DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 022 388 FL 000 835

By-Brooks, NelsonTEACHING CULTURE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM.

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, New York, N.Y.Spons Agency-Modern Language Association, New York, N.Y. ERIC Clearinghouse on the Teaching of Foreign

Languages.Pub Date Mar 65Note-14p.Journal Cit Foreign Language Annals; vl n3 p204-17 Mar 1968EDRS Price MF-S025 He-SO.64Descriptors- AUDIOVISUAL AIDS, *CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES, CULTURAL AWARENESS, *CULTURAL CONTEXT,

*EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES, *FOREIGN CULTURE, *LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION, LITERATURE, RESEARCH,

SOCIOCULTURAL PATTERNS, SURVEYS

An attempt is made to define and describe culture for foreign language teachers,particularly those involved in the earlier phases of instruction. Reasons advanced forthe inclusion of culture in language study center around the light it sheds on the realmeanings of the target language. Projects, activities, and reports on culture in thelanguage field are briefly reviewed. Negative and positive definition of culture areoffered, distinctions are made between formal and deep culture, and ananthropologist's list of cultural focal points is outlined and expanded. Also discussed isthe changing presentation of cultural content in the language classroom as thestudent advances. Proposals are made for the sharpening of these cultural definitionsand for the preparation of pertinent materials. A brief bibliography is included. (AD

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OE EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEENREPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIGINAEING It POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL MICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

Teaching Culture in the ForeignLanguage Classroom

AN ERIC REPORTMLA/ERIC Clearinghouse on the

Teaching of Foreign Languages

Reprinted fromForeign Language Annals

Volume I, Number 3 (March 1968)

ABSTRACT: There is general agreement that cultureshould be taught in a language course, but just whatthis means is unclear. The scientists propose a con-cept of totality quite unlike the idea of perfection en-tertained by hunnnistic scholars. Attempts to accom-modate the two points of view have so far met withlimited success. To rough out a definition of culturethat will be immediately useful to language teachers,statements are made as to what culture is not, viz.:geography, history, folklore, sociology, literature,civilization. Five meanings of culture are identified:growth, refinement, fine arts, patterns of living, and atotal way of life. The fourth meaning refers to the role

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED

BY

TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING

UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OFNelson Brooks EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE

THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF

THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."

of the individual in life situations of every kind andhis conformity to the rules and models for attitudeand conduct in them. This meaning is seen as themost immediately useful in instruction. The third andfifth meanings gain in importance as language com-petence develops. A dual interpretation of culture isrecommended, both scientific and humanistic, and anoutline for each is suggested. A number of ways ofapplying these recommendations in classroom pro-cedure are set forth. A list of proposals invites discus-sion and development of these ideas leading to wideprofessional acceptance.

Foreword

THE PURPOSE of this paper is to define anddescribe culture in terms that will be meaning-ful to classroom teachers of foreign languages,especially in the earlier phases of instruction.No attempt is made to portray culture for theliterary scholar nor for the scientist in psychol-ogy or linguistics or anthropology. In each ofthese disciplines the concept must be developedaccording to the needs and insights of those im-mediately concerned. Whether or not the con-cept-presented here is fully satisfactory to thosewho practice these disciplines is irrelevant. Wehave reached a point at which foreign languageteachers must themselves decide what is to beunderstood by and done about culture as itrelates to their professional responsibilities.

There is, at the same time, no intention ofshowing for these adjacent fields any less re-spect than in the past, or anything other thanappreciation and approval of their aims andaccomplishments. This is especially true ofliterature. The ideas and proposals set forthhere are offered in full confidence that the goalsnow being pursued in language classes will con-tinue to result in the presence of more and

better prepared students in literature courses.In learning a foreign language the words

themselves count less than what they mean.The meaning of a word is, at bottom, the seg-ment of personal or societal life to which itrefers. The intent of this paper is to find ways ofstudying how language is linked to the way oflife of which it is so significant a part, as well asways of appreciating the attitudes and valuesof users of language that bind them so firmlyto the culture in which they were nurtured.

NELSON BROOKS (Ph.D., Yale University) is AssociateProfessor of French at Yale, Director of Summer Programs,and Director of the Summer Language Institute. He hastaught French at school and college levels for the past fortyyears. Sinca 1957 he has been conducting courses in theYale Graduate School for future teachers of foreign lan-guages. He is the author of several language tests, of the bookLanguage and Language Learning, and of numerous articleson pedagogical subjects. Since 1958 he has served fromtime to time as consultant to the language program of theU.S. Office of Education. From 1960 to 1964 he served as amember of the Board of Education in New Haven, Con-necticut. He was director of the project that produced theMLA Cooperative Foreign Language Tests. In 1966 he pub-lished a brochure on teaching culture in the language class.Perhaps the most important philosopher on foreign lan-guage teaching of the present generation, he created the termaudiolingual and pioneered many of the related concepts.

204

The Problem

NELSON BROOKS

Our greatest immediate problem is that weare uncertain about what we mean by the wordculture. For decades our profession has an-nounced its intentkon of teaching culture.Teachers want to teach culture. Many havedone so and continue to do so, with results thatare more or less satisfactory. There has been acultural dimension discernible in textbookmaterials for a long time. Its form has variedfrom the inclusion of a few footnotes to thepreparation of an entire approach entitled"cultural" and incorporating culture as a prin-cipal factor.

Yet the need remains for a definition of cul-ture that is widely agreed upon and is meaning-ful in terms of events in a language classroom.Well-intended phrases that relate culturalstudies to the desire for peace and friendshipamong nations need to be amplified with spe-cific detail. The classroom teacher is entitled tosay: "Better international understanding is anoble aim and I am for it. But what should Ibe doing at nine-fifteen on a Tuesday morningin my language class that will help bring itabout?"

It appears that a suitable concept of cultureneeds first of all to be made explicit. It shouldthen be communicated to those who preparematerials for classroom teaching and be re-flected in plans, selections, exercises, and rec-ommendations. It should also be communi-cated to those who teach and those who are pre-paring to teach so that they may know what ismeant by the term culture as they deal withlanguage learning and with examples of litera-ture. The concept should be set forth in such away that it may be grasped by students as wellas teachers, first of all to understand what it is,then to see how the insight applies to thosewhose language is being learned.

The needed concept of culture should be ex-pressed in terms that will be usable by thosewho teach and learn in schools as well as incolleges. It is during the early phases of lan-guage instruction that the inclusion of cultureis at once the most significant and the mostbaffling. As every year passes an increasingnumber of students have their first encounterwith another language in the schools, while

205

colleges deal less with monolinguals and morewith the advanced phases of language studyand with literature. We are approaching a timewhen the teaching of the beginning phases will,in college, be principally for those who arealready competent in a language other thantheir mother tongue.

Cultural anthropologists are by now reason-ably clear as to what they mean by the wordculture, at least in their discipline. What theword means to the humanistic scholar, how-ever, still remains diffuse and ill-defined. Whileanthropologists have a deep respect for lan-guage competence and recognize in language amost important component of culture as theyconceive of it, they are motivated by no strongdesire to influence the teaching of foreign lan-guages one way or another. In this their out-look differs notably from that of humanisticscholars, many of whom feel that in the aca-demic world language studies should be illumi-nated by and oriented toward one field only:literature. At the same time the linguisticscientist often takes the position that whateveris said or done about language, even languagelearning, should bear his stamp of approval.These varying winds of doctrine and cross cur-rents of opinion and research make heavy goingfor classroom teachers. They are entitled to feelthat their understanding of the problem shouldbe clearly expressed.

Need for solution

The desire for a cultural accompaniment tolanguage acquisition has long been felt thoughonly vaguely understood by the great majorityof language teachers. There is little need toexhort them to teach culture; their willingnessis already manifest. But there is a need to helpthem understand what meaning they shouldassign to the word culture and how it can be-come significant and fruitful in a sequence ofyears of language study. There is a need formaterials especially prepared for the teachingof culture and for tests that will measure thelearner's progress in acquiring information andsensitivity in this area.

But it may well be asked whether the needfor a more precise definition of culture is sowidely justified after all. Is this really a centralissue in providing students with control of a

206 Teaching Culture in theForeign Language Classroom

foreign language, which is, at bottom, theteacher's essential task? Is anything more than

incidental encounter with and random refer-ence to cultural matters required in establish-

ing the language skills? Will special emphasis

upon culture not be wasteful of precious class

time and end by giving the student less rather

than more of what he is entitled to expect from

his language course? Should not the languageclass concern itself with language proper and

postpone cultural matters until the student has

greater maturity and greater language c9m-petence? There are already available manytexts with a cultural ingredient in their totalcontent; is it really necessary to do more than

is already being done?An immediate answer is that the proper time

for the beginning of cultural understanding isimportant. Because of the large decrease inpopulation in language classes with each suc-ceeding year of advancement, the concept ofculture can be communicated to only a rela-tively small number of students unless this isdone in the earliest phases of their instruction.As the analysis of language in both its exter-nalized and internalized forms is carried for-ward, it becomes increasingly clear that wehave not taught even the beginnings of a foreignlanguage unless we have taught what it means

to those whose native language it is. The mererecording in new linguistic forms of one'snative culture hardly justifies the effort in-volved in becoming adept at all the rules andpractices of another language. But we cannotknow what the new language means to thenative speaker until we know in some sys-tematic and fairly extensive way the meaninghe attaches to the words and phrases he uses.

When the learner puts his newly acquiredlanguage to use he soon finds that there areovertones of meaning that are not captured byskills, grammar, or lexicon. If a student speaksto a teacher and uses forms of pronoun, verb,

and possessive adjective that are in the secondperson singular, he will have committed a seri-

ous error that is either laughable or imperti-nent. But it is an error that nothing in pronun-ciation, grammar, or vocabulary can help himcorrect or avoid. Such a mistake is related notto any theory of language but to a theory oflanguage users. This, of course, moves the

problem out of linguistics as such and into cul-

ture. This amounts to saying that instructionin a foreign language, even at the start, remainsinaccurate and incomplete unless it is comple-mented by appropriate studies in culture.

The study of culture in the foreign languageclassroom appears to be a matter of greater im-portance than we have hitherto supposed, due

to the nature of language and to the circum-stances encountered hi learning a second lan-

guage in formal education. This importance isintensified if we look closely at the full range oflanguage as a means of communication.

In theoretical terms, we may analyze lan-guage in action into three distinct bands: syn-tactic, semantic, and pragmatic. By syntacticwe refer to the grammar of sounds, marks,forms, and orders of words, and their relation-ship to each other. It has been succinctly de-fined by Charles Morris as the relationship ofsigns to signs. The semantic area is immediatelyadjacent to the syntactic. Here we study howsigns mean what they mean and how themodifications in the syntactic area bring about

parallel modifications in meaning. This hasbeen defined by Morris as the relation of signs

to things signified. In the third area, the prag-matic, we may study the manipulation of syn-tax and semantics by an actual user of lan-guage. A new element is now introduced, for

language at this point acquires a unique color-ing and bias depending upon what the indi-vidual brings to the language act in terms of

his age, status, attitude, intent, and similarfactors. A spoken interview or a personal letter

will tell us something about both the writer and

his language that is not to be discovered bysearching out in the dictionary the words he has

employed or in a grammar the constructions he

has used.There are two principal ingredients in the

individual's contribution to language in action.

One is biological, having its origin in the genetic

heritage of the speaker; the other is social,having its origin in the beliefs, habits, andpractices of those with whom the individualcomes in contact. These result in the culturaldimension of language, without which it re-mains, in an important way, wanting.

There are other less radical yet equally valid

reasons for the systematic pursuit of cultural

NELSON BROOKS 207

studies throughout the language course. Anincessant problem in all classroom work is theinvolvement of the student's interest, attention,and active participation. A prime source ofthese motivating factors is the student's aware-ness of his own growth in mastering a newmode of symbolic expression. This source ofmotivation is especially powerful at the start ofthe language course, and often provides, initself, sufficient forward thrust to keep thelearner working at a productive rate for a longtime. Another source of motivation, differentin nature, but equally forceful, is the satisfyingof an eager curiosity about what life is like inother places, in other climates, in other times.Information as to what it is like to be a memberof another societal group is again precisely whatis meant by a systematic study of culture. Athird source of motivation is the pleasure to bederived from the writings of talented authorswhose works, either literary or expository, havean esthetic attractiveness and a humanisticappeal to which the young are sensitive, oftento a remarkable degree, provided the mannerof presentation is of the appropriate sort.

U p to now

References that can be termed cultural areof course to be discovered in almost any activ-ities of language teachers and in any materialsprinted for student use. But up to now therehave not been very many serious attempts todeal with the subject of culture in language in-struction at a professional level and in a sys-tematic way.

It may be useful to classify what has beendone in the following manner:

a) Individual authorshipb) Research projectsc) Teacher training and retraining programsd) College coursese) Standard tests0 Conferences and seminars supported by pro-

fessional groups and followed by the distribu-tion of printed reports

At the level of individual authorship we findculture included, sometimes incidentally, some-times in a purposeful and sustained way inmany language texts and reading texts. Inaddition, not a few books have been published

with the unique intent of portraying the cul-ture of a given foreign country. A number ofcolleges and universities have offered coursesfor students who are already quite competentin language and who wish to pursue studiesthat are not exclusively literary in nature butin which literature is one of many facets of thetarget culture that are the subject matter of thecourse.

A landmark in professional attention to therole of culture in language instruction was theseminar held in the summer of 1953 at theUniversity of Michigan. This seminar wassupported by the Modern Language Associa-tion and resulted from a proposal presented tothe Association by Albert Marckwardt inDecember 1952. The subject of the seminarwas: "Developing Cultural Understar dingthrough Foreign Language Study." The par-ticipants were: R. W. Brown, J. E. Englekirk,D. H. French, M. C. Johnston, V. H. W.Lange, A. H. Marckwardt, R. L. Politzer, A.Sommerfelt, and B. W. Wheeler. Present alsoas junior assistants were L. R. Criminale andJ. A. Davies. There were daily sessions duringthe four weeks from 29 June to 24 July. French,German, and Spanish, in addition to English,were selected as the languages to be repre-sented. A twenty-three page summary reportof discussions, findings, and recommendationsappeared in PAILA in December 1953.

The seminar was interdisciplinary, basedupon the realization that only thus could thesubject be properly dealt with. Most of theproblems we now face were foreseen at thattime and many excellent recommendationswere offered. There was, however, little im-mediate effect of the publication of this report.For lack of funds, for lack of organizationalfacilities and personnel, perhaps most of all forlack of professional readiness for the problem inthe terms in which it was presented, no widelybased changes of significance came about as aresult of this seminar.

A few years later, in the spring of 1960, theNortheast Conference on the Teaching ofForeign Languages selected as the topic for itsyearly discussions and reports: "Culture inLanguage Learning." Several committees con-sidered and wrote about aspects of this matterand, as is customary, their formal reports were

208 Teaching Culture in the Foreign Language Classroom

printed and distributed widely in the areaserved by this conference. The views of bothscientists and humanists are expressed in thesereports, which are characterized by rather un-successful efforts to synthesize in a way tsefulto classroom teachers a number of points ofview that differed widely in content, perspec-tive, and basic analysis.

Under the auspices of the NDEA, a researchproject for the examination of cross-culturalcontrasts comparing the United States with anumber of European countries was launched in1959. Though classroom pedagogy was not theimmediate concern of this research, the ulti-mate use of its findings in the preparation oftuaching materials and in the training ofteachers as well as upon classroom programswas envisaged from the start.

Other research projects linking cultural stud-ies to language instruction have also been sup-ported by NDEA funds, notably the projectunder the direction of Howard Nostrand at theUniversity of Washington.

Culture has played an important role in twoother types of activity. One is the inclusion of asection on Culture and Civilization in thebattery of seven tests that comprise the MLAProficiency Tests for Teachers and AdvancedStudents. The other is the inclusion of cultureas a major topic in the programs of the NDEAInstitutes, both summer and academic year,presented on a long list of college and universitycampuses in each successive year beginning in1959.

From a review of these projects, activities,and reports, two conclusions stand out in sharpclarity: there is an imperative need for a defini-tion of culture in all its meanings. Even greateris the need for a synthesis of culture as viewedby the scientist on the one hand and by thehumanist on the other into an orderly and co-herent program that can be meaningful interms of the daily happenings in languageclasses at the earlier stages of instruction.

Clarification of concepts

Since a precise statement of what culture isin terms of classroom instruction will obviouslybe difficult, a degree of clarification may resultfrom making some remarks about what cultureis not. If they seem exaggerated, the overstate-

ment is a consequence of the fog of confusionthat now surrounds us. We shall make roughapproximations knowing that they will in-evitably need modification and refinement.

Culture is not the same as geography. Thelatter is a study of the surface of the earth, ofits land and water areas, its temperature andclimate, its mineral deposits and sources ofpower and fuel, its plant and animal life, andits characteristics that are favorable or un-favorable to human life. Though the study ofgeography began with the Greeks, geographyitself is as old as the earth, and thus far olderthan the human culture which is our presentconcern. Geography is the stage upon which thedrama of human culture is played. But theplay's the thing, not the scenery. Geographycan at best be no more than the material sur-roundings in which culture takes root, flourishes,and comes to fruition.

Culture is not the same as history. Of courseeverything has a historyeven historyandhuman culture is no exception. But our refer-ence is to the discipline of history, whose pur-pose is to tell the story of the past. It does thiswith the most careful reference to existing docu-ments, these being almost exclusively in theform of written records. There is some recog-nition of monuments, buildings, and artifacts,hut in the main history is a matter of printedand written documents. The historian estab-lishes with the greatest care the authenticity ofprime sources, then collates, sifts, selects, in-terprets, and evaluates in terms of a coherentand meaningful pattern. Events that occurredbefore there were written records are calledpre-history, which incorporates, to no little ex-tent, conjecture and deduction. In general, it isfair to say that history goes back no furtherthan the invention of writing, an event of thefifth century B.C. Though much younger thangeography, human culture is vastly older thanhistory, for culture appears at present to goback in time the greater part of two millionyears.

Culture is not the same as folklore, the sys-tematically studied customs, legends, andsuperstitions that are transmitted in an in-formal way from one generation to another bymeans of oral communication. Tales of heroes,songs, dances, home remedies, childhood games

NELSON BROOKS

and pastimes all loom large in folklore. Thesematters are important in that they are a partof the common experience of the young andserve to establish a sentimental bond among themembers of a cultural group who have sharedthem in early life. At times they may serve toreflect national aspirations, attitudes, andvalues. There is no doubt of the worth of folk-ways as colorful and characteristic expressionsof a societal group, and they can be very usefulin the understanding of primitive societies.But folklore can provide only a limited andpartial view of what we mean by culture.

Culture is not the same as sociology, a disci-pline that dates from the early nineteenthcentury. Sociology is the science of humangroups, viewed essentially in their collectiveaspects. Usually noted are the family, the pat-terns of social classes or strata, the economicsystem, the legal system, the political system,and the organization and function of religiouscommunities. Sociology seeks to formulate thelaws governing the behavior of large numbersof people, and since its inception it has been in-terested in the general rather than in the spe-cific. Broad generalizations, statistical analyses,and studies of the characteristic similarities anddifferences in the groups that make up a com-posite social order are its principal concerns.Sociology informs us with precision that in agiven community there are three and a halfchildren per family, but culture still waits foran interview with one of those half children.Sociology is, of all the social sciences, the mostclosely related to cultural anthropology. Yetthe distinction between the two fields continuesto be more sharply noted, a fact reflected in thegrowing number of separations in the academicworld of Sociology and Cultural Anthropologyinto individual departments of study.

Culture is not the same as literature. Both thecreation and appreciation of literature restupon esthetic values which have at their verycore patterns of preferment and rejection thatare at marked variance with the totality ofexperience in which culture has its roots. Aliterary work presents a personal perspective onthe predicaments of human life, upon which issuperimposedif it really is literaturea flood-light of intent, effect, and affect that is the veryessence of fine art. Some of our most incisive

209

penetrations into the ethos of a given culturecome to us through the efforts of the literaryartist. Yet in the nature of things, literaturecan supply us with but a partthough clearlya most valuable partof what needs to betaught under the heading of culture.

Above all, culture is not the same as civilization.The distinction between these two presents amajor problem for teachers and students alike.The word civilization itself, constructed uponthe Latin word for the inhabitant of a town orcity, is perhaps the best starting point in es-tablishing essential differences. Civilizationdeals with an advanced state of human society,in which a high level of culture, science, indus.try, and government has been attained. It dealsmainly with cultural refinements and techno-logical inventions chat have come about as theresult of living in cities and thickly populatedareas. Though the effects of civilization mayhave spread far and wide throughout an entiresociety, it is fair to say that civilization de-velops in and emanates from those areas inwhich persons of diverse classes live together inlarge numbers, permitting advancements andimprovements in all walks of life that are notpossible when family groups live in relativeisolation. Consider the not unusual circum-stance in which two young lovers express theiraffection for each other over the telephone. Theinstrument they are using is clearly a devicethat could have come into being only throughthe development of civilization. But the atti-tudes and sentiments the young people ex-press, and the language they use to expressthem, belong not only to civilization but to cul-ture, for they are events and systems of anotherorder with a very different and far longer his-tory.

Having said with this much emphasis anddetail what culture is not, it is now time to at-tempt to say what it is. In doing this we do notdeny the proximity of all the foregoing areas tothe one we shall identify as culture. Nor do wedeny the important interrelation of each ofthem to culture as well as to each other. Indeed,our intention is not to cut off culture from theseother matters but rather to focus our perspec-tive in such a way that a foreground is clearlyoutlined and is sharply contrasted with thebackground to which it refers and relates.

210 Teaching Cu ltvre in the Foreign Language Classroom

The most important single criterion in dis-tinguishing culture from geography, history,folklore, sociology, literature, and civilizationis the fact that in culture we never lose sight of

the individual. The geography, for example, of

mountains, rivers, lakes, natural resources,rainfall, and temperature is quite impersonaland would be what it is whether people werepresent or not. It is only when we see humanbeings in this geographical picture and observe

the relationship between their individual livesand these facts and circumstances of theearth's surface that our perspective becomeswhat we may call cultural. The census, so im-portant in sociology, serves to count people,identify age groups, occupations, and salaries,

to quantify types of dwellings and plumbing.But such information does not really becomecultural until we see related to it a dark-hairedsixteen-year old boy named Henry, tall for his

age, who lives in one of these houses, goes tohigh school, and works part-time at a lunchcounter, looks forward to college and a careerin electronics, and who writes lyrics for theschool paper.

With this criterion in mind, we come togrips with the ilemma of definition. TheHumpty Dumpty approach ("When / use aword, it means just what I choose it to meanneither more nor less") must give way to amore normal use of the verbal symbol. It is the

fate of some words to have a number of mean-ings that are not only sharply different but attimes contradictory. Such a word is culture. Wefind it used in reference to raising blueberries,improving one's speech, listening to stringquartets, and training children in infancy. Wefind it used to refer to a nation's total character,thought, and action. We call cultural thatwhich stands out as the best that people do; wealso call cultural everything they do, and every-thing they think and believe as well. Clearly,no single word can mean all these things atonce.

When dictionaries list an assortment ofmeanings for a given word, they assign a num-ber to each one, then define it. We adopt thisprocedure for the word culture in order toseparate its various meanings and relate themto each other.

Cul turerbiological growthCulturerpersonal refinementCulturesliterature and the fine artsCulture4patterns for livingCulture6the sum total of a way of life

It is not necessary to say very much aboutthe first three meanings, nor about the last one,for they are all in general use and familiarenough. It is cultural that is the least wellunderstood, yet the most important in theearly phases of language instruction. We define

it as follows:Culture4 refers to the individual's role in the unending

kaleidoscope of life situations of every kind and therules and models for attitude and conduct in them. By

reference to these models, every human being, frominfancy onward, justifies the world to himself as best he

can, associates with those around him, and relates to the

social order to which he is attached.

There are certain basic dimensions in thepattern of human existence that are the sameeverywhere for everyone and always have been

ever since man became man. Culture4 dealswith man as a human animal as well as withman as man. It must talk about cleanliness andsanitation and the personal needs of food, sleep,and shelter. It must not only answer the ques-tion: Where is the bookstore? It must alsoanswer the question: Where is the bathroom?Obtaining food and drink, finding protectionagainst the weather and a place to sleep, com-municating with those near us, taking care ofthe young and the sick or injured, continuingthe race, being a child to parents and a parentto children, seeking an outlet for emotionalurges and expression of intellectual activities,from idle curiosity to mechanical and artisticinventionall these are the terms according towhich human life is lived. They are the con-stants of the human predicament. Of coursethey relate to the variable factors of geography,

history, economics, civilization, and the others

we have named, but these constants are always

present for every living human being to deal

with no matter how the variables may change,grow stronger or weaker, disappear entirely ordominate completely.

In cultural interest is centered upon the

area where social pattern and individual c6n-

NELSON BROOKS

form meet and interrelate. (The proposed nounconform comes from the verb confórm, onanalogy with cónduct from conduct, cóntrastfrom contrast, a procedure common in Eng-lish.) Many factors contribute to shaping thesocial pattern into what it is, and quite asmany contribute to making the individual whathe is. What is central in cultures is the inter-change and the reciprocal effect of each uponthe other. It is in these terms that we look tohistory, geography, sociology, linguistics, andpsychology for background information thatis indispensable. Yet we remember that theyare but the casting and the stage setting for thedrama of interaction that we call culture.

We reiterate that cultures focuses upon theindividual and the many social circumstancesinto which he must fit, upon the pattern ofaccommodation and the personal Onform.What is important in cultures is what one is"expected" to think, believe, say, do, eat, wear,pay, endure, resent, honor, laugh at, fight for,and worship, in typical life situations, some asdramatic as a wedding or a court trial or abattlefield, others as mundane as the breakfasttable or the playground or the assembly line.And just as important is the extent to whichthat expectation is met. There can be no doubtthat throughout life the force and prestige ofthe cultural model exert a powerful influenceupon what the individual thinks and does. Butimportant also, though in inverse ratio, is theeffect the individual has upon the model withwhich he is expected to comply. Small thoughthis influence is, it is the principal origin ofsocial change.

The proper adjustment of individual im-pulse and action to socially approved behavioris learned in great detail quite early in life,though with little awareness of recommenda-tions to be followed, just as language, with allits complexities, is learned early in life withoutawareness of rules or formal instruction.Though individual human needs are constantthe world over, because men everywhere arephysiologically and psychologically the same,there are a thousand reasons why the patternsemerging from the interaction of personal needto group-approved behavior will differ, oftenvery widely, from one locality to another. This

211

is precisely what gives the study of culture itsspecial quality and interest. It is also whatmakes it indispensable in the learning ofanother language, for a complete understand-ing of the new language is possible only interms of the uniqueness of the patterns forliving of those whose language it is.

While man as an animal has certain physio-logical needs that must be satisfied daily, manas man has certain emotional and spiritualneeds that also require daily satisfaction. At allages, man craves companionship and affection.He needs to satisfy his innate curiosity and tosymbolize in various ways. He needs to giveexpression to the exploratory and creative urgeswithin him. He is never wholly sufficient untohimself, but needs to share his life with others.Cultures is the area of this sharing process. Noindividual could create culture by himself; noindividual escapes having the imprint of hisculture deeply pressed upon him. One of thepurest examples of the results of man's associa-tion with man is language. Not to recognizelanguage, the simple ability to communicate inwords, for the amazing creative process that itis, and to denigrate it instead, is to fail to recog-nize the very fulcrum upon which all humanismrests.

From the point of view of language instruc-tion, cultures may upon closer inspection beresolved into two distinct and complementaryareas:formal cultures and deep cultures. Formalcultures defines the individual's relationship tothe refinement in thought, action, and sur-roundings of culture2. It defines his relationshipto the wide range of esthetic expressions ofculture2, poetry and prose, the theatre, painting,the dance, architecture, and artistry in what-ever form. It relates him to the displays ofheroism and leadership in word and deed thatare known to all. It relates him, also to themultiple and interrelated structures of socialorganization, economic effort, and professionaldiscipline, and to the outward manifestationsof politics and religion of cultures. The featuresof formal cultures are easily discernible in thetotal pattern of the social group and are ac-tively present in or are accessible to the aware-ness of the individuals who are in it.

In formal cultures the social order turns to

212 Teaching Culture in the Foreign Language Classroom

the individual, singles him out, and focusesupon him the attention of a small group orlarge. He is named, orally or in print or both,and comment is made upon his new status, hispersonal accomplishments. Note is taken of hisachievements in the past or his prospects forthe future. Such events are infant baptism,birthday celebrations, confirmation ceremonies,the awarding of diplomas and degrees in schooland college, the winning of prizes of many sorts,engagement and marriage, appointment andelection to rank or office in professional, social,and political organizations, citations for brav-ery in military life, for accomplishments incivil life and the academic world, and forartistic creationsand finally funerals.

We cannot overlook the negative counter-part of the foregoing, in which the individualis singled out for censure and punishment be-cause of flagrant disregard of what the com-munity expects. A child is punished by beingbanished from the family table or by beinggiven a place of humiliation and shame inschool; an adult, by being expelled from theorganization of which he is a member, by fineor imprisonment or even death if his acts arelegally reprehensible. In all these instances too,the individual is pointed out, named, andbrought to the attention of all concerned.

Deep culturei functions in a different way.It is a slow, persistent, lifelong process thatbegins in infancy, and although its effectivenessis most notable in childhood it never reallyceases. There is no naming of the individual, nofocusing of public attention upon private be-havior. Indeed, there is almost no awarenessthat the process is taking place. But throughcontinued association with others the individualgradually accommodates his way of observing,speaking, eating, dressing, gesturing, thinking,believing, living, and valuing to that of thosearound him.

There is no reason why the facts of historyand geography, the data of economics andsociology, information about and examplesdrawn from literature and the fine arts shouldnot find their way into the content of languagecourses to the extent that they do not detractfrom the principal business at hand: languagelearning. But until such information has beenrelated to a boy or a girl, a man or a woman

with a name, a position in life described, andwith a personal interest in and relation to thefacts presented, we are not yet within theterritory identified as culture4. Whether thisperson is someone in real life or a character infiction is not important. What is important isto see an individual relating to the people andthe life around him. As long as we provide ourstudents only with the facts of history or geog-raphy, economics or sociology, as long as weprovide them only with a knowledge of thesophisticated structures of society such as lawand medicine, or examples and appreciativecomments on artistic creations such as poems,castles, or oil paintings, we have not yet pro-vided them with an intimate view of wherelife's action is, where the individual and thesocial order come together, where self meets life.

In retrospect it may seem that our analysisis perhaps too detailed and serves only to com-plicate an already complex situation evenfurther. But realism suggests that if culture istaken to mean all that is subsumed under thefive different definitions, then our task is im-possible and we would do better to admit it andabandon the pretense. If, however, culture istaken to mean first of all and principally defini.tion four, with as much of definitions three andfive as can reasonably be added as the learner'scompetence increases, then the task, thoughstill prodigious, at least becomes manageable.

The profile of a culture

In 1953 two anthropologists, Edward T.Hall, Jr., and George L. Trager, issued a pre-publication edition of a work entitled TheAnalysis of Culture. The authors were then atthe Foreign Service Institute of the Depart-ment of State in Washington, D.C. Their pur-pose was, as scientists, to develop an outline ormap according to which any culture could beanalyzed and described.

In 1959 one of the authors, Edward T. Hall,published a book entitled The Silent Language,which is an amplification of The Analysis ofCul.lure. In its simplest form the scheme uponwhich their presentation is based is a list often focal points of critical importance in thefabric of a culture's makeup. These ten pointsare plotted in two dimensions, horizontal andvertical, yielding a checkerboard or grid with

"77::7.7.,

NELSON BROOKS 213

100 slots or squares, each marking a salientpoint in cultural analysis. This list is as follows:

1. Interaction2. Association3. Subsistence4. Bi-sexuality5. Temporality6. Territoriality7. Learning8. Play9. Defense

10. Exploitation

This is indeed a fascinating list, purporting as itdoes to mark the principal points in the web ofhuman existence. Under 1. Interaction, we seeman interacting with all that he finds in theenvironment that surrounds him. Under 2.Association, we see him associating with hisfellows in the family, in study and sports groups,in clubs and guilds, and in many other ways.In 3. Subsistence, we see him gaining the re-quirements of living: food, dwellings, clothing.Under 4. Ei-sexuality, we see the two sexescharacterized according to the different thingsthey learn, the occupations they engage in, thelives they lead as men or women, and the waysin which they relate to each other as individualsand as groups. In 5. Temporality, we considerthe time concept and all that this means in thepassing of the hours, the cycle of days andnights, of months and seasons, and their effectupon human living. Point 6. Territoriality,treats of space in terms of a room of one's own,nearness to one's neighbors, the street on whichone lives, property of one's own, boundaries,frontiers, and other matters that have to dowith space and our relation to it. 7 . Learning,includes what we learn informally and uncon-sciously (this comprises a large part of ourbehavior and our thought) as well as what islearned in formal education in childhood and inlater life. 8. Play, is concerned with games,sports, amusements, recreations, and pastimesfor all ages. 9. Defense, deals with our means fordefending that which we value and our innateresponses that lead us to protect what we con-sider ours or that which we feel merits ouraction to defeat aggression. Finally, 10. Exploi-tation, studies our control over things, ourhandling of tools and resources, our develop-ment in technology and engineering.

This is a stimulating analysis, and The SilentLanguage can be warmly recommended as use-ful reading for any language teacher. At thesame time, we are likely to feel that thisanalysis has many of the limitations that char-acterize a great part of scientific thought inAmerica today. There are many matters thatare not brought up for consideration whichmay appear to those who teach the youngequally important in mapping or charting theway of life of a people or a nation. Withoutdenying the value of the ten points listed above,we may propose another list of matters thatappear central and critical in the analysis of aculture. Our list is as follows:

1. Symbolism2. Value3. Authority4. Order5. Ceremony6. Love7. Honor8. Humor9. Beauty

10. Spirit

An analysis of Symbolism would tell us not onlyabout a nation's language but also about itsliterature and art, its myths, its politics, andits religion. Under Value we would considerpersonal preference and rejection, conscience,morality, and philosophy. Under Authority wewould note whose word is accepted and actedupon at various ages in one's life and in varioussituations and circumstances. Under Order wewould study what dispositions there are to-ward a clear, methodical, and harmoniousarrangement of thoughts and things in the lifeof both individual and community. Ceremonywould focus our attention upon the almost ex-cessive human fondness for elaborate dress andcomplicated ritual, for congregations great andsmall on occasions gay and solemn. And whatanalysis of culture would be complete withoutdiscussing Love, whether it be the attachmentof parent and child, of husband and wife, thedevotion of one friend to another, or the atti-tude of an individual toward a supreme being?Even if we see in love no more than the recipro-cal of aggression, it would appear to merit aplace in our list. Under Honor we would con-sider the high standards of personal conduct

214 Teaching Culture in the Foreign Language Classroom

that give evidence of our attitude toward our-selves, our families, our friends, our country.Under Humor we would note not only how im-portant and popular is the sense of what iswitty, comic, and laughable but also what isfound to be humorous and how this varies fromone age group to another and from one cultureto another. Under Beauty we would seek forand describe in the products of man's brainand hand that which is over and above thepractical and the utilitarian, and marks astriving toward innovation and perfection, andis an indication of the esthetic sense whichman is motivated to express. Finally, underSpirit our attention would be turned upon theevidence of man's awareness of himself as man,the special human capacity whereby histhoughts may range in time and space far fromthe situation in which he finds himself, con-templating both reality and non-reality, andpermitting him to pursue the eternal quest ofwhat it is that he is.

Culture in the classroom

How can the transition be made from thesetheoretical matters to the active, crowdea,noisy, vital, potentially chaotic, and poten-tially eager reality that is the classroom?

A class session is a notable example of cul-ture4. Here the forces of formal as well as deepculture are exerted strongly upon the individ-ual. Here he learns for the first time aboutmany of the social models he will eventuallyface and what his attitude and behavior re-garding them is expected to be. There is a pre-scribed location and decor, a typical atmo-sphere, a complicated pattern of rapport be-tween peers and persons of unequal station.There is a task at hand to be accomplishedtogether with stated and valued rewards whenthe pattern and the expected cOnform meshand fit.

It is a special characteristic of the foreignlanguage classroom (when its purpose is toteach communication) that one language issuperimposed upon another, producing a resultnot unlike a double exposure in photography.Ideally the original picture quickly fades as thesecond picture slowly establishes itself inclarity and detail. Of all the elements of thetarget culture, the most typical, unique, and

challenging, yet the most easily available, isthe target language. Its authentic use from thebeginning is therefore a most valid culturalobjective.

This recommended use of language brings usto an analysis of the classroom as a situation.We ask the usual questions: Where are we?Who is present? What is the interrelationshipbetween one person and another? What are thespecial features and circumstances of the loca-tion? Upon what is attention focused? How islanguage used and how does it reflect the vari-ous factors in the environment? When thosepresent address each other, are the forms usedintimate or polite? If proper names are spoken(everyone has at least a half-dozen), which onesare used and by whom? If a name is preceded bya title, what title and which part of the name?What formulas of politeness appear, what re-quests, what directives? To all these questionsneither grammar nor semantics has an answer.They are not matters of language but of lan-guage users. As such they are cultural, andrightly observed they can give a cultural di-mension to every language class beginning withthe first day.

In comparing and contrasting the motherculture with the target culture we may expectto find similarity in the types and range ofsocial models that are to be adjusted to. Dif-ferences are less likely to appear in the hier-archy of models than in the details of expecta-tion and the manner of cónform. In this wemay see a deeper significance in the establish-ing of a cultural island in the classroom. Posters,pictures, maps, signs, and realia of many kindsare all helpful. But they remain peripheral tothe main features of the situation we are con-cerned with. What is central is the use of lan-guage, the role being played by each of thosepresent, where people stand or sit or how theymove about, their attitudes, their gestures,whether the students speak singly or in unison,how permission to speak is asked for andgranted, whether replies are memorized orcreated, how answers are approved of or dis-approved of and corrected, what ensues whenexpected patterns of deportment are not con-formed to. The fact that many of these detailsare different in the target culture gives them aninterest and an appeal that easily invites at-

NELSON BROOKS

tention and participation on the part of thosewhose mother tongue is English.

The next important concern is to see howlanguage itself is studied and learned in thetarget culture, and to imitate or make appro-priate adaptations of such procedures in ourAmerican classrooms. This concern has to dowith the correctness of pronunciation, therightness of grammatical forms, orthography,and semantic selections. It has to do with allthe various skills, particularly of writing, withthe role of literary texts in language learning,and with the analysis of language structure. Ithas to do with the dyadic of language, a be-havior pattern which involves far more thanquestion and answer and takes us into themutual exchange of utterance and rejoinder,which is the commonest form of overt languagebehavior the Norld over.

The element of culture that is closest tolanguage, though at bottom non-linguistic, ismusic. Alike in so many ways, there are basicdifferences between language and music thatresult in the listener's always knowing whetherthe person to whom he is listening is speakingor singing. The reason for this is that vocalmusic is based upon rigorously enforced pat-terns of tempo, rhythm, and pitch, all so differ-ent that if the message conforms to one it can-not conform to the other. Singing inevitablydoes violence to the norms of speech in lengthof sounds, in dynamic stress, and in pitchphonemes. Although music can be of little aidin phonology and syntax, this does not meanthat it cannot be moderately helpful in seman-tics. But the chief value of music lies elsewhere.The non-linguistic characteristics of music areculturally valuable essentially for their orginal-ity and their uniqueness, when they are authen-tic to the culture in which they developed.Music is welcomed in the language class notbecause it teaches language but because itrepresents other elements of culture in a mostappealing form.

The human voice and the printed line are notthe only vehicles of culture available in thelanguage classroom. The physical menace of atowering mountain, the sound of a waterfall,the three-dimensional facade of a cathedral ora castle, the interior of a powerplant or a capi-tol building, the taste of a sparkling wine or

215

the odor of a perfume shop cannot be made animmediate experience of the classroom. Butpictures can go a long way toward suggestingand acting as surrogate for such details of thetarget culture. Again, care must be exercised.What is selected for presentation must beauthentic, typical, and important; otherwisefalse impressions may be created. Pictures havebeen widely used, and rightly so, in presentingcultures. But if pictures are to be effective incultural they must in every case relate the cul-tural configuration to individual participation.It is not enough to see a market display offruits and fish and vegetables; we need to seethe vendor and a client engaged in a transac-tion. It is not enough to see the facade of aschool and some empty classrooms; we need tosee a class in session and observe the postureand attitude of teacher and students. It is notenough to see a picture of a busy street scene ina large city; we need to see a closeup of a pedes-trian waiting, more or less patiently, for thesignal to cross. It is not enough to see a paintingdisplayed in a museum; we would also like tosee the artist in his studio working at an un-finished canvas.

Cultural, especially as it is reflected in theuse of language, is the dominant feature in thebasic course. But as the student advances fromone level of language learning to another thenature of instruction in culture changes anddevelops. In the second phase, cultural con-tinues to be a principal concern, but thelearner now has enough language competenceto appreciate comments about and discoverand perceive for himself significant matters incultures and of course in culture5. As the learnerprogresses in his reading, he will, if the rightthings have been done in the basic course, findan added dimension of cultural significance inthe stories he reads, in the characters that aredepicted, and in the situations that are de-veloped. He will find cultural values reflectedin what the author chooses to talk about, tohave his characters say and do, to have thereader understand, infer, and react to in hispresentation. In this second phase, the learnershould begin to understand what is being aimedat in the cultural objective and to see how therecan be both a scientific interpretation and ahumanistic interpretation of cultural matters.

"-.

216 Teaching Culture in the Foreign Language Classroom

He should begin to be made aware that he toolives in a culture and that these analyses canappropriately be made of his own way of life

as well as of that of a foreign country.In phase three there can be a systematic

study of the target culture along the linessuggested in the section of this paper entitled"The profile of a culture." Literary and non-literary works can be read with both analysisand synthesis in mind, enabling the learner tointerweave and interrelate the triple objectivesof this phase: the perfecting of the control oflanguage skills, an acquaintance in depth witha significant number of literary works of thehighest order, and a sophistication in culturalawareness, insight, and sympathy with regardto the way of life of those whose language he is

studying.

ProposalsProposal I. That the concept of culture as

herein defined be reviewed, perfected, and con-firmed professionally in a representative andsupportive way. That the statement of thisconcept then be given wide circulation so thatit may be made available to teachers in service,teachers in training, authors of materials forclassroom instruction, and authors of tests ofprogress and achievement in language courses.

Proposal II. That materials be prepared toteach students the various meanings of theword culture and how they may expect to iden-

tify it in the language they learn and the booksthey read--and how a better understanding oftheir own culture may result from this study.

Proposal III. That materials be prepared to

help teachers know about, analyze, and teachculture in the foreign language in which theyare giving instruction.

Proposal IV. That materials be prepared tohelp teachers give instruction concerning thetarget culture in English:

Proposal V. That materials be prepared toshow how elements of the target culture areembedded in the target language itself.

Proposal VI. That teaching dialogues beprepared that are based not only upon basicmatters of linguistic structure and semanticsbut equally upon situations that are authenticand important in the target culture.

Proposal VII. That the distinction betweenculturei and the other meanings of culture besharpened, and that all areas receive appro-priate attention at the proper time and in asuitable way according to the gradually in-creasing competence of the l9nguage learner.

Proposal VIII. That culture be generallyrecognized as a specific goal from the earlyphases of language instruction onward, with allthat this implies in terms of the preparation ofmaterials, the training and retraining ofteachers, classroom procedures, and measure-ment.

Proposal IX. That increased attention begiven to the role of pictures in language instruc-tion, recognizing that while pictures cannotteach the sounds or the structure of a language,they can often show with remarkable successwhat language stands for. Sharper distinctionsare necessary than have been made in the pastconcerning the power of words to generalizeand the power of pictures to particularize.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[A partial listing of books and articles that deal withthe problem of teaching culture or are representativeof sources from which basic concepts may be de-

rived.]Barzini, Luigi. The Italians. New York: Atheneum,

1964.Beaujour, Michel, and Jacques Ehrmann. "A Semi-

otic Approach to Culture." FLA, 2(1967) :152-163.Benedick, Ruth. Patterns of Culture. Boston: Hough-

ton Mifflin, 1934.Boas, Franz. The Mind of Primitive Man. New York:

Crowell-Collier, 1963.

Brooks, Nelson. Culture and Language Instruction.New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966.

"Language and Culture." Language and Lan-guage Learning, pp. 82-96. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1964.

Brown, R. W., et al. "Developing Cultural Under-standing Through Foreign Language Study: AReport of the MLA Interdisciplinary Seminar inLanguage and Culture." PMLA, 68 (Dec. 1953):1196-1218.

Edgerton, M., Jr. "The Study of Languages: APoint of View."Liberal Education, 51, iv(1965) :1-9.

NELSON BROOKS

Fisher, Glen. Philosophy and Science in ForeignAffairs: The Behavioral Science Component. AForeign Service Institute Training Document.Washington, D. C.: Department of State, 1956.

Fleissner, Else M., et al. "Four Cultures." Selectiveand annotated bibliographies. PMLA, 79,iv,part2(1964) :18-49.

Hall, E. T., Jr., and George L. Trager. The Analysisof Culture. Washington, D. C.: Pre-publicationedition, 1953.

Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language. New York:Doubleday, 1959.

Hen le, Paul, ed. Language, Thought, and Culture. AnnArbor: U. of Michigan Press, 1958.

Hsu, Francis L. K. Americans and Chinese: TwoWays of Life. New York: Schuman, 1953.

Kluckhohn, Clyde. Mirror for Man. New York:McGraw,Hill, 1949.

Kroeber, A. L. Anthropology Today. Chicago: U. ofChicago Press, 1953.

-, and Clyde Kluckhohn. Culture, a Critical Re-view of Concepts and Definitions. New York: Ran-dom House, Vintage V-226. (First published byHarvard Univ., 1952.)

Lado, Robert. Linguistics Across Cultures. AnnArbor: U. of Michigan Press, 1957.

Lenneberg, Eric H., ed. New Directions in the Study ofLanguage. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1964.

L6v1-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind. London:Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966.

Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man: An Introduction.New York: Appleton, 1936.

De Madariaga, Salvador. Englishmen, Frenchmen,Spaniards. London: Oxford U. P., 1928.

Mead, Margaret. And Keep Y our Powder Dry. NewYork: Morrow, 1942.

-, and Rhoda Métraux. The Study of Culture at aDistance. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1953.

217

Morris, C. Varieties of Human Value. Chicago: IL ofChicago Press, 1956.

Murdock, George P., et al. Outline of Cultural Ma-terials. New Haven, Conn.: Human RelationsArea Files, 1950.

Northeast Conference on the Teaching of ForeignLanguages. Culture in Language Learning. Reportsof the Working Committees, 1960. G. ReginaldBishop, Jr., ed. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton U. P.,1960.

Nostrand, H. L. Background Data for the Teaching ofFrench. Seattle, Wash.: U. of Washington, 1967.

Opler, M. E. "Themes as Dynamic Forces in Cul-ture." American Journal of Sociology, 51(1945):198-206.

Parsons, Talcott. Essays in Sociological Theory: Pureand Applied. New York: The Free Press, 1954.

Sapir, Edward. Culture, Language, and Personality.Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1956.

de Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. NewYork: Knopf, 1946; Vintage Books, 1954. (Firstpublished in 1835.)

UNESCO. Interrelations of Cultures: Their Contribu-tions to International Understanding. Paris, 1953.

Vygotsky, L. S. Thought and Language. Cambridge,Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1962.

Whorf, B. L. Language, Thought, and Reality. Cam-bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1956.

Wylie, Laurence. Deux Villages. Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 1966.

- Village in the Vaucluse. New York: Harper,1964.

-, et aL Six Cultures. Selective and annotatedbibliographies. New York: Modern LanguageAssociation, 1961.

Yale French Studies. Structuralism. Nos. Thirty-sixand Thirty-seven. New Haven, Conn.: YaleFrench Studies, 1966.

This study was supported in its preparation with MLA/ERIC funds provided by the U. S.Office of Education (NDEA, Title VI).

U.S. DEPARTMENT Ot HEALTH, ifEATION 8, WWARE'

Off ICE Of EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED fROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.