The Coastal Fisheries of Small Island Developing States: Examining the sustainability of these...

7/25/2019 The Coastal Fisheries of Small Island Developing States: Examining the sustainability of these fisheries in the past

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The Coastal Fisheries of Small Island Developing States:Examining the sustainability of these fisheries in the past and present

Robert Borgoo, Alex Villa, Courtney MacDonald, and Aaron Rosenblum

Boston University

GE !"

#$ring %!&"

'ro(essor Bald)in


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2

Introduction and Statement of Purpose


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3Coastal Fisheries of SIDS

#mall *sland develo$ing states +#*D# are collections o( islands t-at are c-aracteri.ed by

various un(ortunate (actors in-ibiting sustainable develo$ment in t-eir regions/ Areas li0e t-e

Caribbean, t-e 'aci(ic, and A(rica, *ndian 1cean, Mediterranean and #out- C-ina #ea regions

+A*M#/2-ese nations o(ten -ave access to nearby coral ree(s and (is-eries, )-ic- are used (or

various $ur$oses but $rimarily (or economic $ur$oses/ 2-e bene(its derived (rom -ealt-y coral

ree(s are substantial and contribute to t-e stability and gro)t- o( local and national economies/

3o)ever, t-eir decline in recent decades -as been lin0ed to rising ant-ro$ogenic disturbances suc-

as t-e overex$loitation o( (is-eries/ 4e aim to ex$lore connections bet)een t-e current

socioeconomic conditions )it-in a -and(ul o( #*D# and -ealt-y ree(s/ 4e )ill examine t-e role o(

(is-eries $rimarily/

1. The Bahamas


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4

Economy and Fisheries of the Bahamas

2-e Ba-amian islands are an exam$le o( a #mall *sland Develo$ing #tate t-at -as undergone

signi(icant social, economic, and environmental c-anges in t-e $ast (e) decades/ 2-e moderni.ation

o( t-e Ba-amas is largely due to its economic s-i(t, starting in t-e &56!7s and ex$anding ra$idly )it-

time, into t-e tourism sector o( develo$ment/ 2-e tourism industry -as been a lig-t o( -o$e (or

Ba-amian natives loo0ing to ma0e a living in an ot-er)ise narro) and blea0 economy/ Ba-amian

geogra$-y -as 0e$t t-e islands in a vulnerable and disadvantageous state t-roug-out its -istory/ 2-e

isolation o( t-e islands -as ensured excessive Ba-amian de$endence on international trade/ As is t-e

case )it- many ot-er #mall *sland Develo$ing #tates, t-e Ba-amas su((ers (rom lac0 o( (ertile soil

(or agricultural gains and overall limitations on natural resources/

2oday, t-e Ba-amian economy is com$rised o( t-ree signi(icant sectors t-at account (or most

all o( t-e nation7s GD'/ 2-ese t-ree sectors are t-e tourism industry, o((s-ore ban0ing, and t-e

(is-ing industry/i2-e tourism industry is t-e most signi(icant contribution to t-e economy, $roviding

about 6!8 o( t-e total GD' and accounting (or (ive billion U# dollars +U#D o( t-e total Ba-amian

income annually/ 9inancial services $rovide &:8 o( t-e total GD', (ollo)ed by ;8 o( t-e GD' (rom

t-e (is-ing industry and agriculture/ii

2-e t)o most lucrative resources -arvested by t-e (is-ing industry are s-ell(is- and scaleobster, stone crab, and ?ueen -elmet/ 2-ere are t-ree main

(is-eries in t-e Ba-amian islands t-at account (or t-e ma=ority o( income )it-in t-e industry/

2oget-er, t-ey $rovide t-e economy )it- about @6! million U#D eac- year, )-ic- is re$resentative

o( %/%;8 o( t-e national GD'/iii2-ese industries include t-e #$iny >obster, t-e ueen Conc-, and

scale(is- (is-eries/


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2-e most valuable marine resource, according to t-e Ba-amas De$artment o( 9is-eries in

&555, is t-at o( cra)(is- or #$iny lobster tails/ 2-e total availability o( tails t-emselves in &555 )as

valued at @;,6",%": U#D and ;,":,;! lbs/ *n &55: alone, %6!! metric tons o( #$iny >obster

)ere caug-t and broug-t in ;/: million U#D/ Alt-oug- a small $ortion o( #$iny >obster catc- is

sold domestically, t-e ma=ority is ex$orted/ 2-e United #tates accounts (or 6!8 o( #$iny >obster

ex$orts, (ollo)ed by 9rance at ;8, and Canada at ;8/ 2-e Ba-amian #$iny >obster (is-ery is t-e

(ourt- largest in t-e )orld/iv

Ba-amians use t-ree di((erent (is-ing tec-ni?ues (or #$iny >obster catc-/ 2raditionally,

Ba-amian (is-ermen use artisanal (is-ing, )-ic- can be described as smallobster den, (orcing

t-e lobster out in t-e o$en and s-oc0ing t-em into a $araly.ing state t-at ma0es (is-ing easy and

e((icient/ 3o)ever, bleac- (is-ing and cyanide (is-ing -as im$lications ranging (rom decreased

$roductivity to mortality o( bent-ic communities/vii*n $articular, corals are destroyed by t-e

c-emicals, )-ic- cause ra$id coloni.ation o( algae/ Algal blooms $resent com$etition (or sunlig-t

t-at coral ree(s are o(ten unable to overcome/viii*n t-e &5!s, a ne) (is-ing tec-ni?ue involving

arti(icial -abits or condos7 )as introduced/ *t is no) a )idely used met-od/ 2-e condos are created

using large rectangular $ieces o( aluminum and )ood and are s-o)n to attract lobster/ix3o)ever, t-e

condos can result in coral legions and degradation/ *n %!!%, t-e most recent (is-ing rates available


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s-o) #$iny >obster as being close to (ully ex$loited and a declining trend (or t-e abundance o(

#$iny >obster available in t-e Ba-amian ree( communities/x

#-allo) )ater ueen Conc- $o$ulations are -eavily over(is-ed, )it- t-e most severe

incidence occurring in t-e Exuma Cays/ *n addition, dee$


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t-at t-e Ba-amians )ill ado$t t-e >ion(is- as a delicacy, t-ereby encouraging (is-ing o( t-e s$ecies/

Because t-ere is no current use (or t-e (is-, Ba-amians do not -ave direct viable gains by

s$eci(ically (is-ing (or t-em/ Currently, (is-eries management organi.ations are loo0ing (or solutions

to t-is issue and using encouragement tec-ni?ues to decrease t-e >ion(is- t-reat/ *n %!!5, t-e (irst

>ion(is- Control 'ro=ect )as instituted/ 2-e $ro=ect invited (is-ermen to enter a t)oion(is- catc-ing tournament )it- cas- $ri.e incentives/xivAccording to t-e De$artment o( Marine

Resources, t-e >ion(is- re$resents a $otential ma=or t-reat by decreasing survival o( native grou$ers,

sna$$ers, and #$iny >obster by u$ to :58/xv

Alt-oug- economic gains o( (is-ing -ave $rovided t-e Ba-amian residents )it- o$$ortunities

t-at are ot-er)ise relatively non


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industry migrated into t-e tourism sector o( t-e economy, tourism accounts (or debatably more

signi(icant environmental im$acts and is res$onsible (or a signi(icant amount o( coral degradation/

Management is also -indered by t-e $revalence o( multi$le disadvantageous sector

conditions/ 9irst, t-e Ba-amian government and agencies lac0 ade?uate biological data, )-ic-

$revents t-e com$letion o( stoc0 assessments/ Economic and social data is essential in evaluating t-e

im$acts o( existing and $ro$osed regulations and t-e social )ell


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marine reserves/ 3o)ever, (emale res$ondents over)-elmingly res$onded )it-, F* don7t 0no),

)-en as0ed about t-e -ealt- o( t-e marine ecosystem/ 2-is may be due to t-e (act t-at t-e male

Ba-amian is usually t-e main source o( income in t-e (amily, creating slig-t imbalance o( $o)er

bet)een t-e male and (emale Ba-amian/ 3o)ever, gender ine?uality is relative lo) in t-e Ba-amas

com$ared to t-e ma=ority o( develo$ing nations/xxH:I

*n addition, -ouse-olds )it- -ig-er incomes )ere signi(icantly more li0ely to su$$ort marine

reserves/ 3ouse-olds )it-in communities t-at are -eavily de$endent on (is-ing did not su$$ort t-e

creation o( reserves/ 6!8 o( res$ondents )ere (ound to -ave -ad a grand(at-er t-at )or0ed in t-e

(is-ing industry, yet only %!8 )ere currently )or0ing in t-e industry/ 2-ere(ore, it is li0ely t-at t-e

attitudinal in(luence o( (is-ers )ill continue to diminis- in t-e (uture/ 1n t-e ot-er -and, t-ose in t-e

tourism industry generally su$$orted marine reserves/xxi2-is is li0ely due to t-e (act t-at tourism

)or0ers are a)are t-at t-e industry relies on ecosystem and coral -ealt- (or t-e attraction o( tourists/

2ourists travel to t-e Ba-amas to en=oy t-e marine li(e and t-e lively coral, not a dead, barren ree(/

Currently, t-e Ba-amian $o$ulation is around :!,!!! in-abitants/ 2-e islands ex-ibit a

young $o$ulation )it- an ex$anding $o$ulation curve/ 2-e (emale to male ratio is relatively

e?uivalent/ By &55!, only L8 o( Ba-amians )ere not educated/ Education is accessible to bot-

men and )omen/ *n t-e &55!7s, A*D# )as $revalent in t-e Ba-amas and declared t-e leading 0iller

o( Ba-amians (rom ages t)enty to (orty/ 3o)ever, t-e issue -as signi(icantly declined in $resent

day/xxii2-ere(ore, alt-oug- t-e geogra$-ical location o( t-e Ba-amas $rovides signi(icant barriers (or

develo$ment, t-e nation does not su((er (rom many o( t-e $rominent issues in ot-er develo$ing

nations/

*n %!&&, t-e Kature Conservancy establis-ed coral nurseries in t-e sout- coast o( Ke)

'rovidence/ 2-e $rocess o( creating nurseries involves divers gluing t)o


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or F$uc0s and attac-ing t-em to cement bloc0s/ 2-e conservancy nurseries -ave t-e $otential o(

maintaining ;!!! -ealt-y corals/ Coral nurseries, -o)ever, re?uire a signi(icant amount o(

maintenance/ Divers must visit t-e nurseries once a mont- to ensure t-e stability o( t-e corals and to

clean algae o(( o( t-e coral +Kature Conservancy/ 3o)ever, stormy )eat-er calls (or more (re?uent

management/xxiii

2-e Ministry o( Agriculture and 9is-eries is res$onsible (or u$-olding t-eir establis-ed la)s

and regulations in t-e (is-ing community/ 1ne o( t-e $articularly success(ul la)s establis-ed by t-e

Ministry is t-e banning o( bleac- (is-ing/ Alt-oug- it is still illegally $racticed, incidents are (ar

(e)er/xxiv*n addition, t-e Ba-amas Ree( Environment Educational 9oundation +BREE9 $romotes a

sustainable and $ositive relations-i$ bet)een t-e Ba-amas, visitors, and t-e marine environment/

BREE9 ta0es on t-e res$onsibility o( $ublicly educating Ba-amians and tourists on t-e im$ortance

o( coral and marine -ealt- and -o) to u$-old it/ *n addition, BREE9 conducts researc- and su$$orts

$olicy decisions/xxv 2-e B#CA +Ba-amas #$ort


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2. Belize

The Fisheries of Belize

2-e bene(its derived (rom -ealt-y coral ree(s are substantial and contribute to t-e stability

and gro)t- o( local and national economies/ 3o)ever, t-eir decline in recent decades -as been

lin0ed to rising ant-ro$ogenic disturbances suc- as t-e overex$loitation o( (is-eries/ Additional

-uman im$acts contributing to t-e Fc-ange in Caribbean ree(s a(ter t-e extreme coral bleac-ing

event in &55, and 3urricane *ris in %!!& include nutrient enric-ment, sedimentation, direct damage,

and oil s$ills/xxviiBeli.e7s ree(s $rovide an invaluable case


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sustain t-e -ealt- o( its corals ree(s, -o)ever t-e $at-ological de$endence t-at t-e (is-ing sector -as

on lobster and conc- cou$led )it- a mas0ing o( environmental $roblems )it- economic s-ort


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Des$ite t-e $rominence o( t-e (is- industry, e((ective management o( Beli.ean (is-eries is

made a more attainable goal given t-e (act t-at agriculture, not commercial (is-ing, is Beli.e7s main

source o( revenue/ 4it- ex$orts suc- as, Fsugarcane, bananas and citrus, agriculture remains t-e

leading industry in Beli.e it accounted (or L%%8 o( GD', L:!8 o( ex$ort earnings and L%58 o( t-e

total labor (orce in t-e &55!s, t-oug- lac0 o( diversi(ication in cro$s -as been identi(ied as a ma=or

issue by t-e Beli.e De$artment o( Agriculture/xxxi*n a study com$aring Oamaican and Beli.ean

(is-eries t-roug- analysis o( t-eir res$ective economies, t-e aut-or re$orts t-at Frecent e((orts in

garment and lig-t manu(acturing, tourism, a?uaculture and agriculture )ill increase em$loyment

o$$ortunities i( (is-ers o$t (or $art


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Coo$erative >td/ and Kational 9is-ermen 'roducers Coo$erative >td/ buyers )ould sell lobster at

muc- -ig-er $rices +@%/"!Jlb t-an t-ey $aid +@!/"!Jlb, leading to a net economic loss (or t-e local

(is-ermen/ 1nce coo$eratives )ere establis-ed, (is-ermen )ere given direct access to t-e (oreign

mar0et and (is-ers7 incomes =um$ed by over &!!!8 in less t-an ; years/xxxv2-us, t-e coo$eratives in

Beli.e re$resent an economic success t-at is aty$ical (or t-e region/ Conse?uently, t-e commercial

(is-ing industry in Beli.e is substantial and gro)ing ra$idly, but )it- declining numbers in (is-/

Alt-oug- t-e commercial (is-ing industry is driven by -ig- $rices and -ig- demand (rom

ot-er countries, leading to overex$loitation, t-e coo$erative nature o( t-e industry +)-ic- evolved

(rom (oreign mar0eting com$anies means (is-ermen -ave more $ractical 0no)ledge o( t-e t-reats

(acing t-e coral ree(s/ A study conducted on (is-eries in Beli.e and Oamaica suggests t-at (is-ers in

Beli.e are in


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PROFILE COOPERATIVE INDEPENDENT

AVERAGE AGE /; PEAR# ;/% PEAR#

KUMBER 19 C3*>DREK %/: %/&!

C3*>DREK UKDER & &/"% &/&2RAVE> 1U2#*DE 19 BE>*E *K'A#2 ; PEAR#

":/!8 &5/"8

AKP READ*KG AB1U2 9*#3*KG ";/%8 %;/58

Table 1. #1C*1EC1K1M*C!"FI#E "F T$E %E#I&E'( FIS$E!)'(* %+ C","E!'TI-E ST'T.S

3o)ever, t-e economic stability o( coo$eratives seems to be driven by t-e everobster, )-ic- accounts (or about -al( o( all t-e ex$orted lobster (rom Beli.e in %!!6 < a

di((icult target to reac-/xxxvii *n recent years, t-e coo$eratives created incentives to continue (is-ing

des$ite declining catc-es/ 2-ese incentives o(ten include direct subsidies (or (is-ing su$$lies suc- as

ice, and lo)


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increased t-e o$en


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overex$loitation and is di((icult to manage/ Also, )it- an Exclusive Economic one +EE o(

&:!,!!! 0m%Q or over : times its land area QBeli.e -as $ur$ose(ully ta0en advantage o( t-e

biodiversity o( t-e ree(s Ft-ere is a deliberate $olicy to diversi(y t-e industry, targeting ne) s$ecies

(or )-ic- little or no biological in(ormation exist,xlii)-ic- is -arm(ul because ree( diversity is

lin0ed to resilience (rom environmental and ant-ro$ogenic stressors suc- as land


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*t7s extremely di((icult to measure t-e cost o( damaging a ree( system because o( t-e

invaluable bene(its gained (rom -ealt- ree( ecosystems/ Un(ortunately, a t-eme in Beli.e7s (is-eries

management -as ty$ically been t-e government7s inability to $lace blame on one grou$ )-en so

many (actors in(luence t-e -ealt- o( ree(s it becomes di((icult to attribute t-e decline in coral -abitats

to one individual7s, or a grou$ o( individuals7, actions/ Also, because t-ere are many t-reats to ree(

ecosystems, )-ic- cannot be mitigated by t-e Beli.ean government, suc- as o((s-ore oil ex$loration

in Mexican


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A combination o( events allo)ed Cuba to gro) (rom its little colonial island roots to become

a -ig-ly success(ul nation )-ose currency )as on $ar )it- t-e U# dollar/ Along t-e )ay during

colonial rule by #$ain, it became one o( t-e ma=or sugar su$$liers in t-e )orld/ #ugar, traditionally

one o( t-e nation7s most im$ortant cro$s, really too0 root a(ter t-e cras- o( t-e sugar industry in

colonial Dominican Re$ublic/ 9rom &5!% until t-e &5;5 revolution, Cuba -ad en=oyed a relatively

-ig- rate o( economic gro)t-/ 9rom t-e beginning o( Cuba7s time as a re$ublic, t-e United #tates

)anted to (orm a close tie )it- Cuba/ A(ter t-e Cuban7s victory over t-eir #$anis- coloni.ers, )it-

substantial amounts o( su$$ort and even t-e involvement o( t-e U# culminating in t-e #$anis-AC says t-at %6,!!! $eo$le )ere listed as urban (armers/lx

Anot-er si.eable com$onent to t-e agricultural sector )ere $easant (armers, 0no)n as cam$esinos/

#ome data suggests t-at it )as cam$esinos )-o recovered t-e ?uic0est and became t-e most

e((ective (ollo)ing t-e reorgani.ation o( t-e agricultural system/ Rosset et al/ attribute t-is to t-e (act

t-at $easant (armers -ad a -ig-er interest in agroecological bene(icial cultivating $ractices/lxi*n

contrast, state


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Des$ite t-e ma=or c-anges in t-e agricultural system, t-ere )as still -unger $resent )it-in t-e

nation/ As agricultural out$ut d)indles (urt-er, Cuba relies increasingly on (ood im$orts/ #ome

sources cite t-at currently, u$ to !8 o( (ood )it-in t-e country came (rom im$orts/ EC>AC

statistics s-o) t-at im$orts rose (rom &%8 to &58 across t-e &55 to %!! time s$an/lxvi2-e rate o(

agricultural out$ut continues to decline as it dro$$ed &&/68 in %!!; and 68 in %!!6/lxvii2-is could

signal t-at t-e diminis-ing rates are slo)ing do)n and could $ossibly reverse in coming years/

#tatistics (ound t-at during t-e &55!s, t-e consum$tion o( (ruits and vegetables by t-e Cuban $eo$le

s$i0ed )-ile t-e consum$tion o( animal $roducts dro$$ed signi(icantly due to large ex$enses

associated )it- $roducing animal $roducts/

lxviii

2-e loss o( aid and energy subsidies made $roducing

animal $roducts at larger scales im$ossible/


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#ource DSa.


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tons and t-en dro$$ed to &5%,!!! in &55/lxix9rom t-ere, it only dro$$ed (urt-er/ 2-e catc- in &55

)as 5",!!! tons, in %!! t-e catc- )as 6:,!!! tons, and in %!!6 t-e catc- )as ;",:56/ lxx#ee table %

(or more catc- rates during Cuba7s $rime $eriod, t-e #$ecial 'eriod, and t-e current day/ Data (rom

EC>AC s-o)s t-at t-e catc- dro$$ed by ";8 (rom &55: to %!!% alone/ As o( %!!6, t-e annual catc-

is :&8 belo) t-e catc- o( &55, )-ic- is a staggering dro$ in $roduction/lxxiAs o( %!&!, t-e annual

catc- is 68 belo) t-e catc- o( &56/lxxii2-e dro$ in $roduction also re(lects t-e decreased

im$ortance o( (is-ing to t-e Cuban economy/ Mesaago +%!!: $oints out t-at Cuban (is-ing (leet

is F$lagued by -ig- debt, lac0 o( solvency bot- in $esos and dollars, $oor credit, corru$tion, -ig-

(uel $rices, damage in(licted by -urricanes, and t-e electricity crisis/ 4it-out t-e substantial aid o(

t-e #oviet Union, t-e (is-ing (leet )as too costly to use (or t-e Cuban government/

3o)ever, des$ite t-e dro$


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met-ods, suc- as setting nets during t-e re$roductive season, s$ear (is-ing, and subsistence

(is-ing/lxxiv2-e im$acts o( t-ese $olicies -ave been very bene(icial to t-e $o$ulations/ 9or a total list

o( management $olicies and restrictions, see 2able %/

Table 2.Some fishery regla!io"s

es!ablishe# or $la""e# by !he

Cba" %i"is!ry of Fisheries

rele&a"! !o s!#ie# fish s!o'(s

a"#)or !heir s$a*"i"g

aggrega!io"s/ Sor'e+ Claro e! al.Resol!io")year Regla!io" S$e'ies affe'!e# by !he

regla!io"&5!s Many miscellaneous regulations addressed $articular s$ecies or regions and )ere o(ten

introduced (or s-ort $eriods o( time and by $articular 9is-ing AssociationsTcomma e/g/seasonal s$a)ning closures, gear bans, (is-ing e((ort control, etc/

Multi$le s$ecies

Ko/ ;6&J&556 Establis-ed minimum legal si.es (or commercial (is-es/ 9or lane sna$$er, (or grey sna$$er 2-e ca$ture o( (is-es could only be done inside t-is selection device, notinside t-e set nets/ 2-e $ossession o( any (is-ing tra)ls on board o( any (is-ing boat )asbanned during t-is $eriod/

>ane sna$$er s$a)ningaggregations in sout-)est Cuba/

Ko/ ";J%!!!, &6;J%!!&,&"&J%!!%, 6!J%!!

#imilar regulation to Ko/ J&555 )as re$eated eac- year to control t-e (is-eryo( lane sna$$er during s$a)ning migrations in t-e Gul( o( BatabanW/ 9or eac-year a limited $eriod o( (is-ing and limited number o( set nets +(luctuating (rom" to 5 )as establis-edTcomma according to (is- $o$ulation assessments/

;J%!!" 2otal $ro-ibition on all 0inds o( set nets over t-e )-ole Cuban s-el( during t-e $eriod(rom A$ril &, to August & +s$a)ning season o( most sna$$ers/

All sna$$ers and ot-er s$a)ningaggregations

56J%!!" Banned all 0inds o( (is-ing in a $olygon o( about &6! 0m% close to t-e s$a)ningaggregation site o( lane sna$$er in t-e eastern $art o( t-e Gul( o( BatabanoTcommaduring t-e (ollo)ing &! days $eriods A$ril % to May :, May % to Oune 6 and (rom Oune%6 to Ouly ; +(rom )axing crescent ?uarter to (ull moon eac- mont-/ 1utside t-e $olygont-e (is-ery )as $ermitted )it- tra)ls, tra$s and seine nets, (or a limited number o( boats/#imilar regulations )ere re$eated (or %!!; and %!!6, and it )as announced t-at t-isregulation )ould be $ermanent/

>ane sna$$er in t-e Gul( o(Batabano

;"J%!!& A total $ro-ibition on any 0ind o( com$etition event using s$earimits t-eaut-ori.ation o( recreational s$ear


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%":J%!! Marine Reserve Korte de Matan.as

2-ese M'As include s$a)ning aggregation sites or migration routes (or severals$ecies/ At least nine ot-er s$a)ning aggregation sites are included in t-e ne)M'A $ro$osal +submitted to t-e goverment and $ending a$$roval

#$eci(ic (is-eries in Cuba along t-e coast, including (is-eries associated )it- coral ree(s,

-ave been t-e targets o( extensive (is-ing since t-e Revolution/ Coastal (is-eries are t-e most

attainable (or t-e (is-ing industry (ollo)ing t-e loss o( aid in &55/ Claro et al/ -ave data (or six

di((erent s$ecies (is-eries u$ until %!!;/ 2-e in(ormation t-ey (ind $rovides a glim$se into t-e

industry/ 9irst, t-e Kassau grou$er -as seen catc-es amounting to )ell belo) &!! million tons since

t-e beginning o( t-e s$ecial $eriod/ *t is believed t-at t-e s$i0es in t-e catc-es (or t-is s$ecies are

due to t-e seasonality o( t-eir re$roduction/ lxxv*t is also believed t-at t-is s$ecies -as been relatively

un(is-ed is because o( t-e di((iculty in accessing t-e sites )-ere t-is s$ecies s$a)ns due to its

distance (rom t-e coast/ Kext u$ are Mutton sna$$er, )-ic- are still and -ave been considered

im$ortant (is-ery targets/ *n %!!", t-e use o( line nets )as banned over t-e entire coastal s-el(,

)-ic- resulted in a slig-t dro$ in catc- (or t-is s$ecies/ 2-e >ane sna$$er, )-ic- )as considered t-e

most im$ortant (is-, -as been severely over(is-ed in t-e $ast, but -as recovered to an extent/ 2-e

catc-ing o( t-is s$ecies -as been severely limited by t-e government but )as allo)ed again

(ollo)ing t-e slig-t recovery in &55;/ Cubera and grey sna$$er )ere combined to t-e lac0 o(

distinguis-ing bet)een t-e t)o in data/ *n t-e 5!s, t-e catc- o( t-is s$ecies dro$$ed o(( due to

extensive (is-ing occurred )it-out regulation, but rose again in t-e %!!!s )-en t-e s$ecies

recovered to a degree/ 2-e yello)tail sna$$er, t-e last s$ecies to be observed, -as been extensively

(is-ed (or decades/ 2-e catc-es o( t-is s$ecies dro$$ed o(( due to -ig- mortality rates o( =uveniles

(ollo)ing t-e late &5!s and into t-e 5!s, but recovered/ 2-e catc- s$i0ed in t-e late &55!s and t-en

dro$$ed do)n to normal levels/ *n addition to t-ese s$ecies, t-e #$iny lobster, )-ic- )as t-e most

$ro(itable (is-ery during t-e &55!s, )ere also extensively over(is-ed/lxxvi'uga et al/ s-o) t-at even


29/79


t-oug- ?uotas (or t-e amount o( s$iny lobster t-at can be caug-t, t-e catc-es are still declining/lxxvii

Anot-er im$ortant (is-ery is t-at o( t-e di((erent Cuban s-rim$ s$ecies, )-ic- -ave traditionally also

been over(is-ed but -as recovered to an extent in recent years/lxxviii

Des$ite some more sustainable (is-ery management by t-e government and t-e banning o(

subsistence (is-ing, some (is-eries are still declining/ 2-e case is exem$li(ied )it- t-e #$iny lobster/

A(ter muc- lo)er ?uotas and better management, t-e $o$ulation is still declining/ Bot- 'uga et al/

and Alcolado et al/ believe t-at t-e recent strong -urricane activity over t-e $ast decade -as -ad a

severe im$act on ree(s, as )ell as over(is-ing e((orts/lxxixlxxx2-e increased (re?uency o( -urricanes

-itting t-e island -as tremendously im$acted t-e ree(s in recent decades/

2-e situation )it- coral ree(s o(( t-e Cuban coast is uni?ue (or a (e) reasons/ Des$ite t-e

decline in t-e annual catc- o( t-e Cuban (leet, t-e ree(s are dying at more ra$id rates/ *ncreased

management o( t-e Cuban (is-eries -as aided )it- re$lenis-ing (is-ery $o$ulations, but ree(s overall

are still being negatively im$acted/ *t is -ard to $recisely $in$oint )-at t-e direct cause o( t-is is, but

it is certain t-at $rogress -as been made and is continuing to be made in t-e $rotection o( t-e

(is-eries o( t-e Caribbean/ Com$re-ensive, (easible $olicy o$tions must be created to -el$ mitigate

t-e negative im$acts on t-e ree(s, )-ic- are o( immense value to bot- t-e (is-eries o( Cuba and t-e

tourism sector as )ell/


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30

'. Singapore( )renada( and *estern Samoa

The Fisheries of Singapore( )renada( and *estern Samoa

2-e small develo$ing island nations o( #inga$ore, Grenada and 4estern #amoa -ave

de$ended on (is-ing and (is-eries since t-ey )ere originally settled/ 2-e endeavors o( t-ese early

(is-ermen and )omen )ere assisted by t-e $resence o( large, vibrant coral ree(s surrounding t-e

islands/ 2-ese islands also -ave a -istory o( settlement by colonial $o)ers, ranging (rom t-e United

#tates to Great Britain/ 2-e $resence o( t-ese colonial $o)ers gives a uni?ue insig-t to t-e early

levels o( (is-ing and t-e met-odology o( t-e (is-ing ta0ing $lace, )it- records dating bac0

sometimes as muc- as -undreds o( years bac0/ 2-e combination o( t-e long term settlement o( t-ese

islands and t-e sometimes met-odical note ta0ing o( later colonial settlers allo)s (or a more

com$lete $icture o( t-e evolution o( modern (is-ing $ractices in t-e res$ective regions and a broader

notion o( t-e e((ects t-at t-ese $ractices -ave -ad on t-e surrounding marine environment/ 2-e aim

o( t-is $ortion o( t-e $a$er )ill be to outline t-e -istorical and current levels o( (is-ing and (is-ery

activity, determine -istorical amounts o( coral ree(s $resent in and around t-e islands and t-e current

$ervasiveness o( ree( $o$ulations and (inally examine )-at, i( any, ree( and marine environmental

$reservation $rograms -ave been $ut into $lace in eac- res$ective nation/

Grenada -as a )ell


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(is-ing t-at too0 $lace )as mostly (or large game (is-/ 2-ere )as a revolution in t-e (is-ing industry

(ollo)ing 4orld 4ar ** )-en gas $o)ered motors became )idely available to $eo$le on t-e island/

*n t-e &5;!s t-e government began im$lementing a series o( loans aimed at encouraging t-e s$read

o( motori.ed boats, and at t-e same time Grenada establis-ed t-e 9is-eries De$artment/lxxxiiiDuring

t-is time t-ere is a meteoric rise o( ne) 0inds o( (is-ing, )-ic- are no) 0no)n to be more -arm(ul

to t-e delicate ecosystems and coral systems t-at surround t-e island, trolling and $ot (is-eries/

4-ile t-ese advances made (is-ing easier and increased t-e available (is-ing area, t-e gross number

o( (is- caug-t decreased all t-roug- t-e &5:!s and !s/lxxxiv2-e &5!s $rovided a number o(

setbac0s to t-e (is-ing industry, $olitical instability and a decline in government assistance $laying a

large role in t-e declining industry/ 2-e &55!s broug-t a ne) )ave o( government investments and a

rene)ed increase in bot- moderni.ation o( t-e (is-ing vessels and an increase in t-e number and

s$ecies o( (is- caug-t/ During t-is time, t-ere )as a gro)ing $roblem o( a )orrying de$letion o( t-e

local (is-ing ecosystems and a ne) $us- by t-e government (or regulation o( not only t-e $rices o(

(is-, but also restricting t-e ty$es o( and t-e number o( (is- caug-t/lxxxv2-e marine environment in

Grenada -as undergone severe traumas (rom a number o( (actors/ 2-ere are a number o( locali.ed

and regional e((ects t-at -ave caused t-e local coral ree(s to undergo several negative c-anges

including a troubling rise in coral bleac-ing and ree( deat-/lxxxvi2-ese causes include a )ide range o(

industrial $ollutants, increasing sedimentary runo(( due to increasing agriculture and develo$ment on

and around t-e island and even a global and regional increase in )ater tem$eratures/ Besides t-e

environmental damages t-at result (rom -uman $ollution and over(is-ing, Grenada -as been

-istorically vulnerable to -urricanes, t-e last ma=or one occurring in %!!"/ A uni?ue $roblem t-at -as

been a((ecting t-e coral ree(s surrounding Grenada is t-e blooming o( macro algae t-at -ave been

gro)ing on t-e dead and dying coral/ *ts not all bad ne)s (or t-e coral ree(s surrounding Grenada


32/79

32

-o)ever, as t-e government -as engaged in a number o( environmental $rotection and monitoring

$rograms/ As recently as %!&%, t-e government -as been entering into land management $rograms

aimed s$eci(ically at t-e $reservation o( coral and environmentally sensitive areas/lxxxvii4-ile t-ese

$rograms are indeed $romising, t-e small nation o( Grenada -as a long )ay to go in terms o( (is-ing

management and land $reservation be(ore it )ill see t-e damage done to t-ese sensitive areas -alted

or reversed/

American #amoa -as a similarly long -istory, )it- t-e tales o( (is-eries s$anning bac0

t-ousands o( years/ U$on its initial settling, t-e $eo$le o( #amoa -ave (is-ed t-e lagoons and

s-allo) coral areas surrounding t-e island/ 4-en t-ey began, t-e local (is-ermen used little more

t-an s$ears and -andmade canoes to -unt t-e local (is-/ 2-ese $ractices became -ig-ly rituali.ed and

t-e distribution o( (is- among t-e (amily o( t-e (is-ermen and t-e local c-ie(s )as a -ugely

im$ortant $art o( t-e li(e o( t-e $eo$le/ 2-ese met-ods )ere revolutioni.ed (or t-e most $art in t-e

&5;!s )-en boat engines and t-e use o( steel -oo0s began to c-ange t-e reason (or (is-ing a)ay

(rom sim$le subsistence/lxxxviiiMore im$ortant c-anges (ollo)ed )-en in t-e &5:!s t-e government

began to orc-estrate t-e creation o( large scale (is-eries t-roug- government subsidies and

distribution o( gasoline and diesel engines/ 4-ile t-is $rogram caused a tem$orary boom in (is-ing,

a lac0 o( continuing government su$$ort lead t-e boom in t-e number o( boats to (i..le out in only a

(e) years/ 9ollo)ing t-e near colla$se o( t-e commercial (is-ing industry and )it- assistance (rom

t-e United Kations, #amoan (is-ers rebuilt t-eir (leet )it- more sensible engines/ 2-is rebuilding

)as done in concert )it- a ne) government $rogram (ocusing on t-e ex$ort o( s$eci(ic 0inds o(

sna$$er/lxxxix#ince t-en, #amoa -as maintained a relatively si.able (leet and increased its ex$ort

(is-ing to include several ot-er s$ecies/ As )it- Grenada, -umans are not t-e only ma=or t-reat to t-e

coral systems $resent around t-e island/ Regional increases in )ater tem$erature caused a mass


33/79


bleac-ing o( t-e coral ree(s around t-e island s-ortly be(ore &55! and a series o( t-ree devastating

-urricanes le(t severe damage across almost all o( t-e coast and coral areas/ Besides t-is natural

$-enomenon, a -uge in(lux o( star(is- in t-e late :!s le(t t-e ree(s reeling (rom over(eeding/xc*n

s$ite o( t-ese -ards-i$s, since &55; t-ere -as been an u$tic0 in t-e gro)t- o( coral t-at -as

continued t-roug- t-e %!!!s/ 2-is is due, in $art, to government regulations regarding t-e removal

o( coral (rom t-e s-allo) ocean beds/xci2-ese severe naturally occurring conditions are not t-e

)-ole $roblem -o)ever, as -eavy metal $oisoning and )aste runo(( (rom t-e gro)ing -uman

$o$ulation begins to taint bot- t-e )ater and t-e (is- in t-e surrounding coral environments/ 9urt-er,

t-e $resence o( t-e canning (acilities leads to (re?uent algae blooms, causing oxygen de$letion and

deat- in t-e local (is- $o$ulations/xcii#amoa -as ta0en an extremely $roactive a$$roac- to t-e

$roblems t-ey (ace )it- degrading coral environments and a lac0 o( sustainable resources on t-eir

island/ *t -as establis-ed (our se$arate marine conservation .ones and -as e((ective monitoring

$rograms in $lace to ensure t-at t-ey are not encroac-ed u$on/xciii#amoa goes even (urt-er,

establis-ing t-ese areas s$eci(ically as marine mammal sanctuaries and attem$ting to remedy

existing marine ecological damage )it- a series o( restrictions aimed at local (is-ing/ Beyond even

t-ese admirable e((orts, t-e #amoan government is constantly critically evaluating t-e gro)t- o( its

island in(rastructure and ad=usting its rules and regulations to encom$ass ne) t-reats to its (ragile

ecosystem/xciv3o)ever, even )it- t-ese (or)ard t-in0ing regulations, t-e government is o(ten at

odds )it- t-e traditional economy o( t-e #amoan $eo$le/ 2-e traditional vie) o( t-e island is t-at

t-e goods and local environment are seen as communal goods, and )it- t-e rising $o$ulation o(

#amoa, t-e environment is increasingly taxed by a sea o( individuals ta0ing )-at t-ey need on a

subsistence level/xcvEven )it- all t-e $roblems (or #amoan coral ree(s, natural and ot-er)ise, )it- a


34/79

34

continuing concerted e((ort by t-e #amoan government it )ould seem t-at t-e ree(s )ill continue to

recover and t-rive/

#inga$ore stands out among t-ese countries as being more develo$ed and -aving a -ig-er

movement o( trans$ort and non


35/79


Because o( t-e need (or more land, t-e mangroves )-ic- surround t-e countrys borders -ave been

dismantled and, )it- t-em, (ertile lands (or t-e delicate gro)ing coral ree(s/ >i0e t-e ot-er countries

t-at -ave been evaluated, #inga$ores coral ree(s -ave undergone severe damage (rom bot- -uman

and environmental sources/ But, unli0e t-e ot-er countries t-at -ave been evaluated, #inga$ore -as

no large scale o$erations (or t-e $rotection o( t-ese ra$idly de$leting ree(s and -as little to no

regulation regarding (is-ing, )aste dum$ing or environmental im$acts o( structural develo$ments/

#adly, i( t-ere is no (urt-er action ta0en by #inga$ore to $reserve and rebuild t-e ex-austed coral

ree(s around it, t-en it is more t-an li0ely t-at t-ey )ill be irreversibly damaged/


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36

Data 2ables

Grenada

Pear 2otal

(is-ing

yield +in

tonnes

9is-ing E((ort Money #$ent

in 9is-ing

*ndustry

+U# dollars

GD' (rom

(is-ing

+U# dollars

Ree( #i.e Ree( 3ealt-

&5! &""

&5& &"

&5% &

&5 %5:

&5" !6

&5; ;!&

&56 6

&5: ;:&

&5 "

&55 :6

&55! "!

&55& ":5

&55% ";!

&55 5

&55" &"& %/!&8

&55; &&%

&556 &5;

&55: &&

&55 &&!

&555 &:6

%!!% %!5 0mY% %8 algae

%!! %: &%"! (is-ers &";!& %&""& " 0mY% &!8 algae


37/79


4estern #amoa

Pear 2otal

(is-ing

yield +in

tonnes

9is-ing

e((ort

Money

s$ent in

(is-ing

industry

GD' (rom

(is-ing

+U# dollars

Ree( si.e Ree( -ealt- 'reservatio

n E((orts

&555 &%;; 6!!

(is-ers

&;!!!!!

%!!& 6% 5 vessels ;665;;

%!!% 65" : vessels &!5:5%

%!! "56 % vessels &!"6% &%65

0mY%

%!!" "!" 6& vessels 6;%:

%!!; 5": ;" vessels ;"6!&

%!!6 ;&% ;% vessels &&":"!!

%!!: 6;&6 ; vessels &"%%6:;&

%!! "5& ;: vessels 56:%:;: "5! 0mY% >ive coralittle to no data exists on t-e (is- $o$ulations in t-e

Ba-amian ree(s/ Because o( t-is, it is di((icult (or regulators to address t-e issue at -and and to

understand t-e signi(icance and magnitude o( declining (is- $o$ulations and unsustainable (is-ing

$ractices/ 2-ere(ore, it is essential to monitor t-e )aters and collect data on (is- and coral

$o$ulation t-roug- government


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46

and la) en(orced $unis-ment/ Kot only is t-is im$ortant (rom an economic $ers$ective, but also in

consideration to social stability and rising tensions bet)een Ba-amian (is-erman and Dominican

(is-erman, as )ell as Ba-amian (is-erman and $olicyma0ers H&"I/cxxxiAnot-er $roblem t-at must

be addressed is t-e lac0 o( data/ 2-is may be done by im$roving data collection tec-ni?ues and

(re?uency o( data collection o( $oac-ing activity, coral ree( $o$ulation, and (is- $o$ulations/

E((orts bot- in t-e tourism and (is-ing sector must be ta0en to $reserve t-e coral, )-ic- can start

)it- ca$s and incentives on activitiesastly, it is essential t-at $olicies $ut in $lace are u$-eld and en(orced strictly in

order to decrease illegal activities in t-e Ba-amian )aters, bot- domestically and internationally/

Belize&

Belize-s Coral ,eefs

2-e degrading -ealt- o( coral ree( structures in t-e Caribbean is $art o( a muc- larger crisis

ta0ing $lace t-roug-out t-e )orld7s oceans and many global e((orts -ave arisen to combat coral

ree( destruction/ More s$eci(ically, t-e continual overex$loitation o( (is-eries, )-ic- $oses many

direct t-reats to t-e corals, -as narro)ed t-e ecosystem services t-at corals in Beli.e and ot-er

#mall *sland Develo$ing #tates can $rovide, )-ic- -as resulted in mounting $overty and in some

severe instances, a lac0 o( (ood security/ 2-e total value o( goods and services lost (rom coral ree(

degradation in t-e Caribbean is estimated to reac- U#@;! million and U#@:! million by %!&;

and %!;! res$ectively/cxxxii


47/79


*n order to $revent suc- losses, traditional management o$tions -ave been em$loyed and

o(ten include restrictions on ty$es o( gear, si.e limits, catc- ?uotas, marine $rotected areas +M'A7s

and o((


48/79

48

resource management -ave o(ten (ailed because o( t-e to$


49/79


geogra$-ical and biological (actors to availability o( certain s$ecies )ould obviously be use(ul (or

im$lementing $ro$erly timed closed


50/79


51/79


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52

Integrated Coastal one "anagement& "a%ing "P/-s Ecologically Successful&

Planning for 0and$ased Pollution

1verex$loitation o( (is-eries and -arm(ul (is-ing $ractices are not t-e only ant-ro$ogenic

disturbances -arming Beli.e7s coral ree(s/ >and based $ollution and siltation are serious t-reats in

Beli.e because des$ite its small $o$ulation +a$$roximately !!,!!!cxlvi,domestic se)age $ollution

(rom treatment (acilities, se$tic tan0s and direct out(all, $articularly around t-e mout- o( t-e Beli.e

River, Beli.e City, Dangriga and develo$ed cayes is $rominent as most o( t-e country lac0s a

central se)age system and current se)age treatment is minimally e((ective/ >and


53/79


mangroves along t-e mainland coast are $rotected,clt-us an ade?uate $olicy measure )ould be to

increase $rotected areas on land t-at coincide )it- t-e location o( commercially im$ortant

(is-eries, i( suc- measures are deemed sustainable by relevant sta0e-olders/

2o reali.e $rotection e((orts so t-at t-e $ristine nature o( coral ree(s around Beli.e may

remain intact it )ill be necessary not only to develo$ committees t-at can (acilitate )or0ing

relations-i$s bet)een all o( t-e agencies involved (or t-e $ur$oses o( researc-, education,

monitoring and management, but also to develo$ an act o( legislation t-at )ill establis- t-e

(unctions o( eac- organi.ation under its control so t-at t-ere is no overla$ and so t-at con(licts

bet)een organi.ations can be avoided/ 1ne suc- act, 0no)n as t-e Coastal one Management Act,

is already under)ay in Beli.e and )ill also address t-e need (or (inancial su$$ort by em$o)ering

t-e Minister to introduce userand Utilisation Act, overseen by t-e >and Utilisation Aut-ority +>UA

and t-e 3ousing and 2o)n 'lanning Act, administered by t-e Central 3ousing and 'lanning

Aut-ority +C3'Acli/ #ustainable develo$ment $lans ensure t-at industry, agriculture and domestic

areas are located a)ay (rom )ater)ays t-at -ave an im$act on coastal )aters, and t-at t-ere are

a$$ro$riate )aste control and treatment (acilities to $rotect (rom $ollution and $revent t-e need (or

costly $ollution mitigation e((orts in t-e (uture/clii

Ecotourism eelopment

*n Beli.e, it is estimated t-at 58 o( Coastal Develo$ment $oses a lo) t-reat level to

nearby corals, )-ile &&8 $oses at least a medium t-reat/ cliii2y$es o( coastal develo$ment

$articularly damaging to coral ree(s include t-e building o( -otels, t-e o$eration o( cruise s-i$s and

smaller vessels, t-e establis-ment o( restaurants and muc- more/ Kot sur$risingly, all o( t-ese


54/79

54

activities are $roducts o( t-e tourism sector/ 3o)ever, des$ite its $otential (or increasing se)age

runo((, t-e gro)ing tourism industry in Beli.e -as s$urred many $rotection measures (or t-e

Mesoamerican Barrier Ree( #ystem/ 9irstly, it -as been s-o)n in Beli.e t-at M'A7s largely

contribute t-e gro)t- o( local tourism/ 9or exam$le, t-e cayes and t-e ree( are ma=or attractions

:8 o( -otel rooms are located along t-e coast and ::8 o( tourists go snor0eling and scuba

diving/cliv1ne t-e ot-er -and, eco


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t-e (irst goal o( eco


56/79


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multi$le times/ clxiii9is-ermen can also su$$ly (res- (is- to t-e many ne) restaurants around Beli.e

being created as a result o( t-e tourism boom, )-ic- may earn t-em muc- -ig-er $rices (or t-eir

catc- +a met-od very a$$licable to conc-/ 2-us, establis-ing a $artners-i$ bet)een restaurants

and Beli.ean artisanal (is-ermen )ill be essential in boosting (is-ers7 incomes and ta0ing $ressure

o(( o( vulnerable or declining s$ecies $o$ulations/

Figre 2- sor'e+ ille!.

Cu$a&

Further ,esearch

*n t-e case o( Cuba, t-ere are many (actors to consider )-en ma0ing a $olicy

recommendation (or t-eir (is-eries/ Cuba is very uni?ue com$ared to t-e rest o( t-e #*D# t-at )e

-ave examined/ 2-e colla$se o( t-eir ma=or su$$ort system and t-e subse?uent economic do)nturn


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58

in t-e &55!s led to ma=or c-anges in t-e economic (ocus and social conditions )it-in t-e nation/

2-ese c-anges -ave -ad lasting im$acts on t-e nations (is-eries and t-eir (is-ing industry overall/

2-e current catc- is only a (raction o( )-at t-e catc- used to be, )-ic- is a $ositive/ Anot-er

$ositive is t-e government7s attem$ts to ado$t environmentally sustainable agricultural $olicies/

DSa.


59/79


#omet-ing t-at -as been t-oug-t to increase t-e sustainability o( t-e Cuban (is-eries is t-e

revival o( Cuban (is-ing coo$eratives/ 2-ese coo$eratives are allo)ed to (is- in a s$eci(ied (is-ery

according to t-e current management $ractices/clxxiBecause t-e coo$eratives are allo)ed to (is- in

$articular .ones, t-ey become invested in t-em/clxxiiAccording to t-e sixt- and sevent- $rinci$les

(rom t-e broad $rinci$les o( (is-ery management $ut (ort- by Coc-rane +see 2able , t-e s$eci(ied

(is-eries are t-eir main li(eline to su$$orting t-emselves and t-eir communities so it is necessary

(or t-em to ensure t-e survival o( t-e (is-ery and t-e sense o( long


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60

Table ,- Sor'e+ Co'hra"e /2001.

Implementation of SpeciesSpecific Conseration Efforts

An addendum to t-e current management regime t-at could be substantially bene(icial to

t-e coastal (is-eries and to t-e ree( -abitats )ould be ta0ing a s$ecies


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Complete Elimination of Bottom Tra!ling in Coastal Fisheries

#ince t-e introduction o( tra)ling in t-e Cuban (is-ing (leet, t-e catc- rates -ave generally

increased signi(icantly as evidenced by (igure x/clxxviii*t allo)s (is-ers to catc- great numbers o( (is-

by dragging a lengt-y net over t-e bottom o( an ocean s-el(/ 3o)ever, t-is $ractice -as many

conse?uences to t-e coastal ecosystems )-ere it is $racticed/ 9is-ing $ractices t-at involve large

nets are o(ten cited as leading causes o( over(is-ing and (is-ery ex$loitation in t-e second -al( o(

t-e %!t- century, )-ic- occurred in Cuba in t-e &5!s/clxxix2-is $ractice -as been $eriodically

banned and unbanned on t-e Cuban s-el(/ *t occurs today, but in muc- smaller instances t-an in t-e

$ast/ *n addition to t-e overuse o( tra)lers leading to over(is-ing, tra)ling itsel( disru$ts t-e

coastal ecosystems/ An issue )it- tra)ling is t-at t-e net ca$tures everyt-ing in t-e $at- o( t-e net,

including non


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62

(is-ing, )-ic- includes $oac-ing and t-e li0e, are not $ro$erly incentivi.ed to use t-e (is-eries at

sustainable levels/ *( t-ese subsistence (is-ers )ere given =obs as (is-ermen or even as $atrollers

)-ere t-eir liveli-oods )ould de$end on t-e existence o( t-e (is-ery, t-en $er-a$s t-e abundance

o( subsistence (is-ing )ould decline by signi(icant amounts/ Anot-er suggestion could be to

im$lement a cross


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multi$le $lans needed to bring about a -ealt-y environment (or t-e local coral ecosystems, #inga$ore (aces

t-e uni?ue c-allenge, at least (or t-is grou$ o( countries, in t-at it does not exist in a vacuum o( claimants

on t-e sea/clxxxii2-is lac0 o( com$lete autonomy o( t-e region on matters o( sea $ollution and (is-ing

regulations ma0e t-e need (or $reservation $rograms and legislation more $ressing and more di((icult to

ma0e e((ective/ 'romisingly, #inga$ore does not )ant (or $rograms aimed at t-e $rotection o( coral ree(s

and t-e stimulation o( gro)t- o( ne) coral and -as a number o( government (unded $ro=ects and nonion(is- in t-e

Ba-amas, Cultural 'nthropology%: +%!&%/

vii

4ilson et al/, FE((icacy o( a #tarc-obster 9is-ery,Elsevier %/- +%!!:/

viii

Oessen et al/, F*nion(is- *nvasion 2-reatens Ba-amas, +Aug %!!5

-tt$JJ)))/n$r/orgJtem$latesJstoryJstory/$-$^story*d&&&65;65/

xiv

Moore, FA?uatic *nvaders/

xv

Government o( t-e Ba-amas, F2-e Ministry o( Agriculture/


68/79


69/79

M 3uitric, F>obster and conc- (is-eries o( Beli.e a -istory o( se?uential ex$loitation,Ecology andSociety&! +%!!; %&/ HonlineI UR> -tt$JJ)))/ecologyandsociety/orgJvol&!Jiss&Jart%&J/

xxxi

' Es$eut, ZManaging t-e 9is-eries o( Oamaica and Beli.e 2-e Argument (or a Coo$erativeA$$roac-,Z *naper presented at the Third 'nnual Conference of the International 'ssociation for the Study ofCommom roperty 1I'SC2 Sept, $$/ &obster and conc- (is-eries o( Beli.e a -istory o( se?uential ex$loitation,Ecology and

Society&! +%!!; %&/ HonlineI UR> -tt$JJ)))/ecologyandsociety/orgJvol&!Jiss&Jart%&J/

xxxvi

' Es$eut, ZManaging t-e 9is-eries o( Oamaica and Beli.e 2-e Argument (or a Coo$erativeA$$roac-,Z *naper presented at the Third 'nnual Conference of the International 'ssociation for the Study ofCommom roperty 1I'SC2 Sept, $$/ &


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*bid/

xliii

>M Bur0e and O Maidens, ZEconomic *m$lications o( Coral Ree( Degradation,Z *n!eefs at ris0 in theCaribbean, 4as-ington, D/C/ 4orld Resources *nstitute, %!!"/ ;%


71/79

C 2rumbles, FEconomic Re(orms and #ocial Contradictions in Cuba, Cuba in Transition &! +%!!!!;


72/79

lxxi

Mesaago, FCuban Economy/

lxxii

DSa.

T-tt$JJ)))/gov/gdJegovJne)sJ%!&%Joct&%J!`&!`&%Jitem`;Jgrenada`(inancing`sc-eme`environmental`$rotection/-t

ml/


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lxxxviii ZAmerican #amoa Arc-i$elago 3istory o( t-e 9is-eries/Z6estern acific !egional Fishery )anagement Council/

4estern 'aci(ic Regional 9is-ery Management Council / " A$r %!&"/ T-tt$JJ)))/)$council/orgJmanaged

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