarriersofthebreathofLifeEternalfromGodto Man. As time went on, the fact of their creation, issue, acceptance, andeffectivenessintheexchanges,oncethepeoplehadresignedthemselvestoslowinflationofvalues,placedinthehandofthisprivatecreatoroftheseoriginallyfraudulentexchangeunits,All-Power!Whatever the material on which the units of exchange or their divisibles ormultipleswere recorded, the customer still thought in terms of silver, as eventodaymoststillthinkintermsofgoldthoughnonetospeakofhascirculatedforthirty five years or so. So long as the ruler concurred in the first place in theconspiracy todenominate theseexchangeunitsasbeingasacceptableas thosepreviously issuedby thegodandhispeople, andbetweenwhom thekinghadbeentheconnectinglink,thenthepowerofprefermentorrejectionwassooninthe hands of the banker as agent for what corresponded in that day to theinternationalbankersoftodaytotallyinoppositiontothatnaturalorderoflifeinwhichtheunitofexchangerepresentsthewillofthebenevolentgod.Needless to say, this person would not extend his preferment to those whoinstinct told him might be able to come to understand the real truth of theemptinessofthoseshadowedvaultsfromwhichhishandreachedforth.Itmightsafelybe assumed that discriminationwouldbe exercised against thosewhoseobliteration was included in the overall plans of those mystic, if not satanicfiguresthatlurkedintheinnersanctuariesoftemple,mint,orcountinghouse;inwhichsecretplaceswereformulatedthosepoliciesthatdecidedthepromotionorotherwiseofkings,tyrants,dictators,orpoliticalparties.Theextraordinarywealthandpoweraccordingtothestandardsofthedayofthissecretive, and apparently humble money power, is shown clearly by thefollowingextractfromBabelon:[388]“WeknowthattheGreekbankersweremoneychangers;allthemoreimportantfinancialtransactionswerenegotiatedthroughtheiragency.Theircounterswerethemeetingplaceofbusinessmanand thestockmarket.Theycontrolledat the

sametimethesea-bornetrade,andtheaffairsofthecaravans,aboveall,inAsiaMinor.Theexploitationofmineswasoften in theirhands.Theseguardiansoftreasure received the precious metal deposits belonging to private persons ortraders, keeping open account for their clients, thus accumulating enormousamounts; they hoarded, they loaned to Princes as well as private individuals.Listen then to the story of Nicholas of Damascus more eloquent than anycommentary:‘Wishing to carry the war into Caria, Alyatte, King of Lydia (610-561 B.C.)gavetheordertohiscommanderstobringhimtheircontingentsatSardis,byacertain day. Amongst the generals chosen was Croesus, the oldest son of theKing, at that time Governor of Adramyttium and of the plain of Thebes.Negligentandprodigal,illregardedbyhisfatheronaccountofhisdissipations,very desirous of being received back into his father’s good graces, and ofconfoundinghiscalumniators,butnothavingthewherewithal toraiseandhiremercenaries, the young Prince, in order to overcome his embarrassment,resolvedtocontractaloan.WiththispurposeinmindhesoughtoutSadyattes,the richestmerchantofLydia.Thisperson,occupiedwithhisablutions, firstlyletCroesuswaitimpatientlyathisdoor.Thenheagreedtoreceivehim,butthiswasonly to refusehimmoney; ‘If Imust lend to all the sonsofAlyattes,’ hecried,‘therewillnotbeenough!’Rebuffed, Croesus proceeded to Ephesus. There, an Ionian friend, Pamphaes,learningthereasonofhisvisit,obtainedasumofathousandgoldstatersfromhisfather,Theocharides,whowaspossessedofconsiderablefortune,andwhichhe hastened to bring to the necessitous prince. Thanks to these subsidies,Croesus, furnished with troops, was the first of all at the rendez-vous, andregainedthefavourofhisfatherwhotookhiminaspartnerinthisexpedition.’Croesus later on revenged himself on Sadyattes who had turned him away,confiscatinghistreasuretotheendowmentofthetempleofArtemisatEphesus.The plunder taken from the unhappy banker was large enough to make twopillarsofgoldandthegoldencalves,withwhichthetempleoftheGoddesswasadorned.LaterweseeabankerofCaelenae,Pythias,ofLydianextraction,makeagifttoKingDariusofaplanetreeingoldandavineingold.Somewhileafterwards,doubtless in fear that his immense fortune might only come to excite thecovetousnessoftheprince,Pythiasmadeuphismindtowardoffthedangerbymakingaconcession.SpontaneouslyheofferedXerxessubsidiesforthewar.AstheGreatKingwasquestioninghim inkindly curiosity as to the extentofhiswealth, the banker confessed, notwithoutmisgivings that he possessed in his

coffers two thousand talents of silver, and that he was short of four milliondarics,byonlyseventhousanddarics.Sadyattes, Theocharides, Pamphaes, Pythias, wealthy guardians of treasure,possessing the confidence of the public who as well as princes, envied theirriches,struckmonetaryingotsinthedoorwayoftheircountinghouses.”The above excerpt fromBabelon andNicholas ofDamascus illustrates a clearcutcaseinancientdaysofeffortbymoneypowertocontrolpoliticalsuccession;for thereal reasonof therefusalbySadyattesof the loan toCroesus,althoughnotrecordedbyBabelon,wasthatSadyatteshadalreadypledgedhimselftothesupport of Panteleon, Croesus’ half-brother[389] and probably was also thesourceoftherumoursinregardtothe“unsuitability”ofCroesusforsuccessionto the throne, and theunsatisfactory reports toAlyattes.Panteleonwas clearlymore “suitable,” and more “pliable” than the strong minded Croesus, who,Sadyattes probably knew via his spies, would be his enemy; although hisoffensiveconducttowardsaroyalsonwouldsuggestheconsideredhispositioninviolable.ThesurlyarroganceofthisSadyattesincausingtheyoungCroesustowait at the door, and then refusing him his request in no pleasantmanner, sotypicalof thisclassofperson today,asmuchas inCroesus’day,undoubtedlycausedCroesus to enquire a littlemoredeeply into this preciousmetalmoney“Racket”whenhe finallydidbecomeking, a “racket”whichallowed lowandunsavourypersonstomakeamockeryofkingship.Theresultsofhisenquiriesundoubtedly showed him that above all, for his kingship to be meaningful,monetaryemissionhadtoberemovedfromthecontrolofprivatepersons.Furtherevidenceofhistorywouldsuggest,inLydiaatleast,Croesusdestroyedthe arrogance and power to subversion of this class of persons, not the mostnoble amongst his subjects, by the institution of the issue of equalweights ofprecious metal or coin, as state prerogative; thus, he thought, returning tohimselfasrepresentativeofthegodonearth, thatessentialpowersonecessarytowards the maintenance of true order in life, the total control of monetaryemission. That the reputed fate of Croesus after conquest by Cyrus, the newPersianMonarch, founderof theAchaemenidDynastysomewhat lateron,wasinfluenced by the longing for revenge of those leaders of finance in BabylonCity,inonewayoranotherthemainforcebehindCyrusandhisconquestsandfor whom Sadyattes would very likely have been important agent or co-conspirator,aspreviouslypointedout,seemsreasonablesupposition.Hencetherealsourceofthesorapiddecayofallrelativelyrecentcivilizationsandsocalledempiresofthelast6000years,whoseestablishmentwassooftendue to the behind the scenes activities of bankers as agents for what was

necessarily an internationally spread network of bullion interests, was thecompletedearth in the laterdaysof suchcivilizationsor empires,ofdeanandnoblemeninplacesofcontrolandpower.Such natural and truly dedicated leadership had been destroyed, either by theplanneddiscriminatoryactivitiesof thebankers,orby theneverdying firesofwar thatmaintainedtheseso-called“Empires”.Theirplaceshadbeentakenbytheprogenyoftheirslaves,or,asinSparta,bytheirwomen.Clearly in that day almost all money in circulation arrived there created andissuedbyprivatepersonsofaclassstrangertothewholeworld,andwhoseonlyguidewasnevermorethantheirindifferencetothemiseriesofmankind.Today,despitethecontinuanceofthenaïvebeliefofthosewhotoilfromdaytoday,thatthis money is created and injected into the circulation by the presumablybenevolentwillof thestate, it is thesameas in thedaysof thecorruptionandcrumbling of the god-given distribution systems of theAncient Orient, in theface of the attack on their integrity, by the privately issued commoditycurrenciesofsilver.Thisattacklaterhavingbeenintensifiedwhen,asaresultofthestrippingoftheornamentationfromtombandtemple,bothinEgypt,andrightacrosstheancientoriental world, that silver apex to the inverted pyramid of abstract money bywhich the great banking houses were manipulating the exchanges, becamefurtheraugmentedbygold, themagicmetal so longdedicated toornament forthegod-kings,inlifeasindeath,ortoholyritual.Thatburningmetal,almostagod in itself, now falling into the greasy hands of the money-changers,exchangedwithsilver in theratio,sofaras themiddleEastwasconcerned,ofabout13:1.[390]SofarasancientPersianandGreekhistoryisconcerned,itwillbequitesafetosaythattheapparentbeneficiariesofsuchsystemwerefrontmenforawiderandmoreinternationalsystemextendingfromChinatoBritain,ofwhichevidenceinChina may have been that strange Hebrew community whose decayingfragmentswerefoundsouthofPekinbytheJesuitswhoenteredChinainthe17thCentury;acommunitythatknewnothingoftheTalmud,orofJesusChrist,andwho consequently thought in terms of Christians as in terms of a sect ofthemselves,andwhoundoubtedlywerethedescendantsoftheagentsofamostancient trading community.[391] The evidence of this world wide financialsysteminBritainexistsinthegoldstatersoftheIceni,Cassivellauni,Brigantesetc. still existing,[392] and which circulated there long before Julius Caesar.AlthoughgoldwasobtainedinWalesandinIreland,itsuseasmoneycouldonlyhave been inspired and organized from that central point where the original

staterswereminted,theNearEastandthecitieswhereindweltthecontrollersofinternationaltradeandmining.Amongstotherprinciplesofpoliticalcontrolbymoneypower,certainlyoneofthemostimportantofall,usedinancienttimes,justasmuchastoday,wasthatwhichisknownasliberalism.Liberalisminsimplifiedlanguagemeaningthathewhohathshallgivetohimwhohathnot;notsomuchoutofpropercharity,butso that he who hath not may come to put his foot on the neck of him who(formerly)had,andwhonowfoolishlygiveshimhisownstrength.Thusmoneypower, by injecting liberalism along the very arteries of society through thoseundergroundchannelsunderitscontrol,madesurethatwhatmightbedescribedinthelanguageoftodayas“PermanentRevolution,”wouldpreventanypowergroupfromhavingcontrollongenoughtoseethetruesourceofthatwhichisthepoweroftheruler,ifheistotrulybeinthesaddle,namely,monetaryemission.Money Power, then as today, fully understood the necessity towards thecontinuanceofitshegemony,ofthepromotionamongsttheleadingfamiliesofthestatesofcorruptpersonswhotookpleasureindestroyingtheirown;personsbasically corrupt who had deeply drunk of the poison of liberalism, personspossessed of thewealth of kings because so pleasing to the central designingforce, though at the same time having the natural outlook of the slave. trulystrangecombination!Onesuchfamilyidentifiedinancienttimeswiththepromotionofliberalismanditsattendantsister,welfarism,bothequallybeneficialtomoneypower,wasthatAthenian family known as the Alkmeonidae, who, although suspected at thetimeoftheBattleofMarathon(490B.C.)asbeingthesourceoftheheliographthat sent information across the bay ofMarathon to the Persian commanders,[393] strangely enough continued to maintain power and place at Athens.Equallystrangehadbeentheawardingof thecontractfor therebuildingof theTempleatDelphiafterithadbeenburneddown(548B.C.),tothissamefamilyinexilefromAthens.Aspreviouslysurmised,InternationalMoneyPoweraboveallmusthavesoughtcontrol of the great temples and oracles. Delphi was such, and the oracle atDelphi was highly regarded over the ancient world. The building of a majortemplewasagiftwhichmusthavebeenarrangedby those interestswhowerebestofallservedbythefamilypoliciesoftheAlkmeonidae.ItmightsafelybesaidthatifthissamefamilyhadbeenrejectedbyAthens,thegiftcamefromthatfinancial force whose favour they had clearly enjoyed from generation togeneration:namelythemoneypowerthatguidedthepoliciesoftheAchaemenidRulersofPersiaandBabylonia.

Pericles, scion of this notorious family, while being the front man for thoseforcesdrivingAthensintowarwithSparta,wastheinstigatoroftheDonativesand later, of theorica,[394]outstandinglyundermining factor toAthenian self-esteemandnationalmorale.TheoricaallowedtwooboliperpersontothelesseeoftheOratorium[395]andthustwocorruptpurposeswereserved:

1. Itmadesureallorat leastagreatpartof thecitizenryattended theplays, thus keeping their minds off more serious matters as do cinema andtelevisionparticularly in thisday;moreespeciallykeeping theirmindsoff thatmostseriousmatterofallwhichistrueunderstandingofpolitics;inotherwords,understandingofthemeaningoftheessentialforcesthatguidedtheirexistence.

2. It assured the lesseeof theOratorium (and thatpoliticianwhomostpromotedhisinterests),acertainprofit.A third purposewould also have been served, although there is absolutely norecord that says so: themaintenance of an unbalanced budget and consequentstimulationofgovernmentindebtednesstoprivatemoneycreativepower,i.e.thebankers.IfthesophisticationofSalesTaxwasknowntoPericleanAthens,[396]itmaysafelybeassumedwerealsoknownthesophisticatedpracticesinrelationtogovernment indebtedness aspractisedparticularly inAnglo-Saxoncountriestoday.[397]Officially theoricawasdrawnfromthefundforwarpreparedness.Theonlyconclusion thatcanbedrawnas to the truemeaning thereforeof theestablishment of theorica,[398] so far as the bankers were concerned, was tofurther increase necessity of government borrowing in time of war, and sostrengthen the hold of that so called National Debt almost certainly held bythemselves.[399]Thustheprinciplesofthetotalhegemonyofprivatemoneycreativepowerwereasclearlyunderstoodby itsmastersyesterday,asmuchas theyare today.Thelimitingfactorstothecompletedestructionwithwhichwearenowthreatenedasa result of the flare-up in this all consuming cancerwhich began about somethreehundredyearsago,andnowragesonvirtuallyuncontrollable,were,atthattime,thatkingsandcouncilsstillruled,andkingsstillthoughtofthemselvesasthesonsofGod,thesavioursoftheirpeoples.Ifinanywaytheyhadunderstoodthe malignance of this growth that had penetrated the sub-structure of life itwould have been short shrift for its controllers. Hence the necessity for anabsolute secrecy most restrictive in its effects. Clay, the material on whichrecords were kept throughout Babylonia at least, did not have any of thepotentialofpapersofaraswentthekeepingofrecords.Parchmentandpapyruswhile not standing up to constant use, were becoming increasingly rare andexpensive, and vellum, relatively rare, was not known until the time of

Pergamumwhere the firstbookswrittenon thismaterialappeared in198B.C.[400]Neither did those states escape a certain international control of their moneysuchasdidnotadopt the relativelynew ideaofcoinedpreciousmetalmoney,but continued to use copper, bronze orichalcum, or iron, and whose valuedependedon thescarcityorotherwiseof itscirculatingsymbols relative to theneedforthem;designatedafiduciarymoney.Forinstance,inthecaseofGreece,thesilverbullionbrokerswhowereclearlybasedatAthens,obviouslywouldbeabletocontroltheexchangeratesofsuchcities as used their own fiduciary or national currencies,[401] if, as usuallywould be the case, such cities sought the good graces of Athens towardsobtainingfoodandrawmaterialsandtowardsmarketingtheirmanufactures.Thus,throughtheexchangerates,thebankersandbulliontraderswouldalsobeable toexercise somecontrolover thepolitical lifeof suchcities.TheCityofAthensitself,itsmonetarysystembaseddirectlyontheirinternationallyrequiredproducts,silverandgold,wasclearlyundertheirimmediatecontrol.Ifthestateownedthemints,ofwhich thereseemstobenoknowledge, itwouldmakenodifference.Thestatesownthemints todayforwhat itmeans;whichis littleornothingsofarasgoescontrolofMonetaryEmission.[402]With the end of the bronze age inwarfare, from one end of theworld to theother, enormous amounts of copper and bronze must have come on to themarketsoftheworldasscrap;muchofwhichwouldhavebeenobtainedatlittlemorethanthecostofitsremovalfromnationalarsenalsbythemoneychangersortheiragents.Where copper and bronze fiduciaries, as at Rome, circulated at values manytimes more than their value by weight of metal on the international bullionmarkets,relativetotheirvalueinsilverorgoldbullion,clearlysuchcopperandbronze bullion such as came on to themarkets asmilitary scrap, would havebeenmoreuseful towardsthecounterfeitingofsuchcurrencies, thansoldat itsbullionvalue.Forinstance,ifthevalueofonelibraofcopperasofferedonthebullionmarket(ifsuchcouldexist)atRomewasoneAes,thevalueofamintedAesofonelibraweightinanovervaluationofthemintedcoinrelativetocopperbullion prices internationally,would be as the demand for them rose and fell,accordingtosupplyanddemand.ItappearsthatatRomeduringthemiddleCommonwealth,theovervaluationoftheAesrelativetothesameweightofbullionwas400-500%;inthecountrysideandmoredistantcoloniesoftenbeingfarmore.Ifinlattertimes(duringthe18th

CenturyA.D.),thecopperroubleofczaristRussia,issuedatanovervaluationofup to 800% according to the value of copper bullion relative to the priceinternationallyof silverbullion,[403]brought intoRussia avery inundationofcounterfeits minted inWestern Europe,[404] clearly the of Aes at substantialovervaluation,made the creation and of counterfeit coin an equally profitableaffairinancientRome.Thus international money power would have succeeded in diminishing thebeneficial effects of such national currency, continuing to use Rome as theexample, bymass counterfeiting, which would have seen rapid increase oncegoldandsilvercommencedtocirculatealongsidetheAesaftertheSecondPunicWar. Clearly the main purpose of the counterfeiters, then, as agents in somedegreeoftheinternationalsilverbulliontraders,wouldbetoinjecttheircopperorbronzecounterfeits intocirculationat thebestovervaluationpossible,whichwould be through moneylending in the provinces, at the same time requiringrepayment,ifpossible,insilverandgold.Hencethesteadydisappearanceoftheprecious metals from the circulation, was either due to the activities of thesmaller moneylenders dealing in counterfeit, or due to the activities of theArgentariiorNumulariimakingloansinexactlythesamemannerasthebankerstoday, loanswhichnever saw lightasmoney,beingalwayscheques in transit,butwhich,inthefinalrepaymentwereasoftenasnot,gold,silver,orAes; thelaterbeing immediatelyconvertible intogoldor silver,whichseems largely tohavethenmovedEastward.This disappearance of the preciousmetals from the circulation[405] Eastwardseemstohavebeenafactor inspiring thevehemenceofCicero inhisOration:Pro Flaccus. The indignation of Cicero as recorded in this Orationmay betraced to the indifference of certain persons who lived close to the Aureliansteps, to thegoodof theRomanStatewherein they livedandwhosesolidarityenabled them to arrange to havemobs intimidate the proceedings of the courtwhichheardaperson,probablyamemberof thebankingfamilyknownas theLollii,[406]attempttosmearthereputationofLuciusFlaccus,who,asPraetorofSyria, had issued edict forbidding thismovement of preciousmetalsEastwardfordepositattheTempleinJerusalem.[407]OfRoman banking the great 19th century scholars,Mommsen andMarquardt,wrote:[408]“Theconductofbankingwasdoneforthemostpartthroughtheintermediaryofthe argentarii and of nummularii: these last were known under the name ofcollectariimensularii.IncountriesofGreekorigintherewasakindofstatebankas at Tenos, at Ilium, and at Temnos inAeolide; theywere also in Egypt: in

everyNomewasfoundabeneaththedirectionofaroyalemployee,andthroughhimas intermediary itwascustomary tomakecertaincontractsandpayments.Among the Romans, on the contrary, it was only in the most extraordinarycircumstances that public banks were organized under the direction of statefunctionaries(mensapublica);thusamongstothers,in402-352(B.C.)underthedirectionofquinquivirimensarii, inordertofacilitatetheliquidationofdebts,by advancesmade against guarantees,with state funds, and during the period538 to 543-216 to 211B.C. for different reasons, and finally to carry out thecollectionoffundsloanedfreetothestate.Itwasabout that time that the tabernaeargentariaewereestablishedofwhichthefirstindicationsarein443-399B.C.;oftenoccurringlateron.It is throughtheintermediaryoftheargentarii thatmostpaymentsweremade,as also theywere entrustedwith the collection ofmoneys due, the placing ofcapitals at interest, the sale ofmerchandise, and particularly the liquidation ofestates byway of auction sales and finally investments of all kinds; exchangetransactions, notably the changing of foreign moneys and the sale of Romanmoneyappearoriginallytohavebeenreservedtothenummularii.Under thisheadingwemust firstofall takea lookat thedealers inexchange,whohad tocheck thequalificationsofnewmoney;assuch theyseemtohavehad amensa from which they put new money into circulation, taking in thecourseof their businessoldmoney aswell as foreignmoney, and itwas theircustom to set the rates of exchange; outside of Rome the publicae mensaenummulariorum appeared to have existed. In second place this descriptionapplied to private personswhose businesswas dealing in the preciousmetals.Concurrentlywith theargentarii, theyconductedall theactivities thatgowithbankingbusiness;theyacceptedcapitalsfordeposit,theymadepaymentsfortheaccount of other people, they placed capitals at interest and for exchangetransactions they levied a charge or bonus. these bankers, the argentarii, thesame as the nummularii, were placed under the surveillance of statefunctionaries,praefectusurbi,atRomeduringtheempire,andintheprovincesunder the surveillance of the governor.Theywere probably the subject of thegrantingofafranchise,or investiture, thatwasonlyaccordedtoaverylimitednumber of people; in the case of dispute they were obliged to produce theirbooks(rationesedere),whichwereevidenceofpaymentsmadeandtransactionsenteredinto.Fortheirfranchisetheyweresubjectedtolegalregimentation.These books were of three kinds: in the first place was a cash book, codexaccepti et expensi in which in order of date were recorded the deposits andwithdrawalsof theargentariuswithmentionof thenatureof thebusiness and

the names of the persons interested. In second place, a running account(rationes, liber rationum) in which the banking operations of the argentariuswith every person involvedwere kept by debit and credit; thanks towhich, itcouldbeknownatamomentsnoticehowmuchthemerchantwasowedbyeveryoneofhisclients,andhowmuchhehadtopayouttohim.Inthirdplaceabookwaskept,adversaria,inwhichwaspreservedrecordofthetransactions under way, and even having their designation in code. Amongstthesebooks,thatwhichispeculiartotheargentarii,istherunningaccountbook,renderednecessaryby thegreat numberof transactions; the cashbook, on thecontrary, inwhichwereenteredbyorderofdate thedepositsandwithdrawals,expensumferre,acceptumreferre,waskeptbyeveryheadofafamilyuntiltheIIIrdcenturyA.D.,inwhichperiodthiscustomfellintodisuse.mensae scripturae: The mensae scripturae served in that which touched theactivitiesofbanking,asmuchtoestablishcontract,astofurnishproof,andthegreater part of payments were effected by transcriptions and endorsementsrecordedin theaccountbooksof theargentarii;directpayment(domoexarcasua)was rarelymade, but itwasveryoftenmade through the intermediaryofbankers(demensascriptura),whethermoneyshadbeendepositedwiththemforwhichtheywereobligedtogiveaccount(rationemreddere),orwhether ithadbeen possible to open a credit with them out of which they made paymentfollowinganassignment.”Theaboveexcerptfromtheworksoftwoscholarsofvastlearning,isrevealing.No doubt will be left with the reader who understands modern day bankingpractices, that justas in today95%ofallmoney incirculation, ischequesandassignmentsintransit,oftenwrittenagainstcreditsgrantedbybankerswherenoactual funds previously existed, but however without which the drive andturmoilofthiscivilizationcouldnothavecometobe,soitwasinRomeandinGreece. Indeed, for all those movements of vast armies, and for all thosemovements of peoples through the consequent sale and transfer of slaves, andfortheerectionofallthosegreatworksinstone,manyofwhichstillstand,fromthepillarsofHerculestoParthiaandArabia,theinstigativefactorwasthesameas the instigativefactorbehindall themightyworksandmysteriesof today. Itwasnoneotherthanthedrivingforceofthatabstractmoneythatnonecansee,but that functions just the same as that which can be seen, the mysterious“Credit”ofthebanker;forcethatoncehadbeenthewillofabenevolentgod,butnowwasaninstrumenttowardsthewilfulredesignandenslavementofmankind.In the lateRomanCommonwealth and the early Empire, the assignments andchequesintransitmaynothaveequalled95%ofallmoneyincirculation,andit

isbynomeansimpossiblethattheywereevenmore,takingintoaccountthefactthat today’shighspeedprintingpressesandcoiningmachines, thefountof the5%ofthecirculationthatcanbeseen,cancreatethesevisibleunitsonwhichtheinvertedpyramidoftheinvisibleunitsiserected,atahundredthousandormoretimes thespeedofslavesstrikingandfinishingmetalunitsofmoneybyhand.[409]InHarpersDictionaryofClassicalLiteratureandAntiquities,Romanbankingisdealtwithasfollows,incloseagreementwithMommsenandMarquardt:.“TheArgentariusthusdidalmostthesamesortofbusinessasamodernbanker.Manypersonsentrustedalltheircapitaltothem(Cicero:Pro.Caec.6.16)andinstancesinwhichtheargentariimadepaymentsinthenameofthosewhosemoneytheyhadinhand,arementionedveryfrequently.Apaymentmadethroughabankerwascalledpermensam,demensaorpermensaescripturam,whileapaymentmadebythedebtorinpersonwasapaymentexarcaordedomo.Anargentariusneverpaidawayanyperson’smoneywithout receivingacheque (perscriptio),and the payment was thenmade either in cash, or, if the person who was toreceiveitkeptanaccountwiththesamebanker,hehaditaddedinthebanker’sbook,tohisdeposit.Thiswaslikewisecalledperscribereorsimplyscribere.wealsofindthatargentariimadepaymentsforpersonswhohadnotdepositedanymoneywiththem:thiswasequivalenttolendingmoney;whichinfacttheyoftendidforacertainpercentageofinterest.”[410]ThusbankingwascarriedoninalmostthesamemannerintheRomanworldasin our world of today, and to those who understand the significance of thepracticesofmoderndaybanking,nothingcouldbeclearer.Eventheostentatiousdisplayofametalsafetydepositvaultisrecordedbytheantiquarian,Lanciana,[411] of the time of Hadrian; doubtless to encourage people to leave theirvaluableswiththebankandsostrengthentheir“confidence.”In theearlierdayswhen thesenatewas trulygovernment in thesaddle, that isuntil theendof theintegrityof thenumericalcurrency,withtheresumptionofthe striking of silver money and therefore reentry into the orbit of the silverbullionbrokers,miningofthepreciousmetalshadbeenforbiddeninItaly,[412]andcoppermininghadbeenstatemonopoly,clearlyindicatingthefutilityofanydiscussionofwhetherthestrikingofcoinagehadbeenfreeorotherwise.Wherethe policy of the state had been to maintain an overvaluation of its bronzecoinage relative tobullionprices,[413] it isquite clear that it could innowaypermitprivateindividualstheprivilegeofthemints,freeorotherwise.Todosowould be to concede them the right and the power tomanipulate price levels,andso,confounding theeconomy,dismay the rulers.Thus itwasnotuntil the

timeofCicero thatevidenceappearsofprivatepersonsbringingbullion to themints,[414] significantly coincidental with the general collapse of the ancientmanners, and the essential forces that had guided Rome, as is described bySallust.Such matters of state finance seem to have been well understood during themiddle commonwealth. However, as a result of the second Punic war andTrasimeno and Cannae[415] and the desperate need to rearm quickly thatfollowedtheseunfortunatebattles,Romeclearlyhadbeenobligedtoallowthewholecurrencysystemtobecomebasedontheinternationalvaluationofsilveras common denominator of values. She also had been obliged to permit thereduction of the value of theaes coinage to the value of itsweight as bronzebullionrelativetothearbitraryvalueinternationallyofsilverbullion.It follows that it was only after Rome had thus surrendered much of hersovereign prerogative in money matters to the international silver bullionbrokers, reluctantly, as was shown by subsequent events, that growth ofliberalism, and consequent undermining of themorale of the people and theirgovernment,finallygaverisetothewarlordsknownastheTriumvirateandthebeginning of rulewhichmight best be described as complete negation of thatwhichhadbeengovernmentbydecreeofthesenate.WiththerecklessabuseofthepowersoftheirImperiumthroughthosebankerswhosupportedthem,particularlyinrelationtotheirrighttostrikemoneyinthefield, the warlords derived virtual independence from the auctoritas of analreadycorruptedsenateandwhen,in23B.C.,theaescoinagewhichhadbeenthe backbone of the Republic, was returned to the senate with S.C. SenatusConsulto (by decree of the senate)[416] stamped thereon, it was more in thenatureofaconcessiontoadignityandauthoritythatoncehadbeentherealityguiding Roman political life, but now had become a meaningless front, ashadow.Thuswith theriseof thewarlords,whowere ineffect,would-be tyrantsunderarms,eachwithhisownMoneyPower,wasthetriumphoftheempireconcept.In the case of Caesar, his supporting bankers appear to have been the L.CorneliusBalbaforwhomtheA.HirtiusofCaesar’saescoinageasissuedinthecountry of the Treveri in Gaul, seems to have been agent with H. Clovius,emittorinCisalpineGaulofCaesar’sorichalcum(brass)issues.AlsoC.VibiusPansaandQ.SulpiciusRufus,allofwhomaredescribedbyMichaelGrantas“eminent financiers.”[417]Of this periodAn Encyclopaedia ofWorldHistorysays:“If thecrossingof theRubiconmarked thefinal fallof theRepublic, thebattleofActiumsignalizedthefinaltriumphoftheEmpire.Thelastcenturyof

therepublicwascharacterisedbythecollapseofpopulargovernment,becauseofthewideextensionofthecitizenship,theconsiderableadulterationofthecitizenbodyatRomebytheintroductionofun-Romanizedorientals,chieflythroughthemanumissionof slaves, thegrowth inRomeof anunemployedproletariat, therise of demagogues, and the complexity of the problems of government. Theincreasinglycorruptsenatehadlostcontroloftheassemblies,thearmiesandthegenerals.The financiers aswell as the governors, saw in the provinces only afieldforexploitation.”[418]ClearlymoneyersandbankersreignedsupremeasfarasitwaspossiblebehindsomepowerfulmilitaryfiguresuchashadbeenCaesarorAnthonyorOctavian,or in some measure of direct authority as seems to have been the case withSosius, moneyer and financial organizer to Anthony, who also came from abanking family. The same Sosius when quaestor and governor of Syria andCilicia,dethronedAntigonus,thelastoftheHasmoneankingsofJerusalemin37B.C. after six months siege, replacing him with Herod, later known as “TheGreat,”firstoftheIdumeanlineinthatcity.[419]ConsideringhowextensiveapartthecoinageofSosiushadplayedinthefortune(or lack of fortune) of Anthony, Sosius was lucky to have been spared byOctavian.[420]TheabsenceofHerodfromthedecidingbattleofthecivilwars,the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) under the excuse that he was detained moreurgently inArabia fighting theKingofArabiaonAnthony’sbehalf,[421]maybe the answer here.NodoubtSosius, in the sameway as anygoodbanker inancientorinmoderntimes,knewhowtokeepafootineachcamp;equallywisewas also his friend Herod. Q. Oppius who emitted the orichalcum coinageinauguratedbyAnthony,alsoappearstohavebelongedtoawellknownfamilyofbankers.[422]ThenameofthebankersbehindAugustusdoesnotappeartobeknown,buttheextentof theirmassiveoperations is revealedby thewidespread circulationoftheir heavyweightaes coinage from theirmint atNemausen, right across theEmpire;fromBritain,toPortugal,toPannonia.[423]Itmaysafelybeconcludedthattheircoinagecirculatedwithoutdiscountandatparvaluewithallotheraescoinage previous or present, state issued, or otherwise, or by imperium orauctoritas.Thequestionwouldbe:wasthisexcellentandadequatecoinagewhichsowellmet the needs of great military and civil day to day expenditures, and whichundoubtedlywastheoriginofthesureaccessiontopowerofAugustus,emittedbyanorganizationofsimilarcharacter totheBankofEnglandofrecentworldpower,ormorerecentlyagain,theFederalReserveBankoftheUnitedStatesof

America?Both ofwhich, though apparently state departments, in realitywereprivate international organizations set up by the international circle of bulliontraders,or,astheyarenowgenerallyknown,theInternationalBankers.Thatwhichseemstobeclearoutofthefragmentsofinformationexisting,isthattherewasnosuchthingasapermanentinterestbearingstateindebtednessuntiltheperiodwhichmaymarkthebeginningofthedeclineofimperialRome;thesignificanceofwhichisthatnoRomanGovernmenteverentirelylostcontrolofthat power so essential to the maintenance of its sovereignty, the power todirectlyinjecttheunitofexchangeintocirculationasaccordingtoitsownneeds.Ofthisperioduntilthe3rdCenturyA.D.themostlearnedProfessorHeichelheimwrote:“TherewereregularlendingassociationswhileusuryconstitutedquiteanimportantiteminthelegalprovisionsoftheCorpusIurisandtheTalmud.OnlyStateUsurywasrare,fortheRomanStatewasstillinasupremeposition.[424]Atthemost,autonomousareasweretheonlyexceptionshere.Largeinterestfreeloansadvancedtothestatebyindividualcitizensorchancepatronsforrewardintheformofhonoursorothermoreindirectadvantage,werequitefrequentuptothe3rdCenturyA.D.”[425]However, it may reasonably be assumed that even during the period of theCommonwealth and the true greatness of the Roman people, though RomanGovernment had endeavoured tomonopolize all sources of thematerial of itstangible currency, and had prevented as much as possible the circulation ofpreciousmetal,whichclearlywouldunderminetheintegrityofthestateissuedunitofexchange, thegrandioseaes, it stillcouldnotpreventcounterfeits fromentering the circulation. It could not prevent the corrupt practices of orientalbanking after the extensive reentry of silver into the circulation as a result,clearly, of concessionsmade to the international bullion traders during the 2ndPunicwar,northereafterthefunctioningofGresham’sso-calledlawwhichsuchentailed.“Badmoneydrivesoutthegood”;which,ofcourse,dependsonwhatisbad and what is good! Nor, therefore, could it control the extent in absolute,right across the Roman Empire, of the activities of that underground thatgarnered the precious metal from the circulation for more profitable useelsewhere.AsaconsequenceoftherejectionbygrowingandpowerfulstatessuchasRomeof the early andmiddle commonwealth of the claimof silver bullion intereststhatalltangiblemoneyshouldbefoundedontheirproductasbaseandcommondenominatorofvalues,andthecreationandpayingintocirculationoftheirowntangiblemoney,withvaluederivingfromitsscarcityorotherwise,usinglargelycopper or bronze as the material on which its numbers were recorded, as

previously pointed out, much copper or bronze that came the way of theinternationalbullionbrokerswould,undoubtedlyhavebeenused inwhatmusthave been an extensive industry devoted to counterfeiting of these fiduciarycurrencies. The product of this industry which would have been carried onabroad no doubt, while yielding handsome profit, through disturbance of thatmass of abstract money based on the tangible currencies into which suchproductswouldhavebeeninjected,wouldalsocreateinstabilityofpriceinthestatesconcerned.Thus would be created conditions in which foreign money lenders would bebetter able to flourish, and secure the establishment of their own peculiarsystemsofprivatemoneyemissionbasedusuallyonthefictionofvaluablesondeposit for safe-keeping.Under such systems,when fully underway, the nextstep would be political control through so called political parties that suchmoney power would bring into being, each necessarily dedicated to some“cause” through a so-called “Leader,” also chosen through the agencyof suchmoneypowerandbythoseforcesitcontrolled.Suchleaderswouldbe“suitable”men, and would be chosen because pliable and, too often, naturally corrupt.Raisedaslikelyasnotfromthelowerranksofsociety,andthereforedazedbythe dizzy heights to which fortune had lifted them, suchmenwould bemostlikely to carry outwithout question the policies required for the fulfilment oftheir master’s purposes and dreams; principally that of World Government;which should raise such masters, strange thought though it might be, to thepositionofworldrulers,andthereforeheirsofthegod-kingsofancientdays,intheir owneyes; although to the eyeof any clear-seeingman theymight betterhave been called the anti-god, or in the language of the naïveChristians of asomewhatlatertimetothegod-kings,demons.

SMANPROPOSESBUTGODDISPOSES

o speaking ofOneWorld and ofWorldRule, a vision stirs of a distantpast,andofeffortstowardsWorldRuleinasmallerworldofanotherday;a past of which so little remains other than shattered columns, cracked

vases, a few precious metal coins and baked clay facsimiles thereof, and thewritings of relatively a handful of the best of a former day, amongst which,strangely enough, still exist the works of the propagandists for money powersuchasXenophon,and,assomesay,Thucydides.Behind these scattered fragments and the unseen but still existing remains ofmillionsofdeadthatliebeneathlandandsea,consumedintheconstantwarsofthose ancient days, is the enigmatic vision of those half-Greek men amongsttheir records in the counting houses of Athens and the Piraeus, and the clearpicture of them and their “Boy,” Pericles, scion of that line of the shiftyAlkmeonidae,preparingundertheirguidance,plansforthat“GreatWar”whichwould extend their financial hegemony across the whole Grecian world. Ifeventsproceededalongthoselinesinwhichtheywouldseetoitthattheywereguided, then,whoknows?perhapsasaconsequence, their financialhegemonymightintimebebroughttospreadacrossthewholeworld.ONEWORLDmight,asaresultoftheschemingoftheirfeveredbrains,bebroughttoreality.Thisempirewasnowcompletelycontrolledby them.AfterKlearchos,and theedict of 432 B.C. in which the Athenian allies were forbidden to use anystandardotherthanthatofAttica,followedbytheedictof415B.C.inwhichthemintingofsilverwasaltogetherforbiddenthem,theAthenianEmpiremusthavefallentotallyunderthecontrolofthebanks.Theedictorderingthesubjectalliesto contribute money instead of ships, meant that they were to be drained ofsilver.Whenthesilverwasgone,theywouldbeobligedtocomehatinhandtothe Piraeus for that which the “Great” Bankers were now lending as moneyagainstrealcollateral;entriesinthecreditpageoftheirledger,orclayfacsimilesofsilverandgoldmoneywhichoncehadbeen.Thiswarwouldgive thebankerscompletecontrolofGreeceandall that suchcould bring about through their financial guidance.Nonewould flourish fromColchis[426] to Illyria except they so willed it. The instrument which wasAthensanditsallieswouldfinallyandforeverdestroythatSpartanhegemonyinthePeloponnese thathadso longdenied thementry,andhadrefused toaccepttheir terms, and permit the circulation of that which they through trade and

money. All that proud Dorian aristocracy of the Peloponnese would beexterminated,asthesebankershadarrangedlongsinceforthearistocracyofsomanyotherstatesandcitiesoftheworld.Theirownfutureasapeopledestinedto be lord over all,would be secure, except thosewretched political hacks ofAthenscouldbecalledtheirpeers.Goneforeverwouldbetheironandleathermoney of the Lacedaemonians, over whose issues they had no control, noforeign pedlars being permitted, no “Businessmen,” nor trade in importedluxuries.Sowiththisvisionbeforethem,thewarwouldcommence,andfromthatbloodandfirethattheythebankerswouldseetoitwouldsweeptheland,couldcomenothingbutgoodforthemastheyplannedintheshadowsintheinnerchambersofthecountinghousesofthePiraeus.Thesemenknewthatwhateverhappened,and the result was certain so they estimated, finally their agents would bepermittedthatwhichtheywantedaboveall:permanentresidenceinSparta,andtimeconsequentlytospreadthepoisonamongstthepeopleofSpartawhichonlytheyknewthebrewingoftosuchperfection,thepoisonofmoraldecay.Underthestressofwar,Sparta,throughtheagencyofitsageingkingArchidamos,whowasprivatelyfriendofthebanker’s“Boy,”Pericles,wouldsecretlyaccepttheirterms,andpermitthecirculationofthatwhichtheyloanedasmoney,andpermitprivate persons to possess and hoard silver and gold, which, through the“PrinciplesofBanking”wouldsoonbetheirsinanycase.Howeveritseemedasifeveninthatdayitcouldbesaid:Thebestlaidschemesofmice andmen gang aft a’gley!Awell planned stratagem that should haveestablishedforeverthebanker’sdreamofworldempirethroughthecreationofcommon money market embracing the whole world, and that would haveremoved all remaining resistance towards the realizationof suchdream, couldthey but settle once and for all the problem of Sparta, was frustrated; and ifsomethingapproachingsuchcommonmoneymarketfinallycameabout,itwasnotoutof theoriginal plan.Plague spread in fromEgypthavingoriginated inEthiopia; Athens particularly was stricken and by 427 B.C., three hundredknights,and four thousand, fourhundredof thearmouredhoplitesdrawnfromthebestoftheAthenianmiddleclasses,hadfallen,nottotheenemy,buttotheplague.Woe willed from on High! The deaths amongst women, artisans andslavesweremuchmore.Notmerelyweretheformerlymagnificentarmedforcesof theAthenians reduced to virtual ineffectiveness, so far as the original planwas concerned, but so was the civil war machine, economic or otherwise.sickness and death struck all and the rotting bodies of trapezitae or his slavewerethrownonthemassfuneralpyrestogetherwiththatofhopliteandhiswife.

With the flames consuming the dead, most of the immediate schemes of thebankers turned intoawispofsmokeanddisappeared into theheavenswithanaccompanyingodourofburntflesh.Thosepreciousmetalpieces,thosecopperfiduciaries,thoseclayfacsimiles,allthoseledgerentries,creditsagainstnofunds,moneycreatedoutofthethinairasbythehandofthegods,allthesewerethesecretofthatendlessurgeandturmoilof the city statesofGreece, andof the tumultwhich finally culminated in thedarkyearsofthatminiature“WorldWar,”outofwhichcouldcomenowinnerbuttheInternationalMoneyPower.The“GreatPeloponnesianWar,”asitcametobecalled,sawawholesystemoflifecrumblingtopieces,justasdidtheselasttwoso-called“Great”worldwarsofour time;and still in the final endingnotbeingreplacedbythatsystemmostlongedforbythosewhohaveguidedussofaralongthisroadofhopelessness.Inthesebriefmomentsoftimesincethefallofsomuchofancientways;faintlydiscernibleasbeginningabouttheperiodofthecollapseoftheMiddleKingdomin Egypt under the impact of the horses and chariots of theHyksos, and thatperiodofturmoilanddestructionamongstwhichwasthefallofthatUrofIbi-Sin,thelastgreatrulerofSumerbeforeitwaseclipsedinitsdayofglorybyallthose Semitic peoples spreading Southward, so that even its language almostdisappeared.[427]Godseems tohavemoreandmorewithdrawnhis face frommankind,nowmovingwithoutguidealongtheuncertainwaysoftime.OnethingstandsoutclearlyfromthefittingtransferofLedgerCreditPageEntryMoney, evinced by tattered fragments relating toman and hismoney in veryancientdays,andthatis,ONEWORLD!Throughthewholewebofconfusion,thisfaintdesigngrowsclearlymoredistinguishable,conceptofthosewhobynatureof their secret trade, money, standing apart from life, think they know andunderstand all the paths of men and life; and because of the internationalcharacterofthatwhichtheynowcontrol,deludethemselvesintobelievingthatthey,asdesignersofitall,risingintothefirmamentasgods,shallbeheirstoitall.Thesesecretclasseswholiveshutinbythefourwallsoftheirexclusivity,hadoriginally believed that one more step would place them forever on the nowempty thrones of the god-kings who formerly reigned in lordship over all;towardswhichplaceof all-power theyhad so longguided themselves throughthedeviouspathsofknowledgeofpreciousmetalmoneycreationandemission,and all the deceits against mankind, to which it had loaned itself. With theestablishment of the so-called United Nations Banking complex via theInternational Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment, otherwise designated

“TheWorldBank,”knowingnomasteronthisearthotherthanGodortheDevil,as the casemight be, andwith advent of the settlement of international tradebalancesPAPERGOLD,asthefinaldeceit,[428]thesesecretclassesbehinditall,wellmightbelieve that the totalofhumanactivity,whetheras towardsWarorPeace, dependedon their instigation alone.With such triumphs resulting fromthe longyearsofplanningandwaiting,wellmight theyhavebeen justified inconcludingthattheendofalongandwearywaytowardsWORLDRULEhadbeenreached; perhaps the only question remaining being: “Who should be theRuler?”But for them already is the bitter assurance that this promised land, even iffaintlyglimpsed,willneverbe;andthattheystandonthesamethresholdastherestoftheIndo-Europeanpeoples,ifnotmankind.Beyondthisthreshold,wherein the fatuity of their vain imaginings, was to have been a money changer’sWorld Kingdom, and for them and theirs, life everlasting, are in reality thedesolatewaysofthegulfoftimeandinfinity,nolessforthemasforall.Thoseabsolute weapons dreamed into existence as instruments towards the finalrealization of such world kingdom, mainly through the genius of the Indo-European peoples, have also been placed by the unruly agents of these secretclasses, in the hands of other races of theworld; races who now thrust God-wards,andwhoseheartsmaybeanoceanofenvy,ifnothateitself,forthesameIndo-Europeanwhonow totters towards the grave towhich hewas being led,sickuntodeath.And even should thisONEWORLD come to be,what of INTERNATIONALMONEY

POWER itselfanditsfatuousdreamofamoneychanger’sworlddominion?andwhatwillhappentoitwhentheIndo-Europeanwhowasitsunwittinghostandprotector for so long, is gone? for, except for some unforeseen change in thecourseofevents,gonehesurelywillbe,andoneortheotherwillhavetakenhisplaceasworldleader.The present day Chinese, for instance, who very well may be strong in thecompetitionforthethroneofthegodsfromwhenceONEWORLDwouldberuled,intheeventoftheiraccessiontosuchthrone,eitherbyelection,orbyforceofarms, would not be likely to tolerate this finance core, privately andirresponsiblycontrolled,andfromwhichhasbeendrawnthethreadsofevilthathavesolongtormentedthesocalledIndo-Europeanworld;whichlongsincehasbeentotallyentrappedinthewebthathasbeenwoven.NomoredidtheChineseofancientimperialdaysextendtolerationtosuchactivitiesthroughouttheirlonghistory.Butitmaynotbedoubted;littleifanythingwillbeleftanyway.Evenshouldthis

worldweknowbespared totalobliteration,after thepestilenceofdecay,onceagainwillbejustshatteredcolumns,crumblingconcrete,paperthatturnstodustwiththetouchandruinoverall.Life’surgentclamourwillbefollowedbythesilenceofitsextinction.Thebriefandfadingevidenceofallthisturmoilwillbebutfaintshadowsontheaccumulatingdust.

THEEND

“Andtherecameoneofthesevenangelswhichhadthesevenvials,andtalkedwithme,sayinguntome,Comehither;Iwillshowuntotheethejudgementofthe great whore that sitteth upon many waters: With whom the kings havecommittedfornication.Sohecarriedmeawayinthespirit intothewilderness:andIsawawomansituponascarletbeast,fullofnamesofblasphemy.

*And upon her forehead was a name written, a mystery, BABYLON THEGREAT,THEMOTHEROFHARLOTSANDOFABOMINATIONSOFTHEEARTH

*Andhesaithontome,Thewaterswhichthousawestwherethewhoresittetharepeoples,andmultitudes,andnations,andtongues.

*And thewomanwhich thou sawest is that great city,which reigneth over thekingsoftheearth*Andthekingsoftheearthwhohavecommittedfornicationandliveddeliciouslywithher,shallbewailher,andlamentforher,whentheyshallseethesmokeofherburning.

*Forinonehoursogreatrichesiscometonought.Andeveryshipmasterandallthecompanyinships,andsailors,andasmanyastradebytheseastoodafaroff,*And theycastduston theirheadsand theycriedweepingandwailing, saying,Alas,alasthatgreatcitywhereinweremaderichallthathadshipsintheseabyreasonofhercostliness!forinonehourisshemadedesolate.”

REVELATIONXVII.1.TOXVIII.21.

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CaptainDavidAstle,Colborne,OntarioSeptember15th1993,GreatindeedwasmysurprisewhenIopenedyoursmallparceltofindthereinatranslationintoHungarianof“TheBabylonianWoe.”Pleaseacceptmythanks!Iesteemyourunsolicitedworkasagreathonour,anditisindeedaneventinmylife.Theremaybeothertranslations,butIdonotknowwheretheyare.Itisnottheeasiest typeofbookto translate.AGreekladysetdownto translate it intoGreekbutshegaveupafterachapterortwo(sofarasIknow).Shetoldmethatitwasasdifficultas translatingPlato intoEnglish! Iam themorepleased thatyou are one of the relatively few who truly understand the theme and itssignificanceintheriseandfallofcivilizations.TheimpressionthatHungariansinTorontohavegivenmeisthatthereisnopeoplemoreawaregenerallyofthisfact.Nospeciallydeepthoughtisrequiredtoseethateverythingwedescribeascivilizationandindeedallofitsworks,isthederivativeofMoneyPoweranditscreation as indeed bySovereignPower or by the activities of an Internationalcriminal caste. LawNo. 7 ofHammurabai that I quote on page 9 is evidenceenough.AlsotheproscriptionbyManuoftheGoldsmithswhousedtheirtradetodeceive:“Themostperniciousofalldeceivers isaGoldsmithwhocommitsfrauds. The Maharajah shall order him to be cut to pieces with razors.” Theprincipal fraud being that which has appeared and reappeared throughouthistory, the issuance of fraudulent receipts as against Gold supposedly ondeposit. This knowledge is written deep into the memory of your people fortherecannotbemuchdoubtthatitwasthedestroyerofSumer.Ifnot,whythenHammurabai’s Law, a repetition of similar Laws out of much more ancientcodesyetagain?Haveyouproduceda finishedbook?And if so,haveyoucirculated it? Ifyouhavenotdoneso,thenthatisobviouslythenextstep.Imyselfamatthemomentconcerned with the United States. “SPOTLIGHT” in Washington plan a reviewwithinafewweeks,whichshouldwakethingsupthereabouts.Ifyoudonotfeel thatyouwant togofurther thanyouhave(at themoment)Imighttrymyself.ThoughitseemstomethatyoushouldbebetterabletosodoinNorthAmerica.ButthereisalsoHungaryitself,andthisisanunderstandingtheyneedmorethananyatthismomentwhenCommunismissupposedtohavecollapsedandtheJackalswillbeseekingtotakeover.IdonotrememberwhetherIrepliedtoyourlastletterandthecopyof“TheRiseof theMoneyPower”yousentme.Was it from“TheRedDragon”?Andwas

thatthetitleofthebookfoundinthelibraryatCincinnati?Iamalonehereanddo notmind admitting that I am not aswell organized as Iwould like to be.AnywayIhadsomecopiesof“TheRiseoftheMoneyPower”zeroxedanditisdoinggoodwork.IfIdidnotreplypleaseacceptmyapologies.ThefactisIam77yearsofageandAlas!notgettinganyyounger!However,asyousee,Ikeepgoing.Mymaineffort“TheBabylonianWoe”wasnotfinisheduntilIwaspractically60yearsofage,andthenontopofthat,ithadtobesoldandpromotedgenerally.Butneverthelessinthelastseventeenyearsithastrickledallaroundtheworld;principally due to my own efforts. When Mrs. Thatcher said to the BritishParliamentthatshewouldnotleadBritainintoaCOMMONMONEYMARKET,youneed have no doubtwhose book she had been reading; she had had it for 13years!Ifyoudecidetopublishyourtranslationitself,Icanadviseyoutosomeextent.However itseemstomethere isawidefieldopen,notonly inNorthAmericaetc.,butinHungaryitself.I vaguely remember Lillooet as a village near the junction of the ThompsonRiverandtheFraserriver,notfarfromAshcroftandthesmalltownofMerrittwith theDouglas lakeranchinbetween.Thereused tobegoodfishingaroundthere.Icannotimaginewhatitislikenow.WhenIwastheresome45yearsago,theroadwasjustadirttrackcrawlingaroundtheedgeofthecanyon.Ifyoucomehereagain[whydon’tyou] immediately lookmeup.AtpresentIliveverymuchinthecountryabout83milesfromToronto—Eastwards.Inthisletter I am giving youmy home address the telephone No. is 416 xxx xxxx.Although I keep box 282, Stn. ‘P’ going,most ofmymail comes here thesedays.Thankyouonceagainfor thehonouryourworkbestowsonmeandhoping tohearfromyousoon

Yoursverysincerely

DavidAstlePS: “TheRedDragon” is ‘”YDraigCoch” inWelsh.As youmayknow it istheirveryancientflag.

[1] According toTragedy and Hope, the important and compendious work of Dr. Carroll Quigley, anoutstandingscholarofliberaloutlook,(asinterpretedbythereviewer,W.CleonSkousen),suchconspiracycertainlyexists,andisvastinscopetosaytheleast.

[2]MikhailI.Rostovtsev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,p.viii,Vol.I.(Oxford;1941).

[3] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles Moore: A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, pp 219-220.Princeton;1957.

[4]AncientEgyptianPoem;ChristopherDawson:TheAgeoftheGods,p.148.[5] For example, the folly ofBritain in letting itself and theEmpire be stamped into these last two so-called“Great”wars,maybecompared to thatof themandescribedby theEmperorAugustuswhogoesfishingwithagoldenhook;hehaseverythingloseandlittletogain.(Suetonius:theTwelveCaesarsII,25)[6]MuchofthiswasforetoldintheRevelationofSt.JohntheDivine.

[7]AccordingtothereviewofTragedyandHopebyDr.CarrollQuigley;(NewYork,1966.),ascontainedintheNakedCapitalistpublishedbyW.CleonSkousen,SaltLakeCity,1970.

[8]CambridgeAncientHistory;Vol.I;p.371.Onfirstreadingthisunusualexpression,thereistemptationto think that an error has been made in the translation of the tablet. However, according to thecorrespondent in Zaire for the magazine known asAwake, chiefs of the natives of this country in pre-Europeanized times announced the copper mining season with the words Tuye Tukadie, Tuye Tukadiemukuba,whichliterallytranslatesas“Letusgoeatcopper;ineffectmeaning“Letusgoenrichourselvestoprovideforourlife.”(Awake,p.25;July8th,1974.).

Similarlytheexpressiondescribingthesellersoflandas“eatersofthesilverofthefield,”derivesfromthesamerootideaandimpliesthattheyenrichedthemselvestoprovidefortheessentialsoflifebythesaleoftheirlandforsilver.

[9]SirCharlesL.Woolley:Abraham,p.123.

[10]Withallduedeferencetoanotherwisemosteminentscholar.

[11] Very little is known of the former relatively extensive use of glass asmaterial to record definitenumbers of the unit of exchange, or, more simply put, asmoney. On this subject François Lenormantcommented in his book: LaMonnaie dans l’Antiquité (p. 214; Tome I, Book II): “Nous possédons despreuvesirréfragablesdal’usagedemonnaiedeverreenEgyptedeslatempsduHaut-Empire(1)usagequese continuadans lemêmepays sous lesByzantins (2) puis sous lesArabes (3).C’est principalementdetempsdesKhalifesFatimitequel’Egyptevitfabriquerleplugrandnombredecesassignatsleverre,portantl’indicationd’unevaleurdamonnaie.LesArabesdeSicileenfirentaussial’imitationdeceuxd’Egypte.”

[12]SirCharlesWoolley:Abraham,p.123;London;1936.

[13]ChristopherDawson:Age of theGods, p. 130. (London; 1928.) [14]Actually evidence exists ofSumeriancultureextendingas faras theCaspianSeaevenbefore theDynasticPeriod.Reference to thissubjectistobefoundonpage47ofTheSumerians.

[15]Onpages124-125ofhisbookAbraham(London,1936.)commentismadebySirCharlesWoolley:“a trade which involved the greater part of the then known world was carried on with remarkablesmoothnessbymeansofwhatweshouldcallapapercurrencybasedoncommodityvalues.Thefluctuationsof currency valueswhich are the bugbear ofmodern commercewere virtually overcome by a currencywhich depended ultimately on the staple necessity of life but was qualified by the use of a mediumpossessedofintrinsicvalue;thecommercialtravellerhadtousehiswitsandexercisehisjudgementastotheforminwhichhecashedhiscreditnotes.”

Further comment was made by Sir Charles Woolley and Jacquetta Hawkes in Prehistory and theBeginningsofCivilization(pp.615-616;London;1963):ThedifficultywassolvedbywhatmightbecalledLettersofCreditfacilitatedbytheexistenceofestablishedagentsonthetraderoutes.Thetravellerstartedwithaconsignmentofgrain,mightsellitinsometownonhisroad,receivingasignedtabletwiththevalueexpressed in copper, possibly, or in silverwithwhichhe couldbuy thereor elsewhere something to thesamevaluewhichhecouldsellataprofitfartheralongonhisjourney.histabletspayableondemandbytheagentstowhomhewasaccreditedweretheancientequivalentofaPapercurrency.”

[16]E.J.C.McKay:FurtherExcavationsatMohenjo-Darop582. (Govt. India.Delhi;1938.)[17]SirCharlesWoolley:ExcavationsatUr;p.112.

[18] In thewordsofSirCharlesL.Woolleyonpage193ofExcavationsatUr: “Rawmaterialswereimportedsometimesfromoverthesea,tobeworkedupintheUrfactories;theBillofLadingofamerchantshipwhichcameupthecanalfromthePersianGulftodischargeitscargoonthewharvesofUrdetailsgold,copperore,hardwood,ivory,pearls,andpreciousstones.”

[19]JohnBright:AHistoryofIsrael,p.44;London;1960.[20]SirCharlesLeonardWoolley;TheSumerians,p.25NewYork;1965.

[21]TheGoyimofGenesis;ChapterXIV;verseI.[22]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.23;London;1966.[23]TheLawsofHammurabai;No.7; (G.R.Driver& JohnC.Miles:AncientCodesandLawsof theNearEast,Vol.II,p.15.Oxford,1952.).

[24] According to professor W.F. Albright (The Amarna Letters from Palestine. Cambridge AncientHistory Vol. 11; pp. 14-17.): “There was also a large and apparently increasing class of stateless andreputedly lawless people in Palestine and Syria to whom the appellation Apiru was given, it has nowbecomecertainthattheywereaclassofheterogenousethnicorigin,andthattheyspokedifferentlanguages,oftenalientothepeopleinwhosedocumentstheyappear.”

Furtheroninthesamework,afterpointingoutthedistinctdifferencesbetweenthedeserttribes(Bedawin),thegrooms,andtheSA.GAZtroops(‘Apiru’),usinganoldtextrelativetotheHittitearmedforcesasthesourceofhisinformation(about1500B.C.),professorAlbrightfurtherpointsoutthatthewordApirumustmean dusty ones in N. West Semitic, and that it still appears in Syriac conveying the same meaning.“Characteristicofallthesetermsisthecommonfactthatthebearerofthedesignationtrudgesinthedustbehinddonkeys,mulesorchariots.In1961IcollectedthethenavailablearchaeologicalanddocumentarymaterialbearingonthecaravantradeofthetwentiethtonineteenthcenturiesB.C.,andtheorganizationofdonkeycaravans;Ifoundfar-reachingcorrelationswithearlypatriarchaltraditioninGenesis.”(p.17).Thecomplexproblemof thesignificanceof the ‘Apiru’ (orHabiru) isnot rendered lesssoby the fact that itrecursincuneiformtextsfromdifferentpartsofMesopotamia,Syria,Egypt,andAsiaMinor;allofwhichdatefrombetweenthedynastyofAgade,andthe11thcenturyB.C.Thusitwouldappearthattherestless

‘Apiru’ of later times, mercenary soldier, bandit, or smuggler, was the descendant of the donkeycaravaneerswhomaintainedthetradebetweenthecitiesoftheknownworldprevioustothecollapseofthemaincitiesinBabyloniabeforethearmsoftheGutim,theHittites,andtheElamitesatdifferenttimes,andwhichresultedintheextinctionofagreatdealofthedonkeycaravantradebythe18thcenturyB.C.,andleftthefollowersofthattradeuncertainofwheretosettleorwhatoccupationtofollow.

IntheTelAmarnaTablets,VolII,SamuelA.B.MercerreferstotheuseofthenameHabiruatBabyloninthetimeofHammurabai,(p.840);hefurtherrecordsthatalistofHittitegods,headedListoftheGodsoftheHabiru,was foundatBog-HazKoibyWinckler, (p. 841).The secret societiesof agroupknownas theHaburahseemtohaveexistedbeyondthetimeofthedestructionofJerusalembyTitus.AccordingtoJost(I.HistoryoftheJews;p.210)VespasianappointedaRabbiJohnBenZakkai,chiefoftheHaburahasrulerof Jamnia. AsHaburah derives from habor: to join, there may not be significant connection betweenHabiruor‘Apiru’andthemoremodernHaburah.

[25]SirCharlesWoolley:ExcavationsatUr,p.158.

[26]Ibid.,p.72.[27]“Mes-Kalan-Dug,‘thegoodHerooftheLand,’PrinceofUr,buriedprobablyasearlyas3500B.C.,tookwithhimtothenextworldawealthofgoldenvesselsandweaponssuchasnocommonerwouldhaveventuredtoposses.”:CharlesSeltsman,inCreekCoins(p.2.).

[28]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.214.Oxford;1949.[29]IntheAmarnaLettersfromPalestine,(p.16),ProfessorW.F.AlbrightrecordsthatoneofthelettersfromtheTelAmarnaarchivesreportsthatZemreddaofLachishhadbeenkilledbyslaveswhohadbecome‘Apiru.’FurtherProfessorAlbrightrecordsthat“inthirteencenturydocumentsfromUgarit,wehearofmenofUgarit,includingslaves,whohadescapedtothe‘Apiru’inHittiteterritory.”

[30]JamesMellaart:CatalHuyuk;London;1967.

[31]Thesewords“theAncientOrient”soaptlysupplyingloosedefinitiontothatworldthatlivedunderthe political system that governed most of the cities of the Ancient Near East, derive from professorHeichelheim’sAncientEconomicHistory.

[32]Kingston-Higgins:SurveyofPrimitiveMoney,p.189.London;1949.[33]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.29-81.AlsoKingston-Higgins.[34] Kingston-Higgins also refers to shell money in the Neolithic caves of Annam (p. 139). Also atMohenjo-Daro.(p.1).ForshellmoneyatMohenjo-DaroseeE.J.C.McKay;p.582.FurtherExcavationsatMohenjo-Daro.

[35]CambridgeAncientHistory.p.51;Vol.I.[36]LondonIllustratedNews.p.24,March7th,1970;TheBoysofSungir;Dr.OttoBader.

[37]JamesHenryBreasted:AHistoryofEgypt,p.44.[38]According toFlinders-Petrie, scarabs first appear inEgyptduring the fourthDynastyandcontinueright through to the end (of Pharaonic rule) with no important break.History of Egypt. p. 52; Vol. I;London,1897.

[39]AAndreades:HistoryofTheBankofEngland,p.389-401.SeealsoTheFederalReserveSystem,a

pamphlet originally published by the Board of governors of the Federal Reserve System, 1939, andrepublishedbyOmniPublicationsofHawthorne,California.

[40]According toN.K.Sandars in the introduction tohis translationof theEpicofGilgamish (p.14.):“The templeswere servedby aperpetual priesthood inwhosehands, at one time,was almost thewholewealthofthestate;andamongstwhomwerethearchivistsandteachers,thescholarsandmathematicians.In very early times the whole temporal power was theirs, as servants of the god whose estates theymanaged.”

[41]SirCharlesL.Woolley:FurtherExcavationsatUr,p.158.

[42] Plato was reputed to have been sold as a slave by Dionysus, ruler of Syracuse, for 20 minae.Diodorus:xv.7;Plutarch:Dionysos,5.

[43]Rostovtsev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,Vol.I,p.233.[44]WilliamL.Westerman:TheSlaveSystemsofGreekandRomanAntiquity,p.65.

[45]MikhailIvanovitchRostovtsev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryof theHellenisticWorld;Vol. I;p.227.

[46]Mikhail IvanovitchRostovtsev:ASocial andEconomicHistoryof theHellenisticWorld; pp. 218,Vol.I.

[47]OskarSeffert:ADictionaryofClassicalAntiquities,p.91.[48]MikhailI.Rostovtsev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,Vol.I.p.227.

[49]Strabo:XIV,v.570,(NapoleonIII:JuliusCaesarVol.I,p.241;London;1865).[50]WilliamL.Westerman:TheSlaveSystemsofGreekandRomanAntiquity;AmericanPhilosophicalSociety;Philadelphia.

[51]ThesiegeofPotidaea,arelativelyminorengagementofalongwar,costtheAthenians2000ofthesetalents.(Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,BookII,Ch.7.).

[52]Andreades:Annalesd’HistoireEconomiqueetSociale,p.350,Paris,1929.[53]According toFrançoisLenormant inhisbookLaMonnaiedans l’Antiquité,pp.215-216,Book II,TomeI:“CedrenusprétendquelesRomainesauneépoquetrèsancienneauraientendesmonnaiesdebois;mais cette tradition doit très probablement être relegnée dans la domaine des fables avec la monnaieRomainsdeterrecuitedontparleSuidas.Pourtantilssepourraitquecettedernierindicationserapportaitaquelques espèce d’assignat momentamente en usage et qui n’aurait ermané des autorités publiques. Ontrouve fréquemment a Athènes des moulages en terre cuites de monnaies d argent ou d’or de diversescontrées,appartenantprincipalementalapériode,quis’étenddumilieudeVsiècleavantJ.C.entresoutresdestatèresdeCyzique.LesavantNumismatistSicilien,M.AntonioSalinaspendantsonséjourenGrèce,arecueilli ungrandnombresde cesmonuments, soit enoriginaux, soit enmoulage, et soit endessins.Ladestinationdecetteclassespécialed’objetsquiserattachentforcementalanumismatique,esttrèsobscure.Maisonpeutconjecturerquedetellespseudo-monnaiesdeterrecuites,mouléessurdesespècesexistantes,ontduavoirunecirculationfiduciaire,maisd’unecaractèretoutprivecommecellesdesbilletsdecrédit.dontlaloiautorisedanscertainspaysl’émissionpardesinstitutionsparticulière.”

[54]HeinrichSchlieman:Mycenae,pp.157;241;242.Blom;NewYork,1967(reprint)[55] It isalsointerestingtonotethatamongstsomuchpreciousmetalwasalsofoundalargenumberofoystershellsand

unopenedoysters;alsoweaponsofobsidian.AlthoughHeinrichSchliemanwasconvincedhehadfoundthegraveofAgamemnonwhohadleadtheheroestobeforethewallsofTroy,theobsidianweaponsandtheoystershellsindicatedthatthisgravebelongedtoamuchearlierageagainthanthatofAgamemnon;anageperhapsevenprevioustothatinWhichoccurredthosedisturbancesthatbroughtdownintoruinsomuchoftheancientworld,ofwhichSumeria,Crete,Mycenae,EgyptandtheEmpireoftheHittiteswerebutpart.

At the timeofSchlieman’sdiggings atMycenae, practicallynothingwasknownof the extensiveuseofshellmoneyinageslonggoneby,butasaresultoftheextensivestudiesofrecentyears,particularlythoseof Paul Einzig (PrimitiveMoney; London 1949.), and ofMrs. Kingston-Higgins (A Survey of PrimitiveMoney,London;1949.),itisquiteclearthattheoystershellsfoundintheMycenaeangraveswerereferencedaysmoreancientagainthanthoseofAgamemnonandtheHeroes.Theybelongedtoadayalreadynearlyforgotten,whenshellsweremoney,andmoney,notonlyamongstsimplesocieties,butalsoamongstsomehighlyorganizedsocietieswasshells.IntheIChiag,oneoftheearliestbooksoftheChinese,100,000deadshellfisharegivenastheequivalentofriches.ThefamousdictionaryoftheEmperorKangHsi(1662A.D.-1723A.D.)basedontheShuoWenofHsuShinwhodiedaboutA.D.120,sayspeidenotesseacreaturesthat live in shells.Thecharacterpeiwas included inmost characters relating towealth. It is included inmanysuchcharactersinthelatestChinesedictionaries.

[56]HenryJ.Breasted:p.142.[57]F.W.Madden:CoinsoftheJews,pp.9-10.

[58]Chron.I.xxxi.25.[59]2.Kings.V.5.[60]Isaiah.xlvi.6.[61]Job.xxviii.15.[62]Genesis,xxiv.22.[63]Genesis.xiv.22.[64]AlexanderdelMar:AHistoryofMonetarySystemsinVariousStates,p.38.

[65]JamesH.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt,pp.97-98.Ofthelatteryearsof theOldKingdomremarksmadebythescholarlywriterofthearticlesonEgyptintheEncyclopaediaBritannica(9thEdn.):“ThesixthDynastywasprobablya familyof adifferentpartofEgypt. Ithas leftmany recordswhich indicate lesscentralizationatMemphisthanthoseofearlierSovereigns;andmarkthebeginningofwarsforpredatorypurposesandextensionofterritory.Thischangeisaccompaniedbyalesscarefulstyleofsculptureandlesspains in the excavation of tombs as though the Egyptianswere gaining a larger horizon, or, itmay be,exchangingreligionforambition.”

However,speculationmoretothepointmightverywellbeastowhetherornottheEgyptiansofthisperiodweremakinganexchangeofthedeepharmonyinlivingashadobtainedunderthetrueandnaturalorderunderwhich theyhad lived so long, for that disorder in lifewhichnecessarilyderived from the fermentknownas“Progress”;oneoftheessentialfactorsbywhichprivate(andhenceirresponsible)moneycreativepowermaintainsitstotalhegemony,onceitscontrolisestablishedamongstapeople.

[66]Exodus.xii,35.Exodusiii,22.(KingJamesVersion).[67]Deuteronomy.xiv,24-26.(KingJamesVersion)[68]SuchaperiodmayverywellhavebeentheseveralcenturiesprecedingthecollapseofthecaravantradeinMesopotamia,inthe18thcenturyB.C.

[69]InthewordsofProfessorF.W.Albrightwritingofthefindingsofhisstudiesrelativetothecaravantrade and the organization of the donkey caravans of the twentieth and nineteenth centuries B.C.: “Itbecameparticularlyobviousthat thepreviouslyenigmaticoccupationalbackgroundofAbrahambecomesintelligibleonlywhenwe identify the terms Ibri ‘Hebrew,’ (previously ‘Abiru)with ‘Apiru, later ‘Abiru,literally‘personfromacrossorbeyond.’”(TheAmarnaLettersfromPalestine;CambridgeAncientHistory;Vol.II,p.17.)[70]T.B.L.Webster:FromMycenaetoHomer,p.22;London;1964.

[71]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.226.NewYork;1969.[72]Ibid.[73]T.B.L.Webster:FromMycenaeHomer,p.22.

[74]JohnChadwick:TheDeciphermentofLinear“B”;Cambridge;1958.[75]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt,p.214.[76]T.B.L.Webster:FromMycenaetoHomer,p.18.

[77]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryEgypt,pp.284-321.[78]HenryJBreasted:AHistoryofEgypt,p.217.[79]Ibid.p.292.[80]According to J.B.Bury (History ofGreece, p. 744;RandomHouse edn.),Alexander’s total armynumberednomorethan30,000footand5000horse.TheGreekhoplitecentreofDarius,againstwhichwasthrownthefullweightoftherelativelypunyMacedonianphalanx,itselfnumbered30,000men.

[81]EncyclopaediaBritannica;9thEdn.;Vol.XXII;p.823.[82]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt,pp.293,305.[83]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt.p.298.NewYork;1956.[84]Ibid.p.307.[85]Ibid.p.304.[86]Ibid.p.491.[87]Ibid.p.485.[88]Ibid.p.491.[89]Ibid.p.529.[90]Kings.10,29.[91]Sixhundredyears later thesecitiesofArvadandSymyraseemedalso tohaveattracted thespecialattention of Assyria. In this case they were friend and ally set up in opposition to the other Arameo-Phoeniciancities.

[92]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt,pp.97-98.[93] Stuart Piggott:DawnofCivilization, p. 168. (NewYork; 1961) See also p. 28 inT.B.L.Webster

(MycenaetoHomer).

[94]ColinRenfrew:TheEmergenceofCivilization,p.448.[95] One of themost eloquent of his letters to the Pharaoh (Winkler’s Translation of theTel AmarnaLetters.p.181.) isas follows:“TheKing’swhole landwhichhasbegunhostilitieswithme,willbe lost.BeholdtheterritoryofShiri(Seir)asfarasGinti-Kirmil(Carmel),itsprincesarewhollylost,andhostilityprevailsagainstme.aslongasshipswereuponthesea,thestrongarmoftheKingoccupiedNarahinandKash,butnowtheKhabiri (Habiru)areoccupying theKing’scities.Thereremainsnotoneprince tomylord theKing,everyone is ruined.Let theKing takecareofhis land,and. lethimsend troops.For ifnotroopscomethisyear,lettheKingsendhisofficertofetchmeandmybrothers,thatwemaydiewithourlordtheKing.”WhilethePharaohandhiscourt,drenchedwithforeigninfluences,meditatedatTelAmarnaupontheillusionofOneWorldanditsaliengods,theOneWorldthathadbeentherealitycreatedbytheswordofhismorevigorousforebears,wascrumblingtodust.

[96]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.209.(NewYork;1968).[97]T.B.B.Webster:FromMycenaetoHomer,p.23.

[98]W.F. Albright: Syria, the Philistines and Phoenicia; p. 31; Cambridge, 1966. Of the case of theidentification of the date of destruction of Ugarit through finding the last tablets placed in the oven,ProfessorAlbrightwrites:“PublicationofthedocumentsfromtheTabletOvenexcavatedin1954,providesasolidbasisfordatingthefallofUgaritwhichmusthaveoccurredwithinaveryshorttimeafterthetabletswereplacedintheoven.Twolettersareparticularlyimportant:RS18.38andRS18.40.Thesecondletter,writtenbyanUgariticofficialtothekingofUgarit,saysthatheisinLawasanda(Lawasantiya),watchingtheapproachesfromtheEasttogetherwiththekingofSiannu.Thelatter‘hasfledand.waskilled.’”

[99]ClearlytheDanaeweretheArgivesorDanaänofHomer’sIliad.ThearrowsofApolloShootafarthatappear(BookI) tohavedriventheDanaänbackto theirshipswithgreatslaughter,couldverywellhavebeenthoseofthedreadedarchersofEgyptunderPharaohMerneptah;thusbearingnorealrelationtotheeventsatTroyexceptaswasconvenient to thepoetasheendeavoured to thread together fragmentsofaheroictaleoutofthelongago.

[100]HenryJ.Breasted:AHistoryofEgypt,p.469.[101]SirWilliamMathewFlinders-Petrie;AHistoryofEgypt,p.256.London;1897.

[102]DiodorusSiculus(A.delMar:Historyof thePreciousMetals,p.40)givesstrikingpictureofthehorrors ofmarginal profit goldmining as carried outwith slave labour in ancient times in theBishareedistrictofNubia(B.C.50).

“Therearethusinfinitenumbersthrownintothesemines,allboundinfetterskeptatworknightandday,and so strictly surrounded that there is, no possibility of their effecting an escape. They are guarded bymercenarysoldiersofvariousbarbarousnations,whoselanguageisforeigntothemandtoeachother,sothattherearenomeansofformingconspiraciesorofcorruptingthosewhoaresettowatchthem.Theyarekepttoincessantworkbytherodoftheoverseer,whooftenlashesthemseverely.Nottheleastcareistakenofthebodiesofthesepoorcreatures;theyhavenotaragtocovertheirnakedness;andwhoeverseesthemmustcompassionate theirmelancholyanddeplorablecondition, for though theymaybe sick,maimedorlame, no rest nor any intermission of labour is allowed them.Neither theweakness of old age, nor theinfirmitiesoffemalesexcuseanyfromthework,towhichallaredrivenbyblowsandcudgels;untilbornedownby the intolerableweightof theirmisery,manyfalldead in themidstof their insufferable labours.Deprivedofallhope,thesemiserablecreaturesexpecteachdaytobeworsethanthelast,andlongfordeathtoendtheirsufferings.”

[103]LeoA.Oppenheim:LettersfromMesopotamia;p.57,Chicago1967.[104] Criticising the prescription by Plato of community of wives, etc. for the ruling classes of hisRepublic,Aristotlewrote:“Itwouldbefarmoreusefulappliedtotheagriculturalclass.Forwherewivesandchildrenareheldincommon(and,asaccordingtoPlato,alllovewastobeindiscriminateasbetweenmale,female,relation,orotherwise),thereislessaffection,andalackofstrongaffectionamongtheruledis conducive to obedience and not to revolution.” (ThePolitics.Book II.Ch. 4.).Aristotle, as tutor andadvisor toAlexander “TheGreat,” also as husband of the niece ofHermias, banker-tyrant ofAssos andAtarneus, had clearly seen efforts towards practical application of these mischievous “philosophies” ofpoliticalconduct.

[105]LeoA.Oppenheim:LettersfromMesopotamia,p.30.[106] The relative poverty of the tombs of the 3rd Dynasty at Ur and the pathetic substitutes for thepreciousmetalswithwhichthedeadhadbeenadornedinearlierdays,revealthesamewitheringupprocessthatseemstoattackanystateexposedoveranylengthoftimetotheexactionsofaprivatemoneycreativepowermaintainingitselfbycontrolofpreciousmetalsandthemerry-go-roundoftradefortrade’ssake.

[107] Thus the way was paved for the Semitic city of Babylon to institute itself as the leader ofMesopotamia. However, although politically displacing and absorbing the original race of Sumer, itfunctionedasbut theprophetofSumer,amirrorof thepastgiving renewedvigour toaculture thathadbeenevolvedlongago.(AHistoryofBabylon,pp.2-3,L.W.King.).

[108]Albright:TheAmarnaLettersfromPalestine.CambridgeAncientHistory;Vol.II;pp.17-18.[109]TheMoonGodofUr.

[110]Thereareevidencesofapietyandreverenceinthoseancientdays,andoflongingbymankindforguidancefromanunknownGod,littledifferenttothatpietytowhichtheriseofChristianitygaverevival,andwhichstillexists inhomes thatwithstandtheuproarof theage,andstandasidefromthedestructiveforcesthatseektoguideit.AccordingtoE.G.H.KraelinginAramandIsrael(p.26):InthescripturesofSumeriawehave:Sidilini—“Sin(orSi)hathsetmefree.”Siidri—“Sinismyhelp(inatimeofneed).”Siaqabi—“Sinhathendowed(orbestoweduponme).”SinorSibeingthenameoftheGod.

IntheadorationofNashu(orNuskuoftheAssyrians)wehave:Nashu-dimri—“Nashuismyprotection.”Nashugabri—“Nashuismyhero.”Nashusagab—“Nashuisexalted.”NashuQatari—“Nashuismyrock(ofsalvation).”Nashuaili—“Nashuismystrength.”IntheadorationofAdadwehave:Adadhutni—“Adadismyprotection.”

IntheadorationofAi(TheLunarDeityoftheArabians)wehave:Iaabba“AiismyFather.”“IaManis”AiismyRightHand.“Allasharu”God isKing! (andLordofall!)[111]Genesis.Chapter57,Verse22.AccordingtoMichaelGrant:(JewsintheRomanWorld,p.7),therearescholarswhoconsiderthisPharaohtohavebeenAkhenaton.

[112]FrançoisLenormant:LaMonnaiedansl’Antiquité;Bookl;pp.113-122.[113]CambridgeAncientHistory.Vol.I;p.392.[114]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.225.[115]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.205,(NewYork,1968).AlsoBritannica1898,Vol.XI.p.92.AlsothedeductionsofProfessorSayceinMycenae,p.265.p.365.

[116]CaptainTheodoreCanot:TheAdventuresofanAfricanSlaver;(NewYork;1928).AlsoCambridgeEconomicHistory,VolII;p.16.

[117]W.F.Albright;p.32.

[118]Thedetailsofthemining,treatmentandsmeltingofunoxidizedoresastookplaceaboutthistimeintheAustrianAlps,areevidenceofalongandtediousprocess(CambridgeEconomicHistory,VolII,pp.19-20.).

According toProfessorW.F.Albright inTheAmarnaLetters fromPalestine, (p. 12.): “whenwe glancethrough theAmarna letters,we cannot but be impressedwith the smallness of the garrisonswhichwereconsideredadequatebythelocalprinceswhenclamouringforaid;theprinceofMegiddowantsahundredmen,butthreeotherchieftainsincludingtheprincesofGezerandJerusalem,aresatisfiedwithfiftyeach.Even the prince of wealthy Byblos who constantly asks for assistance, is generally satisfied with twohundredtosixhundredinfantryandtwentytothirtychariots.BrigawazaoftheDamascusregionalsowantstwohundredmen.”

Correlatingtheseinformations,it isclear,thatalthoughpopulationsweremuchlessinthatday(thelatterhalfofthesecondmillenniumB.C.),thelimitingfactortomilitaryforcewastheavailabilityofarms,notasistodaywithitsunlimitedsuppliesofmetal,theavailabilityofmen(hence“conscription”).

[119]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.24.[120]Ibid.p.205.[121] Letter 9 of the Tel Amarna Tablets; Vol I; p. 29. (Samuel A.B. Mercer; Toronto, 1939.). Thetranslation reads as follows: To Niphururia, king of Eg[ypt], say. Thus saith Burraburias, king ofKaradunias,thybrother.Iamwell.Withthee,thyhouse,thywives,thyland,thychiefmen,thyhorses,thychariots, may it be very well. Since my father and thy fathers with one another established friendlyrelations,theysenttooneanotherrichpresents,andtheyrefusednotoneanotheranygoodrequest.Nowmybrotherhassent[only]twominasofgoldasapresent.Butnow,ifgoldisplentiful,sendmeasmuchasthyfathers.Butifitisscarce,sendhalfwhatthyfatherdid.Whydidstthousendonlytwominasofgold?Now,sincemyworkontheHouseofGodisgreat,andvigorouslyhaveIundertakenitsaccomplishment,sendmuchgold.

ThereislittledoubtthatitwasaboutthistimethatgoldwasbeginningtoaugmentsilverinBabyloniaasreserve in the ratio of 13:1 approximately. Hence it might reasonably be assumed that the worthyBurnaburiashcouldverywellhavebeeneggedonbyforceotherthanthatofsheergodliness.

[122]Bracketedcommentbypresentauthor.Britannica,9thedition,Vol.VIII.[123]Bracketedcommentbypresentauthor.[124]Ibid.[125]AlexanderdelMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,pp.47-50.

[126]Breasted,pp.480-481.[127]CyrusHGordon:UgariticLiterature,p.ix,p.120.(Text118)Rome,1949.[128]CambridgeEconomicHistory,Vol.II,p.16.[129]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.209.

[130]CambridgeEconomicHistory;Vol.II:p.19.[131]Britannica.1898:p.90:Vol.XI.[132]SirCharlesLeonardWoolley:PrehistoryandtheBeginningsofCivilization,pp.651-658,London,1937.

[133]SirCharlesLeonardWoolley:Abraham,p.23,24.Alsoseep.80presentwork.

[134]ThisquotationwhichcomesfromSirCharlesL.Woolley’stranslationoftheSumerianKingLists,(ExcavationsatUr,p.249.),readsinfull:“TheFloodcame.AftertheFloodcame,KingshipagainwassentdownfromonHigh.”

[135]FrederickWilliamMadden,M.R.A.S.:CoinsoftheJews,P.29;London;1881.

[136]According toSirCharlesL.Woolley inhisbookAbraham (pp.23-24.): “AtRasShamraon theNorthSyriancoast,therehaverecentlybeenuneartheddocumentsofaverysurprisingkind;thereareclaytabletsbearinginscriptionsincuneiform,butthesignsrepresentnotsyllablesasinBabylonian,butlettersofthealphabet,andthelanguageisaformofAramaiccloselyrelatedtoHebrew:theydatefromthe14th

Century before Christ. Consequently we see that by the time of the Exodus people living in Syria andspeakingatongueakintotheIsraeliteweresoaccustomedtotheideaofwritingthattheyhadmodifiedtheoldestablishedscriptofSumerandBabylontosuitthepeculiaritiesoftheirownlanguage.”However,inhislatestbook:PrehistoryandtheBeginningsofCivilization,(pp.651-658),SirLeonardWoolleystatesthatthevariousscriptsofAncientSyriadecipheredorotherwise,andincludingPhoenicianwhichhedefinitelyclaimstobeparentscriptofancientGreek,allderivedfromtheEgyptianpicturewritingorHieroglyphics(viatheHieraticof2000B.C.)inagreementwithMaddenwhowroteonehundredyearsago.(Seechartonp.75ofthepresentwork.)[137]AlexanderdelMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.45.

[138]Miner’sandSmelter’sMagazine,Vol.VI,pp286-322.(A.delMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.46.)[139]LeoA.Oppenheim:LettersfromMesopotamia,p.46:Chicago:1967.[140]Ibid.[141]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.206.AlsoasaccordingtotherecordsofthecityofKishaspertaintotheAzag-BauDynasty(3268-2897B.C.).Seepage1ofthiswork.

[142]SirCharlesWoolley:Abraham,p.122.

[143]ErnestBabelon:LesOriginesdelaMonnaie,p.106;Paris;1897.[144]Herodotus:TheHistories,BookI.[145]TheNabonidusofmodernbooksofreferencewhoreignedinconjunctionwithBelshazzar.[146]Actuallythroughhisgeneral,Gobryas,558B.C.[147]AlexanderdelMar:HistoryofMonetarySystems,pp.413,425,410,441,442.

[148]EmilG.H.Kraeling:AramandIsrael,p.80;Columbia.1918.[149]Ibid.[150]EmilG.H.Krealing:AramandIsrael,p.80,Columbia,1918.

[151]EmilG.H.Kraeling,Ph.D.:AramandIsrael,pp.83-84Columbia:1918.[152]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.225;Oxford,1949.[153]AccordingtoIIKings,17,6,‘IntheninthyearofHoshea,thekingofAssyriatookSamaria,andcarriedIsraelawayintoAssyria,andplacedtheminHalahandinHaborbytheriverofGozan,andinthecitiesof theMedes,’andaccordingtotherecordsofSargonofAssyria:‘SamariaI lookedat,Icaptured;27,280men(orfamilies)whodweltinitIcarriedaway.’

Asacompletelynewpopulationwasbroughttothenowemptyland(IIKings,17,24),itiscuriousthat120yearslateraso-calledJewishprinceshouldgooutofhiswaytoseekbattlewithPharaohNecho,vigorouskingofaresurgentEgypt,whoaccordingtotheBiblicalrecord(IIChronicles,36,21)‘sentambassadorstohim,saying,whathaveItodowiththee,thoukingofJudah?Icomenotagainsttheethisday,butagainstthehousewherewithIhavewar:forGodcommandedmetomakehaste(toCarchemish):forbeartheefrommeddlingwithGod,whoiswithme,thathedestroytheenot.’

[154]Ezekiel,ChapterI,V.1,3.Chapter3,V.15,23.Chapter10,V.15,22.Chapter11,V.4,(Prophesy)25,(ExpoundingProphesytoChebarites).

[155]Daniel,Chapter5,V.30.[156]WilliamSmith:HistoryoftheBible,p.476London,Ont.1885.

[157]MardukwasthenationalGodofBabylon,justasNannarwasNationalGodofUr,andsecondonlytoÉnlil.

[158]Ezra,KingJamesVersion;Ch.10.[159] “Membership in the Society is now either by ‘convincement’ of the Spiritual Truths to whichFriendswitness, or, in England, by birth if both parents are Friends:” JamesHastings inVol. 12 of theEncyclopediaofReligionandEthics(NewYork1914.).

[160]SirErnestCassel:Lloyd’sBankintheHistoryofBanking,p.20etseq.Oxford,1933.[161]LeoA.Oppenheim:LettersfromMesopotamia,p.51;Chicago;1967.[162]Ibid.,p.46.[163]Leviticus,Chapter5,KingJamesversion.[164]Thenobilityhavealwaysbeen thefirst todisappear inmajorwarfare.As leadersof theirmen inbattle,theiryoungmenarethefirsttodie.Duringtherecentfirst‘Great’war,itmaysafelybesaidthatthebestpartoftheyoungmenofthenaturalaristocracyofEuropehadperishedby1917.

[165]F.W.Madden:CoinsoftheJews,pp.4-5;London;1881.

[166]CharlesSeltsman:GreekCoins;London;1933.[167] F.W.Madden:Coinsof the Jews, page29.According toHerodotus “thePhoenician letterswereadoptedbutwithsomevariation in theshapeofa few,”butaccording toProfessorSayceofmuchmoreconvincingopinion, “since the names of the letters of theGreek alphabet nearly all end in ‘a,’ itwouldappear that itmusthavebeenbrought intoGreece,notby thePhoeniciansofTyreandSidon,butby theArameansofthegulfofAntiochsincetheemphaticAlephisacharacteristicofAramaic,notPhoenician.Even thenamesof the letters in theHebrewalphabetdisclose theirAramaicorigin.”Whichconclusions

werefurtherverifiedbytheRasShamratabletsdiscoveredsomefiftyyearslater,mentionedonpage80ofthiswork.(Seechartonpp.75-76.)[168]SirCharlesL.Woolley:Abraham,pp.124-125,p.16.

[169]ElginGroseclose:Money,theHumanConflict;p.16.UniversityofOklahoma;1934.[170]W.P.Wallace:TheEarlyCoinagesofAthensandEuboia,p.23,NumismaticChronicle,1962,andreplybyColinM.Kraayonp.417.

[171]CharlesSeltsman:GreekCoins,London,1933.[172]Plutarch:TheLives,“Lucurgus.”[173]W.P.Wallace:TheEarlyCoinagesofAthensandEuboia, p.23,NumismaticChronicle; and thereplybyColinM.Kraay,p.417.

[174]A.DelMar:HistoryofMonetarySystemsinVariousStates;p.47;reprint,NewYork;1969.

[175]“Mais lorsque,par laguerredeTarente, l’Italieeutétésoumise,…alorsse fitsentir,enpremierlieu,lanécessitédeplusenplusvived’unsystèmegénéraldebonnesmonnaies;…Onfitchoix,danscebut,d’unpiedmonétaire,quidéjàavaitétégénéralementaccepté,etonfrappa leDenier,devaleurde laDrachmeAttique,quiétaitenusagenonseulementdanslesmonarchiesdel’OrientmaisencoreenSicile.Assurément leDrachmede l’Attiquepesait 4 gr. 37, tandis que le plus ancienDenier, quelquepeupluslourd,étaittaillésurunpoidsmoyende4gr.55puisqu’ilvalaitquatreScrupules,c’est-a-dire1/72delivreou 1/6 d’once. Mais cette différence fut supprimée, a la suite d’une réduction qui eut lieuvraisemblablementpendantlapremièreguerrepunique,etportaledenierà1/84delivreou1/7del’oncec’est-à-dire3gr.90;desortequelesderniersdecepoidsdevaientengénéralêtreacceptésurlemêmepiedquelesDrachmesquiétaientencirculationetn’avaientpastoutàfaitlepoidslégal.”:ThéodoreMommsen&JoachimMarquardt:Manuel desAntiquitésRomaines, p. 14,TomeX, “De l’OrganisationFinancièreChezlesRomaines.”

[176]AlexanderdelMar:HistoryofMonetarySystemsinVariousStates,p.29,pp.35-53.

[177]Formerly,asaccordingtoMythology,consideredtohavebeenenactedinthe9thCenturyB.C.

[178]HumphreyMichell:Sparta,p.27.

[179]G.Grote:HistoryofGreece,Ch.9;(ElginGroseclose:Money,theHumanConflict,p.18.)[180]W.PWallace:TheEarlyCoinagesofAthensandEuboia,p.35,TheNumismaticChronicle,1962.

[181]ElginGroseclose:Money,theHumanConflict,p.16;UniversityofOklahoma,1934.[182]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.225;London,1949.[183]AccordingtoGertrudeCoogan,thefirstactofSolonafterhavinghadtheDictatorshipurgedonhimbyapowerfulsectoroftheAthenianpopulation,wasabrogationoftheprivilegeofsilvermining,and,asaconsequence, the privilege of money issuance by the nobility. I am, however, of the opinion thatMissCoogan missed the point here. What actually happened, it is true, would have been abrogation of theprivilegeofmoney issueby thenobility,butnotasdirectlyexercisedbysuchnobility,butas through itbeingfarmedoutbythemtotheArameo-Phoeniciantraders,i.e.,theBabylonianMoneyPower.

[184]“ButIperhaps,owingtothenumberofadvocatesmaybeclassedinthecommonbody;thebattleofCannaehasmadeyouasufficientlyrespectableaccuser.Wehaveseenmanymenslain,notatTrasimenebut at Servilius.Whowas notwounded therewithPhrygian steel?”Cicero:Orationes, “ProS.Roscius”(Vol.I,p.65;C.D.Yonge;London,1883.).

[185]KennethPearson:TheDorakAffair,London,1967.[186]Strabo,XIII,iv,5.(DelMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.51.)[187]ChristopherDawson:AgeoftheGods,p.295.

[188]JamesH.Breasted:HistoryofEgypt,p.281.[189]Ibid.p.559.[190]ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt:Tutankhamen,p.33.NewYork,1963.[191]EncyclopaediaofWorldHistory,p.37,Boston,1948.[192]ThefactthatafterthedestructionofCroesusbyCyrus,547B.C.,SardisremainedtheprincipalmintforthewholePersianEmpire,andforwhichitturnedoutSigloiastotheBabylonianstandard,givesfurtherstrengthtotheidea.

[193]FrederickWilliamMadden,M.R.A.S.:CoinsoftheJews,p.29;London;1881.

[194]CharlesSeltsman:GreekCoins,pp.34-35.[195]FrederickWilliamMadden,M.R.A.S.:CoinsoftheJews,p.6.(footnote).

[196]CambridgeAncientHistory,p.392,Vol.1.[197] According to the table on p. 35, “Greek Coins” by C. Seltsman, the Aeginetan drachma wasestablishedwithoutanydoubtatitsgivenstandard,becauseinthetimeofPheidon,theratioofsilvertoironwas400:1.Heclearlyhadbeenadvisedtoestablishthenewsilverdrachmasandobolossothattheywouldhavethesamepurchasingpowerasthenowdiscardedironobolosand“Drax.”accordingtotheirvaluationinanInternationalmarketwheremoneywasmetalbyweight.

[198]Obviously for discountingBills ofExchange, raisingmoney againstBills ofLading,WarehouseReceipts,andtherealizationintothatwhichcirculatedasmoneyofthepromissorynoteissuedasbetweenfriendsorotherwise.

[199]OskarSeffert:DictionaryofClassicalAntiquities,p.91.[200]VisitingMerchantsandShips’Captains.

[201]OskarSeffert:DictionaryofClassicalAntiquities,p.91.[202]JacquettaHawkes:DawnoftheGods,p.262;NewYork;1968.[203]ReferringtotheHellenicterminologyinconnectionwithbankingtransactionsandprofessionsetc.Professor Heichelheim of vast scholarship recorded “That the banking transactions of the individualbankers,moneylenders,anddebtorsinfluencedthewholeeconomiclifeandeven,toacertaindegree,theintellectualdevelopmentinAttica,theterritoriesoftheDelianLeagueandinmanyotherpolisterritoriesofourperiod,sincethefifth,ifnotoccasionallysixthcenturiesB.C.willbeobviousfromtheabovelistwhichhasasurprisingnumberofspecializations.”FritzHeichelheim:AnAncientEconomicHistory,Vol.II,pp.196-197;Leyden;1958-1970.

[204]FritzHeichelheim:AnAncientEconomicHistory,Vol.1,p.290;Leyden.1958.1970.[205]HoughtonMifflin(Publishers):EncyclopediaofWorldHistory,p.48;Boston;1940.

[206]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.22;London;1966.[207]SirWilliamAshley:EconomicOrganizationsofEngland,p.96-118.London;1933.

[208]FritzHeichelheim:AnAncientEconomicHistory,Vol.I,p.290.[209]A.DelMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.81;NewYork,1968.

[210]A.DelMar:MoneyandCivilization.AlsoJohnR.Elsom.pp.49-50

[211]CommanderGuyCarr:PawnsintheGame,pp.19,20,21.[212]G.RavenscroftDennis:TheHouseofCecil,p.61.London,1914.[213]IllustratedLondonNews,Nov.11th,1911,p.762.[214]LucienWolf:TheResettlementoftheJewsinEngland;London;1888.

[215]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.28.[216]F.P.G.Guizot:HistoiredelaRépubliqued’angleterre,pp.154-155;Paris;1854.[217]MaxDimont:Jews,God,andHistory,p.291.NewYork;1962.

[218]AccordingtothelettersofQuangChangLing(1878);(HistoryofthePreciousMetals;p.348;A.DelMar):“Itwasintheyear1498thatthePortuguesemadetheirwayaroundtheCape(ofGoodHope).In1510,underAlbuquerque,theytreacherouslyseizedtheEastIndiancityofGoa,andleavingagarrisoninit,sailedawaytoMalaccawhichtheyhadseenandcovetedin1508.TheyplunderedMalaccaofabootysoenormous that the Quinto, or fifth, of the king of Portugal amounted to 200.000 gold cruzados, a sumequivalentto$5,000,000.00.”

“Wehaveourowntheoryconcerningthesourcesofyourpresentriches.Weascribeitinpart,toyourgainsfromthepiraticalconquest,enslavementandmurderousextinctionoftheAmericanraces,butchieflytotheprofitabletradewiththeOrient.Fromtheopeningofthistradeto1640,whenthePortugueseweredrivenfromJapan,andtheBritishfirstacquiredterritoryinHindustan,threeofyourEuropeannationsalonetookathousandmilliondollarsingoldandsilverfromAsia;twothirdsasmuchastheywrungfromallAmericaduringthesameperiod.FromMalaccaalonetheytook25.000.000;fromJapan,uptothedatementioned,fourhundredmillions;fromIndiaandChinastillgreatersums(ingoldorsilvercoin,orbullion).”

[219]TheChaptersinDelMar’sHistoryofCivilizationdealingwiththisperiod,willrepaythereading.

[220]Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,pp.14-32.[221]Ibid,p.19-20.[222]Ibid.p.22.[223]A.delMar:HistoryofMonetaryCrimes,PP.7-44.

[224]PepysDiary,Aug17th,1666.DiaryandCorrespondence.5vols.London,1848.[225]Anderson,Adam,p.485,AnHistoricalandChronologicalDeductionoftheOriginofCommerce,Vol.II,London,1787-1789.

[226]Charles IIwas totally in thehandsof thebankersandgoldsmithsas is revealedby the followingextractfromD.MacPherson’sAnnalsofCommerce,(p.428).“Charlesbeinginwantofmoney,thebankers

took10%ofhimbarefacedly,andbyprivatecontractsonmanybills,orders,talliesanddebtsofthatKing,theygot20,sometimes30%tothegreatdishonourofGovernment.ThisgreatgaininducedtheGoldsmithsto become more and more lenders to the King, to anticipate all the revenues, to take every grant ofParliamentintopawnassoonasitwasgiven;alsotooutvieeachotherinbuyingandtakingtopawnbills,ordersandtallies,sothatineffect,alltherevenuepassedthroughtheirhands.”

[227]WillDurant:TheReformation;p.459.

[228]CommanderGuyCarr:PawnsintheGame,p.20.[229]AccordingtoA.Andreades(HistoryoftheBankofEngland.p.30.),FrederickHarrisonsaysinhisbiography of Oliver Cromwell: “Noble were the efforts of the Protector to impress his own spirit oftolerationontheintoleranceofhisage.HeeffectivelyprotectedtheQuakers;headmittedtheJewsafteranexpulsionofthreecenturies,andhesatisfiedMazarinthathehadgiventoCatholicsalltheprotectionthathedared.”

[230]CommanderGuyCarr:PawnsintheGame,p.19-21.[231]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.28.[232]Ibid.[233]Ibid.[234]RobertL.Owenwas the senatorwhowroteand introduced the legislation settingup theFederalReserve (CentralBanking) system in 1913.His foreword to a bookwritten by aMissGertrudeCooganshowsthathelivedtobitterlyregrethispartinwritingandintroducingthisBill.TheremarkmadelaterbyPresidentWilson,whohadpavedthewayfortheBill—“Iamamostunhappyman.UnwittinglyIhaveruinedmycountry”—showsthatOwenwasnotaloneinhisremorse.TheCentralBankingSystemknownas the FederalReserve System and towards the creation ofwhich he had been the principal instrument,thoughapparentlystatedepartmentinthesamewayastheBankofEngland,wasinrealitynomorethantheinstrument through which the so-called International Bankers harnessed the burgeoning energies of theAmerican peoples to themselves, their own world wide needs and purposes. From first to last, whichperhapshasnotyetcome,itwasaprivatelyownedandcontrolledinstitution.

[235]JohnR.Elsom:LightningovertheTreasuryBuilding,PP.29-30;ForumPress;Boston.[236]R.McNairWilson:GodandtheGoldsmiths,p.48.

[237] His dismissal was effected through the agency of Marie-Antoinette. As she disliked Turgotpersonally,nodoubtshewasareadyinstrument.

[238]A.Goulévitch:CzarismandRevolution,p.225.[239]Ibid.p.223.[240]Ibid.,p.224.[241]CyrusAdler:JacobSchiff,HisLifeandLetters,NewYork,1928.[242]Althoughitisreallyverydifficulttoseewhatexactlywouldhavebeenleftforthisclassofpeople,oftenmulti-millionaires,torevoltagainstby1949,whichalsoincludesthehegemonyoftheAnglo-SaxonintheUnitedStates.

[243]Also according to the author ofCzarismandRevolution (p. 224), “in theSpringof 1917, JacobSchiffopenlyboastedofhavingbeeninstrumentalinoverthrowingtheCzaristregime.”

[244] According to Dr. Carroll Quigley (p. 52.) in the review by W. Cleon Skousen outstandingcharacteristics of the international bankers were: “… they remained different from ordinary bankers indistinctiveways: (1) theywere cosmopolitan and international; (2) theywere close to governments andwereparticularlyconcernedwithquestionsofgovernmentdebts.(3)theirinterestswerealmostexclusivelyinbondsandveryrarelyingoods.(4)theywereaccordinglyfanaticaldevoteesofdeflation.(5)theywerealmostequallydevotedtosecrecyandthesecretuseoffinancialinfluenceinpoliticallife.Thesebankerscame to be called ‘international bankers’ and, more particularly, were known as ‘merchant’ bankers inEngland, ‘privatebankers’ inFrance,and‘investmentbankers’ in theUnitedStates. Inallcountries theycarried on various kinds of banking and exchange activities, but everywhere they were sharplydistinguishablefromother,moreobviouskindsofbanks,suchassavingsbanksorcommercialbanks.”

[245]ArthurZapolskyArnold,Ph.D.:Banks,Credit,andMoneyinSovietRussia,p.57;Columbia;1937.AlsoseethearticlebyLeninin“Pravda,”May29th-30th,1917:Thethreateningcatastropheandboundlesspromises.OfequalinterestandstrikinglysimilarinthelanguageusedisthecommentofLionelRothschildonthesubjectofbankingasquotedbyLordBeaconsfield(BenjaminD’israeli)in1844:“Cananythingbemoreabsurdthanthatanationshouldapplytoanindividual tomaintainitscredit,andwithitscredit, itsexistenceasastateanditscomfortasapeople?”

[246]ArthurZapolskyArnold:Banks,Credit,andMoneyinSovietRussia,p.96;Columbia;1937.[247]Fr.DennisFahey:MysticalBodyofChristintheModernWorld,Dublin;1964.[248] (a) Arthur Zapolsky Arnold: Banks, Credit, and Money in Soviet Russia, pp. 96-97. (b) PaperMoneyduringtheepochoftheDictatorshipoftheProletariat,(MoscowStatePublishers,1920)p.4.

[249]A.Goulévitch:CzarismandRevolution,p.225.[250]Ecclesiastes.Chapter1,Verse10;KingJamesVersion.[251]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny;NewYork;1922.

[252]Ibid.[253]P.N.Ure:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.8;NewYork;1922.[254]Itwasthecustominancienttimestoburyhoardedwealth(tangible)beneaththefloorofthehouse.[255]TheOriginsofTyranny,p.8,p.N.Ure,M.A.,NewYork,1922.

[256]HencethesituationatAthenssosimilartothesituationintheAnglo-Saxonworldtoday.AthensatthatstageofthePeloponnesianWarwasundoubtedlycompletelyunderthepoliticalcontrolofthebanks(ortrapezitae). It was not long after the battle of Aegospotami, 405 B.C., in which Lysander of SpartadestroyedthewholeAthenianfleetasitlaydrawnuponthebeach,thatthewarendedwiththeusualresultsofsuch“Great”warsinsocalled“democratic”states,andwithAthenscompletelydependentonprivatelycreatedmoneyforitsfinances,thatis,ontheInternationalBankers,andwithsuchtypesofpersonssuitabletothemandtheirplansforthefuture,occupyingkeypositions.Thevictor,Sparta,wasequallydependentontheirgoodwill,asaresultofthoseconcessionsundoubtedlymadeattheTreatyofMiletus,412B.C.inordertoobtainmoneysuchaswasdesirableinternationally,andwithwhichcouldbepurchasedtheshipssonecessarytodefeatAthens,andwithoutwhichthewarcouldnothavebeenbroughttodefiniteconclusion.

[257]TheFrogsofAristophanes, lines717to733,trans.byB.B.Rogers(withslightvariations).(Page138,Greek Coins, Charles Seltsman,M.A., London, 1933.) [258] In exactly the same way as Lenin,Dictator (or Tyrant) ofRussia 1917-1922was supposed to be drawn from theNobility, or asMao-Tse-Tung,atalaterdatedictatorinChina,wassupposedtohavederivedfromasimilarclassinChina.

[259]ThefollowinglettercircularizedamongstAmericanBankersbyEuropeanBankinginterestsduringtheAmericancivilwargivesamostrevealinglightonthissubject.ThereisnoreasontosupposethatthemotivesofthetrapezitaeoftheGreekcitystateswereinanywaymorealtruistic:“Slaveryislikelytobeabolishedbythewarpowerandchattelslaverydestroyed.This,IandmyEuropeanfriendsareinfavourof,forslaveryisbuttheowningoflabourandcarrieswithitthecareofthelabourers,whiletheEuropeanplan,ledbyEngland,isthatcapitalshallcontrollabourbycontrollingwages.”Thisletter,knownastheHazardCircular,istobefoundonPages44-45inTheMoneyManipulatorsbyJuneGrem.

[260]Ure:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.15.[261]Ibid.p.14.[262]Ibid.p.59.[263]Ibid.p.46.[264]A.DelMar:AHistoryofthePreciousMetals,pp.47-51.

[265]CambridgeAncientHistory,p.392,Vol.I.[266]SirCharlesWoolley:Abraham,p.121-126.

[267]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland.AlsoseeTragedyandHope,byDr.Quigley.[268]A.delMar:TheHalcyonAgeofGreece,p.5.TherealsoweretobefoundoutlyingplacesintheOrientwheretheratioofgoldtosilverwentaslowasl:1duringthe1stMillenniumB.C.,remainingsountilaverylatedate,incertaininstances.ItisreportedbySirHenryJ.Reid,whowroteduringthe19thCentury,inhisbookJapan(ChapterXVIII),thattheratioofsilvertogold,governingtheuseofthepreciousmetalsinsettlementoftradebalances,wasstill1:1inJapanduringthe17thCenturyA.D.;longaftercontactwithEuropeans.TheadvantagetheEuropeanbullionbrokerstookofthissituationwithitsresultantdisturbancetothestatusquo,wasoneofthemainfactorsleadinguptothealmosttotalexpulsionofEuropeansfromJapanduringtheperiod1624A.D.-1853A.D.

[269]SirCharlesWoolley:Abraham,p.122.

[270]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,pp.22-26.[271]TheodoreMommsen&JoachimMarquardt:ManueldesAntiquitésRomaines,p.12,TomeIX;Del’OrganisationFinancièrechezlesRomaines,Paris,1888.

[272]Ibid.p.68.[273]Initsoriginsin100B.C.,LexMajestus(lexappuleiademaiestateimminuta)wasanextensionofthedefinitionoftreasonasbeinginternalrevolt,toincludeanyactimpairingthe“Majesty”oftheRomanpeople.By the time of the earlyEmpire, this lawhad been extended to cover almost anyword or deedagainsttheEmperor,and,itmayreasonablybeassumed,thosewhoguidedhispolicies.Spiesandinformerswere everywhere. Of this period Tacitus wrote at the very beginning of the Annals: “What has beentransmitted to us concerning Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero, cannot be received without great

distrust.” He further wrote in The Histories: “But when the battle of Actium had been fought and theinterestsofpeacedemandedtheconcentrationofpowerinthehandsofoneman,thisgreatlineofclassicalhistorianscametoanend.Truthsufferedinmorewaysthanone.Toanunderstandableignoranceofpolicy,whichnowlayoutsidepubliccontrol,was induecourseaddedapassion for flatteryorelseahatred forautocrats.Adulation bears the ugly taint of subservience, butmalice gives the false impression of beingindependent.”(TheHistories;I.I.;Tr.K.Wellesley;London;1964.)[274]ItistobenotedthatthesealtotheestablishmentofGygeson the throneofCandaules,otherwiseknownasMyrsilus lastkingofHittitedescent on the throne of Lydia, and who he had cuckolded and destroyed, apparently with the readyassistanceofCandaules’wife,wasthepronouncementofthePythianOracle(Herodotus,BookI).ClearlytheOracles would be one of themost important instruments of the internationalmoney creative powertowardsthefurtheranceofitspurposes;anditwouldhavesought,asmuchaspossible,tokeepthemunderitscontrol.

[275]JohnRichardGreen:AShortHistoryoftheEnglishPeoples,p.205;London;1936.[276]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.73;London;1966.[277]R.A.G.Carson:Coins,Ancient,Medieval,andModern,p.106.[278]A.Andreades:HistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.xxvii.InthewordsofH.S.FoxwellwhowrotetheprefacetothisworkingivingthereasonswhynoadequatehistoryoftheBankofEnglandappearstohavebeenwrittenprevioustoAndreades:“ThefirstistheremarkableabsenceofofficialrecordsinconnectionwiththeBank,especiallyforthefirstcenturyofitsactivity.IthasoftenbeenobservedthattheEnglisharepeculiarlyfortunateinthismatterofrecords;.TheBankofEnglandstandsoutasastrikingexceptiontotherule.Itneverseemstohavepublishedanyreportsoreventohavepreserveditsownminutesandaccounts.”

[279]Herodotus:TheHistories,BookI.[280]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.280;NewYork;1922.

[281]WalterLeaf:TheJournalofHellenicStudies.p.167.

[282]TheOriginsofTyranny,p.281.InhisfootnoteDr.UreremarksthatLeafmighthavegoneontoquotethecaseofTimaeustheCyzicene,who,likeEuaion,andperhapsHermias,hadbeenapupilofPlato:“Timaeus the Cyzicene having granted bonuses of money and corn to the citizens and having on thataccountwoncreditamongtheCyzicenesasbeingaworthyman,afterashortwhilemadeanattemptonthecitybymeansofAridias.AthensXI.509a.footnotep.281,OriginsofTyranny.

[283]“ifthepraetorgavethemoneyasitissetdown,hedrewitfromtheqoaestor,thequaestorfromthepublicbank, thepublicbankderived it either from revenueor tribute.”.Whichdoesnot suggest that thegreat Cicero also had too much of an understanding of money: this was said over 2000 years ago.Orationes.Cicero.BookXIX,ProFlaccus,p.445.Vol.II,C.D.Yonge,B.A.,Bell,London,1883.

[284]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.285.

[285]A.Andreades:AHistoryoftheBankofEngland,p.80;London;1966.[286]A.Andreades:AnnalesD’histoireeconomiqueetsociale,p.330;Paris;1929.[287]A.delMar:AHistoryofMonetarySystems,p.505:Ratios.

[288]A.delMar:AHistoryofMonetarySystems.p.355;NewYork;1969.IntheMaximsofTheognis(line21)isstated:“norwillanyonetakeinexchangeworsewhenbetteristobehad.”

[289]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.285;NewYork;1922.

[290]A.delMar:AHistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.105;NewYork;1966.

[291]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.285.

[292]MikhailI.Rostovtsev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,Page108;Oxford;1941.

[293]OskarSeffert:ADictionaryofClassicalAntiquities,p.91;(Trans.aNettleship,M.A.,NewYork;1904.)[294]MikhailI.Rostovtaev:ASocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,p.227,Vol.I.

[295]UniversalJewishEncyclopedia,p.172,Vol.I.[296]Ibid.[297]Ibid.[298]Chronicles,BookII.Chapter2.[299]OnthismatterTheUniversalJewishEncyclopediareads:“Theobjectionthatalexandercouldhaveno interest in the Jews is answered by his own life and subsequent actions. An astute statesman ofpenetratingvision,alexanderwasquicktograsptheindispensablevalueoftheJewsinthecultural,politicalandintellectualsphereofhisworldempire.Alexander’saimwasthesynthesisofOccidentalandOrientalculturesintothemouldofHellenism;undoubtedlyheappreciatedthecapacityoftheJewstoabsorbforeignculture,whilerigidlymaintainingtheirnationalidentitythusmakingthemanidealvehicleforhiscivilizingenterprise.AsJewswerealreadyanInternationalcommercialpower,numbersofthembeingfoundinmostcountriesofAlexander’sdomain,hegrantedthemmanypoliticalprivilegeswhenhefoundedAlexandria,andevengavethemaportionofSamariawithexemptionfromtaxesinordertogaintheirsupport.Itisevenpossiblethatalexanderhadfirstheardofthejewsfromhisteacher,aristotlewho,accordingtothereportofjosephus,hadmetajewwhowasaveritablephilosopheranda“Greek”notonlyinlanguagebutinsoul.”UniversalJewishEncyclopedia,p.172.Vol.I.

[300]PeterBamm:AlexandertheGreat;PowerasDestiny.p.72.London;1968.[301]EmilG.HKraeling:AramandIsrael,p.1.[302]Presentwork.[303]Seepresentwork..[304]Aprèsavoirbienconstatél’existenceavantPheidon,decessaumonsoubrochesdeferquiétaitlamonnaiecourantdePeloponnes, ilnousserafacilededéfinirnettementlerôledeceprince.Ilnefutpasl’inventeur de la monnaie mais seulement, comme servius tullius, un réformateur. il introduisit dans lepéloponnèse un système fixé des poids et mesures, a la place des systèmes multiples qui jetaient laconfusion et la désordre dans les relations commerciales; il adapta le poids des nouvelles monnaie ausystèmespondéral nouveau; il demoneta et aboli officiellement la vieille et encombrantemonnaiede ferdontilconsacraquelqueséchantillonsdansletempled’Argos”.LesOriginesdelaMonnaie,p.211,ErnestBabelon,Paris,1897.

[305]FrançoisLenormant:LaMonnaiedansl’antiquité,pp.215-216,BookII,TomeI.[306]Kingston-Higgins&PaulEinzig:ASurveyofPrimitiveMoneyandPrimitiveMoney,respectively.

[307]FritzHeichelheim:AnAncientEconomicHistory,p.478,Vol.I.[308]RobertPayne:TheGoldofTroy,p.199.[309]ChristopherDawson:TheAgeoftheGods,p.255.[310]Thekingsof thedynasty ruling inLydiauntil689B.C.,orPhrygiaas itmay thenhavebeen,ofwhichMyrsilus(orCandaules)wasthelast,mostlyboreHittitenames.AccordingtoDelMarinhisHistoryofMonetarySystems,p.41,thePhrygian(orLydian)chroniclesextendbackto1300B.C.(whenBog-HazKoi and Troy still existed). According to ProfessorW.F. Albright (The Amarna Letters from Palestine,CambridgeAncientHistory,Vol.II;p.43.),“TheHittiteshadestablishedseveralvassalstatesinnorthernSyria.” “At least two of them, Carchemish and Aleppo, were ruled by princes of the imperial Hittitedynasty.Inathirdstate,Khattina,thereigningprincesstillborenamesderivedfromimperialHittitehistoryaslateastheninthcenturyB.C.”

[311]AlthoughthefallofBog-HazKoiundoubtedlyendedforeverthesystemofempireoverwhichthekingsoftheKhetapresided,fragmentsestablishedlocalautonomythereafter.SuchfragmentswerethestateofKhattinaabovementionedandthecitiesofMarqasi,andCarchemish.

[312]Livy;BookI.[313]ChristopherDawson:AgeoftheGods,p.304;London;1928.[314]E.J.Haeberlin:AesGrave;Frankfurt;1910.[315]AcceptingtheopinionofMommsenhowever,theAesGravedatesfrom454B.C.-430B.C.ManuelDesAntiquitésRomaines.TomeX.Paris;1888.

[316]FrançoisLenormant:LaMonnaiedansl’Antiquité,p.66,BookII,TomeI.[317]Livy:BookI;(AubreydeSelincourt:AnEarlyHistoryofRome,p.66;London;1960).[318]TheAesRude.[319]AugustusBoeckh:ThePublicEconomyofAthens,Vol.I;p.43;London;1828.[320]AccordingtoAeschines:“TheCarthaginiansmakeuseofthefollowingkindofmoney;inasmallpieceofleatherasubstanceiswrappedofthesizeofapieceof4drachmae(3s);butwhatthissubstanceisnooneknowsexcept themaker.After this issealedandissuedforcirculation;andhewhopossesses themostofthisisregardedashavingthemostmoney,andasbeingthewealthiestman.Butifanyoneamongstus had ever asmuch, hewould be no richer than if he possessed a quantity of pebbles.” (A.J. Church:Carthage,pp.122-123;NewYork;1914.)[321]R.A.G.Carson:Coins,Ancient,Medieval,andModern,p.75;London;1962.

[322]Plato:TheLaws,BookV.[323]Aristotle:ThePolitics,I,9.[324]Aristotle:TheEthics,V,5.[325]A.delMar:AHistoryofMoneyinAncientCountries,p.323;London;1885.

[326]Ibid.[327] According to Harold Mattingly, (Roman Coins, p. 53): “The bronze coinage of rome was the

originalcoinageof the land; italwaysservedthehomemarketandplayedlittlepart inrome’sexpansionabroad.Itisperhapsnotsurprisingthenthatitresistedchangemorepersistentlythantheworldcurrencyofthedenarius.”(Italicsbypresentauthor.)[328]BothCicero(ProFlaccus;Orationes;BookXXVIII),andPliny(NaturalisHistoria,xii,c.18),makementionofthisflowofsilverEastward.

CicerosaysthatgoldmovedEastwardtothetempleatJerusalem.Thismayalsohavebeenso.

[329]A.delMar:BarbaraWilliersoraHistoryofMonetaryCrimes;pp.8-44.

[330]A.delMar:MoneyandCivilization,p.303;London;1886.

[331]FritzHeichelheim:AnAncientEconomicHistory,p.251;Vol.I.[332]Potter:AntiquitiesofGreece.[333]Plato:TheLaws,BookV.[334]W.Jacob:AnHistoricalEnquiry into theProductionandConsumptionMetals.DelMar,quotingfrom thisbook,givesamost reasonableanalysisof theapparent lossassociatedwith theworkingof thesilverminesofNewCarthageinSpain,bytheCarthaginians.(A.delMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.68.)[335]Xenophon:ADiscourseupon improving theRevenuesof theStateofAthens, (Pages317-322,ThePoliticalandCommercialWorksofCharlesDavenantLLD;1771)[336]FrançoisLenormant:LaMonnaie dans l’Antiquité, pp. 215-216, Book II, Tome I. SeveralAthenian andCorinthian residentshavetheseclaycoinsintheirpossession(N.BoucaraofCorinth).

[337]InLondon2000yearslater,whenthegoldsmithsoperatedexactlythesame“racket,”theconfidenceofthepublicwasgainedthroughtheconnivance,wittingorunwitting,oftheRoyalHouse,andthestorageofthegoldsmithsreservesintheTowerofLondon.ThefactoftheirbeingintheTowerofferedthesamesanctity to the goldsmith’s practice of issuing receipts as against non-existing reserves, i.e., fraudulentreceipts,ashadbeenofferedtosimilarpracticeinancienttimesbytheundoubtedstorageofthereservesofthetrapezitaeintheAcropolis.Ineithercasetoencouragethecirculationofhisreceipts,hecouldpleadthedifficultiesandthedangersoftheformalitiesattachedtowithdrawalofthemetalitselfforthepurposeofsettlementofanaccount.

[338]CharlesSeltsman,M.A.:GreekCoins,p.179;London;1933.

[339]RoyalOntarioMuseumDisplay.

[340]FromthetimeoftheInstitutionoftheFinancialReformsofLycurgus.[341]Mikhail I. Rostovtsev:A Social and Economic History of the HellenisticWorld, p. 108; Vol I,Oxford;1941.

[342]Ibid.p.106.[343]Ibid.p.108.[344]Ibid.p.104.[345] Perhaps an internationally functioning unit like the Euro-Dollar, originating from that form ofledgerentrymoneyknownasthe“swap”deposit.Whiledoingtheworld’sbusiness,relativetotheworkitdoes, it bears little relationship to theworkingsof theoriginating financial system.Such“swap”depositmoney,althoughitwillbuyaloafofbreador,attheotherendofthescale,aship,andthereforeismoneyasmuchasanyotherkindofmoney,originatesfreeofcontrolofgovernmentsorcentralbanks.SuchEuro-

currencies“canexpandby theprocessofmoneycreationwithout infusions fromoilnationsorpaymentsdeficits.” Clearly they largely exist more as a special convenience to a certain group of people whose“business” ismanipulatingworldcurrencies, and thereforeprices, for theirownneedsandprofitwithoutreference to the good or authority of the state that permits the generating of such externally circulatingmonetaryunits,ortothegoodofitspeoples.ForadetailedexplanationoftheEuro-DollarseeReportoftheRoyalCommissiononBankingandFinance.pp.138-140;Ottawa;1964.

[346]AugustusBoeckh:ThePublicEconomyofAthens,Vol.I;p.43;London;1828.[347]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.2;NewYork;1922.

[348] “The Smithsonian report for 1876, p. 399, mentions clay stamps for printing cotton cloths (inancient times).Thesecouldscarcelyhavefailed tosuggestbakedclaycoinssuchaswereused inChina,Chaldea,undEgypt.”HistoryofMoneyinAmerica,p.44.A.delMar(inreferencetoMexicanmoney).

[349]Hemighthaveadded,pursuingthematterfurther,thatthepapernoteoftodaymerelyactassmallchangeforthatabstractmoneycreatedbythemassofchequesintransit,andbehindwhichexistsnomorethanthemisappropriatedwillofthegodsthemselves.

[350]C.MKraay&MaxHirmer:GreekCoins,Preface.London;1968.

[351]W.CleonSkousen:TheNakedCapitalist,p.112.

[352]JohnR.Elsom:LightningovertheTreasuryBuilding,p.78.[353]W.B.Vennard:ConquestorConsent,p.12.

[354]HumphreyMichell,MA:Sparta,p.27;(CambridgeUniversityPress;1952.)[355]Furtherthanthe findings of archaeology, the deductions of some of the classical scholars also attribute the so-calledreformsofLycurgus to the sixth centuryB.C., being therein the so-calledEunomia, c610B.C.; clearly,therefore, either inspiring the events at Athens brought about by Solon, or being inspired thereby.According to thewriter on this subject in theEncyclopediaofWorldHistory. (p. 50).”By the so-calledEunomia,theSpartans,fearingfurtherrevolts(oftheMessenians)completelyreorganizedtheStatetomakeit more severelymilitary. Youths from the age of 7 were taken for continual military training.Men ofmilitaryagelivedinbarracksandateatcommonmesses(syssitia,phiditia).FivelocaltribesreplacedthethreeDorianhereditaryonesand thearmywascorrespondinglydivided,creating theDorianPhalanx. Inthe tribeswere enrolled as citizensmany non-citizens. The gerousia, comprising 28 elders and the twokings, had the initiative in legislation though theapella of all citizens had the final decision. The chiefmagistrates,ephorswereincreasedtofive,withwiderpowersespeciallyaftertheephorateofCheilon(556B.C.).Lateragesattributedthereforms(thefinancialsectorofwhichisignoredbythiswriter)totheheroLycurgusintheninthcentury,perhapsbecausethenewlawswereputunderhisprotection.”

[356]Plutarch:Lycurgus(TheLives:DrydenTranslation).[357]HumphreyMichell,M.A:Sparta;p.12.

[358]Ibid.p.23.[359]HumphreyMichell,M.A.:Sparta,p.23.

[360]P.N.Ure,M.A.:TheOriginsofTyranny,p.8.

[361]HumphreyMichell:Sparta,p.27.

[362] Paul Einzig: Primitive Money, pp. 36-40; also see E.J.C. McKay in Further Excavations atMohanjo-Daro,p.582.

[363]Kingston-Higgins:ASurveyofPrimitiveMoney,p.140.London;1949.[364]ColinRenfrew:TheEmergenceofCivilization;pp.483-544;London;1972.[365]PaulEinzig:PrimitiveMoney,p.224;London;1949.[366]Bracketedcommentbypresentauthor.[367]HumphreyMichell,M.A.:Sparta,p.30.

[368]Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,BookI,Ch.6.[369]Sallustwholivedfrom86B.C.to35B.C.drewthefollowingpictureofthestateofsocietyatthattime: “When freed from the fear of Carthage, the Romans had leisure to give themselves up to theirdissensions,thentherespranguponallsidestroubles,seditions,andatlastcivilwars.Asmallnumberofpowerfulmen,whose favourmostof the citizens soughtbybasemeans, exercised averitabledespotismundertheimposingname,sometimesoftheSenate,atothertimesofthe‘People.’Thetitleofgoodorbadcitizenwasnolongertherewardofwhathedidfororagainsthiscountryforallwereequallycorrupt;butthemore anyonewas rich, and in condition todo evilwith impunity, providedhe supported thepresentorderofthings,themorehepassedforamanofworth.Fromthismomenttheancientmannersnolongerbecamecorruptedgraduallyasbefore;but thedepravationspreadwiththerapidityofa torrentandyouthwastosuchadegreeinfectedbythepoisonofluxuryandavarice,thattherecameagenerationofpeopleofwhichitwasjusttosay,thattheycouldneitherhavepatrimonynorsufferotherstohaveit.”Sallust:Fragm.I.12-13.

[370]A.delMar:AHistoryofMoneyinAntiquity,p.165.

[371]Xenophon:ADiscourseupon improving theRevenuesof theStateofAthens,pp.311-13; (Trans.CharlesDavenant,London,1771).

[372] “Longtemps aprèsque l’usagede lamonnaie eut été partout répandudans lemondeHellénique,Spartecontinuaitpartradition,aseservirdelingotsdefercommeintermédiairesdeséchange.Ceslingotsétait connu sous le nom de (gâteau de Pâtisserie). Ils pesaient chacun une mine éginétique et pour entransporter six seulement, c’est a dire environs 4536 Kg il fallait un chariot attelé de deux boeufs. Cerenseignement qui nous fournissentXenophon et Plutarch, est conforme a ce qui se passait dans l’Italiecentrale où les encombrantes lingots de bronze étaient transporté sur des chariots: “aes grave plaustrisquidamconvehentes,”ditTitusVivius. Il circulait toutes sortesde fables au sujet du fameuxPelanordeSparte,quiparaitêtreresterenusagejusqu’al’époquedesguerresmédiques:ondisaitparexemplequeleferdestinéafabriquercettemonnaieétaitimpropreàtoutautreusageetrenducassantparuneopérationquiconsistaitàlafairerougiraufeuetalatremperensuitedeferétait,parait-ilexclusif,etdéfensesouspeinedemorte,furfaiteàtoutcitoyendeposséderuneautremonnaie.

QuandEpaminondasmourut il était sipauvrequ’onne trouvadans samaison,pour toute fortune,qu’unvieilenfer.AThèbes,lapatried’Epaminondasoulamonnaiefutconnuetfrappéedebonneheure,trouvedans la demeure du héros ne pouvait avoir qu’un caractère superstitieux. Ceci nous surprendra d’autantmoinsquedèsleseptièmesiècle,Phidon,roid’Argos,lorsqu’ilfitfrappésunsystèmerégulierdepoidsetmesures,retiradelacirculationlesvieillesbrochesdeferquiauraientservitdemonnaiejusqu’àlà,etenconsacrauncertainnombresd’exemplairesen“ex-voto”danslasanctuairedeHéraàArgosEntempsdeAristotle on voyait encore dans leTemple.” (ErnestBabelon:LesOrigines de laMonnaie. p. 79; Paris;

1897.)[373]PausaniaswasthecommanderofthefleetoftheGreekallies.AfterhissuccessagainstthePersiansonlandatPlataea,inthesameyear,479B.C.,hereducedbothCyprusandByzantium.Accordingto the record, hewas executed by the Ephors by being starved to death in the temple ofAthena of theBrazenHouse, having been found guilty of (kingly) domineeringwhichwas supposed to have alienatedIonia.TherealreasonofhisdisgraceandexecutionwouldhavebeenburiedamongstthesecretsofNationalorInternationalmoneypower.Hehadmostlikelyenteredintosecretdealingswiththelatter.(Thucydides:The Peloponnesian War; Book I; Ch. 10.) [374] According to A. del Mar, the iron currency of thepelanorswasstrictlyanumericalsystem;confinedtoSparta,itwasanationalsystemhavingnorelationshiptoInternationalStandardsorratioswithothermetals;thusbeingidenticalincharactertothe“Greenback”papermoneyissuedbyPresidentAbrahamLincoln,duringtheAmericanCivilWar,andbywhichmeanstheschemesoftheinternationalbullionbrakingfraternityweretemporarilyfrustrated.

[375]AugustusBoeckh:ThePublicEconomyofAthens,p.43,Vol.I.[376]Aristotle:ThePolitics,BookII,Ch.9.[377] Polybius VI. 49. (Humphrey Michell: Sparta, p. 305.) François Lenormant: La Monnaie dansL’Antiquité,p.215-216;BookII,TomeI.

[378]FrançoisLenormant:LaMonnaiedansL’Antiquité,p.215-216;BookII,TomeI.[379]Bycorollary, thoseprepared topromote thebankers’policies,howeversubversiveordestructive,wouldbeamplyprovidedfor.OfthisperiodProfessorA.H.M.Jones(Sparta,p.39;Oxford;1967)makescomment:“AfterAegospotami therewassuchan influxofgoldandsilver that theconservatives tried torevivetheLycurganban,anditwasdecidedthatthetreasurymightholdgoldandsilverbutnotindividuals.NeverthelesspartoftheSpartiate’smesscontributionwasinAeginetanObols.”(Italicspresentauthor’s.)[380]HumphreyMichell,M.A.:Sparta,p.78.

[381]Leviticus;Ch.25:(KingJamesVersion).[382]Aristotle:ThePolitics,BookII,Ch.9.[383]Ibid.[384]HumphreyMichell:Sparta,p.50.

[385] Further support is given to the opinions of the present author in respect tomoney creation andissuancebytheremarksofDr.PaulB.Trescottinhiswork:Money,Banking,&EconomicWelfare(Page55),inwhichtheprocessofdepositcreationinmoderntimes(whichwouldbeknownasmoneycreationifmoredirectlanguagewereused),isbriefly,butaptlysummarized.

AccordingtoDr.Trescott,inordertomakealoanof$1000.00toacustomer,“abankneedsonlytocredithis account with $1000.00 in its books by a stroke of the pen.” The following words of Dr. Trescottcertainlyconveytheimpressionthat,despitethefact thatnothinghasbeengivenbythebankinquestionthat will cause any decrease in its assets, the customer will give the bank something of real value “inexchangeforthedepositcredit,”hisIOU,“oraninterestbearingsecurity.”AccordingtoDr.Trescott,thisprocessbywhichdepositsarecreated,consequentlycausesincreaseinthetotalmoneysupply.Dr.Trescottfurtherremarks:“Theprocessofcreatingdepositsisobviouslyasimpleandpainlessoneforthebanks.”

[386] Indaysgoneby itwas customary formostwhodidbusinesswith ships, tomake agift, usuallymoney,tobothMasterandFirstMate.Thesegiftswereknownas“Perks”.The“Perks”oftheMasterwereunknown to the First Mate; in some degree they took the place of commissions that shipmasters had

formerlyreceivedoncargobookingsinthedaysbeforetheadventoftelegraphsetc.,whentheytrulywerekingsoftheseainmanysensesoftheword.

[387]Hence the existing situation inwhat is left ofAnglo-Saxongovernments:As their (unnecessary)expenditurebeyondtaxincomeisfinancedbythecreationofdebtdirectlytoprivatepersons,whichindeedaretheBanks(thateveryonesounquestioninglyacceptsthesedaysasanestablishedfeatureinliving)underincredible conditions,* units of exchange in circulation automatically suffer increase, and consequentlythereisasteadyfallintheirpurchasingpower.

Such fall in purchasing power immediately and arbitrarily constitutes a hidden tax on all who holdmonetary units in one way or another. Levied in an unseen manner by those private persons whosupposedlymaketheso-calledloantothegovernment,itseffectsarenotunderstoodbythepeople,noritsorigin.

*Foraclearstatementof theworkingsof thisunbelievablesysteminCanada,seeBriefsubmitted to theRoyalCommissiononBankingandFinancebyMelRowatt,Ottawa,1964.

Furtherthanthishiddentaximposedwithdubiouslegality,thereistheabsurdityofaninterestrate,which,paralleltothatofprevioussocalledloans,createsayearlyinterestbillwhichinitselfnecessitatesfurthersuch borrowing, without ever thinking of paying off the principal; such system necessarily compels agovernmentthathasbeentrainedtounquestionedacceptanceofitsfinancialliabilitiestobeservantinsomeconsiderabledegree,ofthoseprivatepersons,itssupposedbenefactors.

FortheopinionsoforthodoxPoliticalEconomysee:JamesM.Buchanan:ThePublicFinances;pp.359-69.Homewood; Illinois; 1965. Reuben A. Kessel and Armen A. Alchian: Effects of Inflation, Journal ofPoliticalEconomy,Vol.LXX,pp.521-37,December,1962.

[388]ErnestBabelon:LesOriginesdelaMonnaie,p.106.[389]Herodotus;TheHistories;BookI.[390]A.delMar:AHistoryofMonetarySystemsinVariousStates,p.29,andpp.35-53.

[391]WilliamC.White:JewsinKaifeng;Toronto;1966.

[392]R.A.G.Carson:Coins,AncientMedieval,andModern,p.70.London;1962.[393]A.R.Burns:PericlesandAthens,p.11;London;1948.[394]According toAugustusBoeckh inThePublicEconomyofAthens (Vol. II; p. 289): “ThePublicdonations or distributions amongst the peoples were of frequent occurrence. To these belong thedistributionsofcornwhichhavebeenmentionedbefore, thecleruchiaeandtherevenuesfromthemines,which,beforethetimeofThemistocles(471B.C.)weredividedamongstthecitizens;andlastlythemoneyoftheTheoricafortheintroductionofwhich,Periclesischargeable.”

[395]Ibid.p.290.[396]DisplayintheRoyalOntarioMuseum,1972.

[397]BrayHammondandthestaffoftheFederalReserveSystem(1939):TheFederalReserveSystem;Omni,Hawthorne,Calif.1958.

[398]AugustusBoeckh:ThePublicEconomyofAthens,p.289,Vol.II.[399]Ibid.p.277.Vol.II.AnalysisoftheremarksofDemosthenesasquotedhereunderleavelittledoubt

inrespect to thismatter:“Inancientdays”saysDemosthenes“everythingthatbelongedtothestatewascostlyandsplendid,andnoindividualdistinguishedhimselffromthemultitude;andtheproofofitis,thatifanyofyouknowthehousesofThemistoclesandMiltiades,andthefamousmenofthattime,hewillseethat they are notmoremagnificent than those of other people; but the buildings and construction of theStatewereofsuchsizeandnumber,thatitisnotinthepowerofsucceedinggenerationstosurpassthem--thePropylaea,theDocks,thePorticoes,thePiraeus,andotherworkswithwhichyouseethecityadorned!Butnowallwhoareconcernedinthemanagementofpublicaffairshaveasuperfluityofriches,thatsomehavebuiltprivatehousesmoremagnificent thanmanypublicedificesandsomeof themhavepurchasedmorelandthanallofyouwhoaresittinginthecourtaretogetherpossessedof;butyourpublicbuildingsandworks,itisdisgracefultotellhowscantyandcontemptibletheyare.Whatindeedcanbesaidofyourworks?Whatoftheparapetswethrowup?Oftheroadsweconstructandthefountainsandtriflesatwhichwe labour?Thus speaks theardententhusiast for thehappinessand fameofhiscountry;his speechesofadmonitionmightwithafewalterationsbeadaptedtothepresentage,inwhichsuchvastsumshavebeensquanderedawaywithoutproducinganythingusefulordurable.”

[400]A.delMar:HistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.105;NewYork;1968.

[401]AugustusBoeckh:PublicEconomyofAthens,p.43,Vol.I.London;1828.AlsoMichaelGrant,p.3.

[402]TheRoyalCommissiononBankingandFinance.Ottawa;1964.Brief submittedbyMelRowatt,andpage138on“Swap”depositsetc.

[403]DuringthebriefreignofPeterIII(1762-1763A.D.)thepoodofcopperwascoinedinto32roubles,copperbullionitselfbeingapproximately5roublesperpood.

[404] According to the memoirs of Count Munnich, to his knowledge 6,000,000 counterfeit roublesenteredRussiafromWesternEuropebeingexchangedasagainstthesilverroubleataprofitof566%.Thisamount was known. The unknown amount must have been much greater. A. del Mar: Money andCivilization,p.303;London1886.

[405]NaturalisHistoria,xii,c.18.Pliny.MinimaquecomputationemilliescontenamilliasesertiumannisomnibusIndiaetSerespeninsulaqueillaimperionostroadimunt.Tantonobisdeliciaeetfeminaeconstant.(HistoryofMonetarySystems,p.126.A.delMar.)[406]MichaelGrant,(FromImperiumtoAuctoritas.p.57.),makesmentionofabankingfamilyknownastheLollii.CicerospeaksofaLaelius;(Orationes:ProFlaccus,BookXVII.).Theyaremorelikelymembersofthesamefamily.

[407]Cicero:Orationes:ProFlaccus,BookXVII.ClearlytransferofthepreciousmetalsinthetimeofCicero meant transfer of prosperity in the same way as it did in the European controlled world untilrecently.

[408]ManueldesAntiquitésRomaines,pp.78-85;TomeDixième;Del’OrganisationFinancièrechezlesRomaines.ThéodoreMommsen,andJoachimMarquardt.Paris.1888.

[409]According toA. delMar inAHistory of thePreciousMetals, (p. 88). “At that periodwhen thecoiningpresswasunknown, theworkofcoinagewasdonealtogetherbythehammer,shears,andfile.Aworkmancouldscarcelyfinishmorethantwentycoinsaday.”

[410]HarpersDictionaryofClassicalLiteratureandAntiquities,p.1598,HarryT.Peck,CoopersSquarePublishers,NewYork,1965.

[411]AlexanderdelMar:AHistoryofthePreciousMetals,p.105;NewYork;1968.

[412] Ibid. p. 55. (Pliny, Books iii, xxxiv, 5. and xxiii, 21.) [413] According to Harold Mattingly(RomanCoins,p.19):“Inthesecondperiodc.280-268B.C.,theaesanditspartswereissuedasbefore,butacoinageofsilverwasaddedforthepurposesofthewarinS.Italy.ThechiefcoinwastheDidrachme.thebronze coins of the series are struck at very variableweights and certainly represent values above theirmetal.”

[414]HaroldMattingly:RomanCoins;p.91;London;1923.

[415]216B.C.;inthisterriblebattle,86,000RomansandItalianswerevirtuallyannihilatedandalltheirequipmentlosttoHannibal.

[416]R.A.G.Carson:Coins,Ancient,Medieval,andModern;p.127;London;1962.[417]MichaelGrant:FromImperiumtoAuctoritas,p.19;Cambridge,1969.

[418]AnEncyclopediaofWorldHistory,p.100,Boston,1948.

[419]WilliamSmith,LLD:TheHistoryoftheBible;p.550;London,Ontario;1885.

[420]MichaelGrant:FromImperiumtoAuctoritas;p.41;Cambridge;1969.

[421]Britannica,9thEdn.[422]MichaelGrant:p.61-69.

[423] Ibid pp. 71-72. C.H.V. Sutherland (Coinage in Imperial Roman Policy) also makes frequentreferencetoNemausen.

[424]Italicsbypresentauthor.[425]FritzHeichelhiem:AncientEconomicHistory;p.243,VolumeIII,Leyden;1958-1970.[426] Colchiswas a district at theEastern end of theBlack Sea, South of theCaucasus andNorth ofArmeniaandPontus.InGreekmythologyitwasfamousasthedestinationoftheArgonauts,and,asabodeofMedea,aspecialheadquartersforsorcery.AnindependentstateatthetimeofAlexander,whenthatareasubjecttoMithridateswasinvadedbyPompey,ColchiswaspayingnominalhomagetoMithridates.OnhisdefeatitwasmadeaRomanprovince.

Thehousesofthescarcelyruinedstreetsofitsprincipalseaportwhichlongsincesankbeneaththeseaasaresultofsomeforgottenearthtremor,stillstandinghostlystillnessdeepbelowthesurface.TheRussianshaveasubmarinewhichtravelsthesestreetsfortouristpurposes.

[427]SirCharlesLeonardWoolley:TheSumerians,p.168etseq.(NortonEdn.).

[428]JuneGrem:TheMoneyManipulators,pp.137-178;EnterprisePublications,Inc.OakPark,Illinois.1971.AlsoseeTheTorontoStar,p.C9;“MonetaryExpertsfavournewSystem”;Fri.,June14th,1974.