The Biblical Firmament

Vault or Vapor?Vault or Vapor?

Robert C. NewmanRobert C. Newman

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Does the Bible teach a hard sky?

Today often claimed Today often claimed the Bible mistaken, the Bible mistaken, that it agrees with the that it agrees with the ancients in seeing the ancients in seeing the sky as a solid domesky as a solid dome

Want to look at this Want to look at this question carefully, question carefully, since the Bible claims since the Bible claims to be a revelation from to be a revelation from the Creatorthe Creator

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Modern Claims

Many moderns claim the Bible mistaken about the Many moderns claim the Bible mistaken about the nature of the sky:nature of the sky: Some think there is no God behind the Bible.Some think there is no God behind the Bible. Others think there is, but he wasnOthers think there is, but he wasn''t concerned to t concerned to

have the Bible writers get their science straight.have the Bible writers get their science straight. If either are right, why should we believe the Bible If either are right, why should we believe the Bible

is from the Creator, if it doesnis from the Creator, if it doesn''t get the facts of t get the facts of nature correct?nature correct?

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Modern Claims

Consider Schiaparelli, Consider Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the OT:Astronomy in the OT:

""[The biblical concept of [The biblical concept of the firmament is] a vault the firmament is] a vault of great solidity, compared of great solidity, compared in Job (37:18) to a metal in Job (37:18) to a metal mirror; a transparent vault mirror; a transparent vault allowing the light of the allowing the light of the stars, which are placed stars, which are placed higher, to pass through. higher, to pass through. Its main duty is to support Its main duty is to support the the ''upper watersupper waters''……""

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Modern Claims

"In the Scriptures the flat earth is founded on an underlying sea; it is stationary; the heavens are like an upturned bowl or canopy above it; the circumference of this vault rests on pillars; the sun, moon and stars move within this firmament of special purpose to illumine man; there is a sea above the sky, 'the waters which were above the heavens,' and through the 'windows of heaven' the rain comes down…. This is the worldview of the Bible."

Harry Emerson Fosdick, Modern Use of the Bible, 46-47

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Modern Claims

"The second day brings the creation of the firmament, which the ancients imagined as a gigantic hemispherical and ponderous bell…. This heavenly bell, which is brought into the waters of chaos, forms first of all a separating wall between the waters beneath and above."

Gerhard von Rad, Genesis, 51

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Alleged Biblical Cosmos

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Arguments for a Dome View

It is a common ancient view.It is a common ancient view. The word The word ''firmamentfirmament'' implies it. implies it. The The ''pillars of heavenpillars of heaven'' also fit this view. also fit this view. The Bible pictures the sky as a heavy metal The Bible pictures the sky as a heavy metal

mirror.mirror. Amos speaks of building stories in heaven Amos speaks of building stories in heaven

and of a vault.and of a vault.

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Ancient Views

It is true that belief in the sky as a solid It is true that belief in the sky as a solid dome was common in the ancient world.dome was common in the ancient world.

We see this idea among pagans, Jews and We see this idea among pagans, Jews and Christians.Christians.

The early Greek philosopher Anaximenes The early Greek philosopher Anaximenes of Miletus (c550 BC) saw the sky as a of Miletus (c550 BC) saw the sky as a crystal sphere to which the stars were crystal sphere to which the stars were nailed.nailed.

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Ancient Views

"After this, on the second day, [God] placed the heavens over the whole world, and separated it from the other parts…. He also placed a crystalline [firmament] round it, and put it together in a manner agreeable to the earth, and fitted it for giving moisture and rain, and for affording the advantage of dews."

Josephus, Antiquities, 1.1.1.

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Ancient Views

"The Sages of Israel say: the sun travels beneath the sky during the day and above the sky during the night, while the Sages of the world maintain that the sun travels beneath the sky by day and beneath the earth by night. It seems that their opinion is better than ours, because during the day the wells are cool, but at night they are warm."

Pesahim 94b

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Ancient Views

"For the Spirit being one, and holding the place of light, was between the water and the heaven, in order that the darkness might not in any way communicate with the heaven, which was nearer God, before God said, 'Let there be light.' The heaven, therefore, being like a dome-shaped covering, comprehended matter, which was like a clod."

Theophilus to Autolycus 2:13

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Ancient Views

"Waters embrace the back of the visible heaven on all parts, and yet they neither flow down, nor are moved out of their place…. Besides, the water has not quenched the sun, nor has the sun, which has gone on his way beneath for so long a time, dried up the water that lies above."

Chrysostom, Concerning the Statues 9.9

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Ancient Views

A dome sky was a common view among the A dome sky was a common view among the ancients.ancients.

Yet not all ancients viewed the sky as solid.Yet not all ancients viewed the sky as solid. For instance, the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras For instance, the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras

(c450 BC) thought it was a whirling, airy (c450 BC) thought it was a whirling, airy ""etherether"" which swept the sun, moon and stars around the which swept the sun, moon and stars around the earth.earth.

The Egyptians sometimes viewed the sky as a The Egyptians sometimes viewed the sky as a goddess.goddess.

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Ancient Views

G. Ernest Wright, in G. Ernest Wright, in The OT Against Its The OT Against Its EnvironmentEnvironment, points out that the teaching of the , points out that the teaching of the OT often contrasts with that of the nations OT often contrasts with that of the nations surrounding Israel.surrounding Israel.

Since there is a variety of ancient views of the sky, Since there is a variety of ancient views of the sky, and since the Bible claims to be a revelation from and since the Bible claims to be a revelation from the Creator, we really need to see what the Bible the Creator, we really need to see what the Bible itself says, rather than assume it agrees with other itself says, rather than assume it agrees with other ideas in the ancient Near East.ideas in the ancient Near East.

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The Word 'Firmament'

"And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament; and it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven."

Genesis 1:6-8 (KJV)

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The Word 'Firmament'

Our English is borrowed from the Latin Our English is borrowed from the Latin Vulgate translation of Jerome, who used Vulgate translation of Jerome, who used firmamentumfirmamentum here. here.

The ancient Greek LXX translation uses The ancient Greek LXX translation uses stereomastereoma ( (sterewmasterewma).).

The original Hebrew is The original Hebrew is raqiaraqia ( (uyqruyqr).).

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The Word 'Firmament'

FirmamentumFirmamentum – a means of support, a prop; – a means of support, a prop; Jerome uses this in his Vulgate for the sky, Jerome uses this in his Vulgate for the sky, perhaps as fixed above the earth.perhaps as fixed above the earth.

StereomaStereoma – solid body, foundation; – solid body, foundation; skeleton; keel; strength, stedfastness; in skeleton; keel; strength, stedfastness; in LXX, firmamentLXX, firmament

RaqiaRaqia – extended surface, (solid) expanse; – extended surface, (solid) expanse; the vault of heaventhe vault of heaven

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Etymology of Raqia

Noun from same word group as verb Noun from same word group as verb raqaraqa ( (uqruqr)) The standard dictionary of Brown, Driver and The standard dictionary of Brown, Driver and

Briggs translates the verb as Briggs translates the verb as ''beat, stamp, beat outbeat, stamp, beat out'' and and ''spread out.spread out.''

From this it is commonly argued that the Bible From this it is commonly argued that the Bible pictures the sky as something solid which has pictures the sky as something solid which has been been ''spread out by beating.spread out by beating.''

The verb is used eleven times in the Bible.The verb is used eleven times in the Bible.

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Usage of Raqa

"Give thanks to the LORD, for he is good,

His love endures forever…

Who spread out the earth upon the waters,

His love endures forever…"

Psalm 136:6

Here raqa is applied to spreading the earth.

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Usage of Raqa

"To whom, then, will you compare God? What image will you compare him to? As for an idol, a craftsman casts it, and a goldsmith overlays it with gold and fashions silver chains for it." Isaiah 40:19

Here raqa is applied to spreading gold leaf over a cast image, which is a rather more delicate operation than beating or stamping!

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Usage of Verb Raqa

Verb used 11x in the Bible:Verb used 11x in the Bible: 2x to 2x to ''stamp one’s feetstamp one’s feet'' and once to stamp and once to stamp

something with the feet;something with the feet; 4x for spreading metal, but not always in the sense 4x for spreading metal, but not always in the sense

of beating or hammering;of beating or hammering; 3x for spreading out the earth, which is nowhere 3x for spreading out the earth, which is nowhere

said to be spread by beating;said to be spread by beating; 1x for spreading the sky or the clouds.1x for spreading the sky or the clouds. It thus need not mean more than It thus need not mean more than ''spread out,spread out,''

whatever the means for accomplishing this.whatever the means for accomplishing this.

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Usage of Noun Raqia

Noun used 17x in BibleNoun used 17x in Bible 11 of these refer to 11 of these refer to ''firmamentfirmament'' of heaven, which is of heaven, which is

the meaning in dispute;the meaning in dispute; 5 others refer to some object in Ezekiel’s vision, 5 others refer to some object in Ezekiel’s vision,

which may be solid, but this is not certain;which may be solid, but this is not certain; The other, Ps 150:1, may refer to the heavenly The other, Ps 150:1, may refer to the heavenly

firmament, or to the firmament, or to the ''expanseexpanse'' of God’s power. of God’s power. In any case, the noun In any case, the noun raqiaraqia refers to something refers to something

expanded, whether solid or not, thick or thin, expanded, whether solid or not, thick or thin, however it was spread out.however it was spread out.

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The 'Pillars of Heaven'

Occurs only once, in Job 26:11: Occurs only once, in Job 26:11: ""The pillars The pillars of heaven quake, aghast at his rebuke.of heaven quake, aghast at his rebuke.""

Three other passages refer to Three other passages refer to ''pillarspillars'' of the of the earth.earth.

But in Hebrew usage, pillars do not always But in Hebrew usage, pillars do not always support something. Sometimes they are support something. Sometimes they are free-standing.free-standing.

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Usage of 'Pillars'

Solomon's Temple is usually pictured with free-standing pillars.

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Usage of 'Pillars'

In context, the In context, the ''pillarspillars'' of heaven and earth suggest of heaven and earth suggest that the objects referred to are mountains.that the objects referred to are mountains.

The idea may be that the mountains are made of The idea may be that the mountains are made of earth and extend into heaven, rather than that they earth and extend into heaven, rather than that they support earth or heaven.support earth or heaven.

In any case, there is no explicit statement that In any case, there is no explicit statement that these these ''pillarspillars'' hold up heaven or earth. hold up heaven or earth.

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The sky a 'heavy metal mirror'

""Can you, with Him, Can you, with Him, spread out the skies, strong spread out the skies, strong as a molten mirror?as a molten mirror?"" (Job (Job 37:17, NASB)37:17, NASB)

""Can you beat out vault of Can you beat out vault of the skies, as he does, hard the skies, as he does, hard as a mirror of cast metal?as a mirror of cast metal?"" (NEB)(NEB)

""Hast thou, with him, Hast thou, with him, spread out the sky, which spread out the sky, which is strong, and as a molten is strong, and as a molten looking glass?looking glass?"" (KJV) (KJV)

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The sky a heavy metal mirror?

This passage certainly looks like the Bible teaches This passage certainly looks like the Bible teaches a solid sky – or more precisely, that the speaker a solid sky – or more precisely, that the speaker Elihu believed in one.Elihu believed in one.

Elihu might have been mistaken and the Bible Elihu might have been mistaken and the Bible merely reporting his words, but is this what he merely reporting his words, but is this what he really said?really said?

There are serious problems with the translation of There are serious problems with the translation of two crucial words here – two crucial words here – ''mirrormirror'' and and ''sky.sky.''

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The sky a heavy metal mirror?

The word translated The word translated ''mirrormirror'' is listed as occurring only is listed as occurring only once in the Hebrew Bible, once in the Hebrew Bible, with no cognates given with no cognates given from related languages.from related languages.

A word with identical A word with identical spelling is listed below it. spelling is listed below it. This occurs 4x, once by This occurs 4x, once by Elihu in Job.Elihu in Job.

I suggest this is the word in I suggest this is the word in our passage, usually our passage, usually translated translated ''appearance.appearance.''

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The sky a heavy metal mirror? The word translated The word translated ''skysky'' or or

''skiesskies'' here is here is shahaqshahaq.. It occurs 21x in the Bible.It occurs 21x in the Bible. The dictionary lists the main The dictionary lists the main

meanings as meanings as ''dustdust'' and and ''cloudcloud''; ; ''skysky'' is only given as a is only given as a secondary meaning under secondary meaning under cloud.cloud.

Elihu uses the word 3 other Elihu uses the word 3 other times, always translated times, always translated ''cloud.cloud.''

I suggest we try I suggest we try ''cloudcloud'' here, here, too.too.

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The sky a heavy metal mirror?

With these changes we get:With these changes we get: ""Can you, with Him, spread out the Can you, with Him, spread out the

mighty clouds, with an appearance of mighty clouds, with an appearance of being poured out?being poured out?""

As an alternative to:As an alternative to: ""Can you, with Him, spread out the skies, Can you, with Him, spread out the skies,

strong as a molten mirror?strong as a molten mirror?""

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The sky a heavy metal mirror?

The LXX translates this word by The LXX translates this word by horasishorasis, which , which means means ''appearanceappearance'' rather than rather than ''mirror.mirror.''

The two alternatives picture different events:The two alternatives picture different events: Spreading the skies speaks of creation;Spreading the skies speaks of creation; My suggestion, everyday weather.My suggestion, everyday weather.

Which of these best fits the context of Job 37?Which of these best fits the context of Job 37?

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The sky a heavy metal mirror?

Is Job 37 a creation or weather context?Is Job 37 a creation or weather context? 2-5 – thunder and lightning2-5 – thunder and lightning 6 – rain6 – rain 9-10 – wind, cold, frost9-10 – wind, cold, frost 11-13 – rain and clouds11-13 – rain and clouds 15-16 – clouds15-16 – clouds 17 – warmth, south wind17 – warmth, south wind 18 – our verse18 – our verse 21-22 – clouds, wind, fair weather21-22 – clouds, wind, fair weather

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Building 'stories' in heaven

"It is he that buildeth his stories in the heavens, and hath founded his troop in the earth." (Amos 9:6, KJV)

"The LORD, God of Hosts… who builds his upper chambers in the heavens, and founds his vault upon the earth…" (RSV)

"The One who builds His upper chambers in the heavens, and has founded His vaulted dome over the earth…" (NASB)

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Building 'stories' in heaven

But the word translated But the word translated ''storiesstories'' (KJV) or (KJV) or ''upper chambersupper chambers'' (RSV, NASB) is only so (RSV, NASB) is only so translated here; elsewhere it is translated here; elsewhere it is ''step, stair, step, stair, ascent, what comes up.ascent, what comes up.''

We suggest it refers to God piling up clouds We suggest it refers to God piling up clouds in the heavens, literally in the heavens, literally ""He that builds in He that builds in the heavens his ascents…the heavens his ascents…""

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Building 'stories' in heaven

The word translated The word translated ''vaultvault'' (RSV) or (RSV) or ''vaulted domevaulted dome'' is so translated only here. is so translated only here.

Elsewhere it is Elsewhere it is ''band, thong, bunch.band, thong, bunch.'' This is This is why the KJV has why the KJV has ''troop.troop.''

Here we suggest Here we suggest ""appoints his bunch (or appoints his bunch (or troop) above the earth,troop) above the earth,"" referring to the referring to the gathering of clouds.gathering of clouds.

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Building 'stories' in heaven

With these changes, we get this translation:

"Who piles up his clouds in the heavens

And gathers them over the earth…"

Notice how this fits the context following:

"Who calls for the waters of the sea

And pours them on the face of the earth…"

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Summary on dome view

Resemblance to ancient views of sky:Resemblance to ancient views of sky: Variety of ancient viewsVariety of ancient views OT often against its environmentOT often against its environment

Etymology of Hebrew for Etymology of Hebrew for ''firmamentfirmament'' True, related verb can mean True, related verb can mean ''beat, stampbeat, stamp'' But usage includes But usage includes ''spread outspread out'' without beating without beating It appears to be used for spreading out clouds in It appears to be used for spreading out clouds in

Job 37:18.Job 37:18.

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Summary on dome view

Pillars of heaven imply dome skyPillars of heaven imply dome sky Possible, but pillars have other uses tooPossible, but pillars have other uses too Nothing said about these holding up skyNothing said about these holding up sky Probably they refer to mountains rising into the Probably they refer to mountains rising into the

skysky Sky a heavy metal mirrorSky a heavy metal mirror

A bad translation!A bad translation! Building stories, vaultBuilding stories, vault

Also a bad translation!Also a bad translation!

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Evidence for a vapor firmament

We believe the Bible teaches a vapor firmament, We believe the Bible teaches a vapor firmament, namely the atmosphere.namely the atmosphere.

Nothing is said about any space between Nothing is said about any space between firmament & earth, nor about opening such a firmament & earth, nor about opening such a space at creation.space at creation.

The biblical picture of 3 heavens fits this vapor The biblical picture of 3 heavens fits this vapor view rather than the dome view.view rather than the dome view.

The Bible pictures birds flying upon the The Bible pictures birds flying upon the firmament, not under it.firmament, not under it.

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The 'Firmament' Created

"And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament; and it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven…"

Genesis 1:6-8 (KJV)

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Space between firmament & earth? In this account, there is no suggestion that the In this account, there is no suggestion that the

firmament moves to separate water from water. firmament moves to separate water from water. Nor is there any elsewhere in the Bible.Nor is there any elsewhere in the Bible.

This fits an atmosphere model, not a dome.This fits an atmosphere model, not a dome.

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The Three Heavens

"I know a man in Christ who 14 years ago was caught up to the third heaven. And I know that this man – whether in the body or out of the body I do not know, but God knows – was caught up to paradise. He heard inexpressible things, things that man is not permitted to tell." 2 Corinthians 12:2-4

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The Three Heavens

Solomon, in dedicating the temple, seems to refer Solomon, in dedicating the temple, seems to refer to three heavens:to three heavens: HeavenHeaven The heaven of heavensThe heaven of heavens Heaven, GodHeaven, God''s dwelling places dwelling place

Modern translations usually render the 2Modern translations usually render the 2ndnd of these of these ""the highest heaven,the highest heaven,"" based on the common based on the common Hebrew idiom, Hebrew idiom, ''x of x,x of x,'' meaning x to the highest meaning x to the highest degree.degree.

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The Three Heavens

"But will God really dwell on earth? The heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you. How much less this temple I have built." 1 Kings 8:27 (NIV)

"Hear the supplication of your servant and of your people Israel when they pray toward this place. Hear from heaven, your dwelling place, and when you hear, forgive." 1 Kings 8:30

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The Three Heavens

In the dome view, the 3 heavens are:In the dome view, the 3 heavens are: The space below the domeThe space below the dome The dome itselfThe dome itself The invisible space above the domeThe invisible space above the dome

In the atmosphere view, they are:In the atmosphere view, they are: The atmospheric firmamentThe atmospheric firmament The realm of sun, moon, starsThe realm of sun, moon, stars The invisible dwelling place of GodThe invisible dwelling place of God

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The Three Heavens

“Praise ye the LORD. Praise ye the LORD from the heavens; praise him in the heights. Praise ye him, all his angels; praise ye him, all his hosts. Praise ye him, sun and moon; praise him all ye stars of light. Praise him, ye heaven of heavens, and ye waters that be above the heavens. Let them praise the name of the LORD; for he commanded, and they were created." Psalm 148:1-5 (KJV)

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The Heaven of Heavens

Psalm 148 indicates the heaven of heavens was Psalm 148 indicates the heaven of heavens was created.created.

1 Kings 8, that it is finite & cannot contain God.1 Kings 8, that it is finite & cannot contain God. Thus it appears that the heaven of heavens is where Thus it appears that the heaven of heavens is where

the stars are rather than the invisible dwelling of God.the stars are rather than the invisible dwelling of God. But this does not fit the dome view, where the highest But this does not fit the dome view, where the highest

heaven is Godheaven is God''s dwelling place.s dwelling place. It does fit the atmosphere view, where the invisible It does fit the atmosphere view, where the invisible

realm of God is all around us, not above some dome.realm of God is all around us, not above some dome.

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Heaven, the invisible realm

"The people remained at a distance, while Moses approached the thick darkness where God was. Then the LORD said to Moses, 'Tell the Israelites this: You have seen for yourselves that I have spoken to you from heaven.' " Exodus 20:21-22

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Heaven, the invisible realm

"From heaven he made you to hear his voice to discipline you. On earth he showed you his great fire, and you heard his words from out of the fire." Deuteronomy 4:36

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Heaven, the invisible realm

"You came down on Mount Sinai; you spoke to them from heaven. You gave them regulations and laws that are just and right, and decrees and commands that are good." Nehemiah 9:13

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Heaven, the invisible realm

Though travel to and from heaven is usually Though travel to and from heaven is usually spoken of as spoken of as ''upup'' and and ''down,down,'' this is not always the this is not always the case.case.

In 2 Kings 6, Elisha prays that his servant may see In 2 Kings 6, Elisha prays that his servant may see that they are protected by an invisible heavenly that they are protected by an invisible heavenly army. army. ""And the LORD opened the eyes of the And the LORD opened the eyes of the young man; and he saw, and behold, the mountain young man; and he saw, and behold, the mountain was full of horses and chariots of fire round about was full of horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.Elisha.""

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The Three Heavens

Thus, in the dome view, the highest heaven Thus, in the dome view, the highest heaven must be Godmust be God''s dwelling place, which starts s dwelling place, which starts above the dome.above the dome.

In the atmosphere view, GodIn the atmosphere view, God''s dwelling s dwelling place is not highest, since it starts below the place is not highest, since it starts below the level of sun, moon and stars.level of sun, moon and stars.

This latter is what we actually find in the This latter is what we actually find in the biblical material on heaven.biblical material on heaven.

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Birds and Heaven

In the dome view, the In the dome view, the birds fly under the birds fly under the firmament of heaven.firmament of heaven.

In the atmosphere view, In the atmosphere view, the birds fly upon the the birds fly upon the firmament of heaven.firmament of heaven.

Genesis 1:20 literally Genesis 1:20 literally reads: reads: ""…birds that may …birds that may fly upon the face of the fly upon the face of the firmament of heaven.firmament of heaven.""

DomeAtmosphere

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Hebrew Prepositions

When Hebrew uses prepositions with When Hebrew uses prepositions with tenuous objects, it often sounds like they tenuous objects, it often sounds like they are solid:are solid: Objects are carried Objects are carried ''beforebefore'' the wind the wind Clouds hold up water from Clouds hold up water from ''beneathbeneath'' So birds fly So birds fly ''uponupon'' the firmament the firmament And the water And the water ''aboveabove'' the firmament is the firmament is

merely cloud water in the atmospheremerely cloud water in the atmosphere

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Hebrew Prepositions

"How often are they like straw before the wind, like chaff swept away by a gale?" Job 21:18

"Although the peoples roar like the roar of surging waters, when he rebukes them they flee far away, driven before the wind like chaff on the hills, like tumbleweed before a gale." Isaiah 17:13

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Conclusions

Some negatives:Some negatives: The liberal claim that the Bible teaches a solid-The liberal claim that the Bible teaches a solid-

dome sky is incorrect.dome sky is incorrect. There is nothing in the usage of There is nothing in the usage of raqia raqia or its or its

related verb that requires the solidity or rigidity related verb that requires the solidity or rigidity of the biblical firmament.of the biblical firmament.

The Bible gives no indication that anything The Bible gives no indication that anything supports the firmament nor that it supports supports the firmament nor that it supports water in the form of a massive sea.water in the form of a massive sea.

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Conclusions

Some positives:Some positives: The word The word ''heavenheaven'' has 3 meanings – (1) the has 3 meanings – (1) the

invisible abode of God, (2) the starry heavens, invisible abode of God, (2) the starry heavens, (3) where the birds fly.(3) where the birds fly.

The third of these is the firmament, the The third of these is the firmament, the atmosphere.atmosphere.

The water The water ''aboveabove'' the firmament is actually the firmament is actually floating floating ''uponupon'' the atmosphere. the atmosphere.

This water takes the form of cloud droplets and This water takes the form of cloud droplets and perhaps water vapor also.perhaps water vapor also.

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Conclusions

Some implications:Some implications: This suggestion is consistent with the BibleThis suggestion is consistent with the Bible''s s

own claim to be from God.own claim to be from God. No special revelation would have been No special revelation would have been

necessary to construct this model, other than necessary to construct this model, other than information about Godinformation about God''s abode.s abode.

We should not be surprised that ancient We should not be surprised that ancient translations and translation traditions need to be translations and translation traditions need to be re-examined in the light of scientific discovery.re-examined in the light of scientific discovery.

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For More Detail

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