The Cold War Begins
The Cold War BeginsCommunism holds that the world is so deeply divided into opposing classes that war is inevitable.Democracy holds that free nations can settle differences justly and maintain lasting peace.President Truman, Inaugural Address (1949)The Cold WarThe first use of the term Cold War describing the postWorld War II geopolitical tensions between the USSR and its Western European Allies is attributed to Bernard BaruchBaruch was a U.S. financier and presidential advisor. In South Carolina, on April 16, 1947, he delivered a speech saying, Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war.
Sir Winston Churchill, British statesman, and Bernard Baruch, financier, converse in the back seat of a car in front of Baruch's home.The War is OverWorld War II dramatically changed the U.S. from an isolationist nation into a military superpower and leader in world affairsAfter the war, most Americans at home and millions coming back from military service wished to return to domestic life and a revitalized economyHowever, during the Truman presidency, the growing conflict between the Communist Soviet Union and the U.S. would dampen the nations enjoyment of the postwar boomPostwar America15 million soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines returning to civilian life in 1945 and 1946 faced problems of finding jobs and housingMany Americans feared the possible return of economic hardship, however the per-capita income during the war years increased Much of that income was in saving accounts and a growing consumer class sought the purchase of autos and homesGovernment road building projects and consumer demand led to an era of unprecedented prosperity and economic growthBy the 1950s, Americans enjoyed the highest standard of living achieved by any society in history!GI Bill-Help for VeteransThe Servicemens Readjustment Act of 1944, or the GI Bill of Rights, proved powerful support during the transition from wartime to peacetimeOver 2 million GIs attended college, which started a postwar boom in educationVeterans also received over 16 billion in low-interest, government backed loans to buy homes and farms or start businessesBy focusing on a better educated workforce and also promoting new construction, the federal government stimulated the postwar economic expansionBaby BoomOne sign of the basic confidence of the postwar era was an explosion in marriages and birthsYounger marriages and larger families resulted in 50 million babies entering the population (1945-1960)The baby boomers profoundly affected the nations social institutions and economic life in the last half of the 20th centuryInitially, the baby boom tended to focus womens attention on raising children and homemaking-by 1960 though, one-third of all married women worked outside the homeSuburban GrowthIn 1945 and 1946 the housing crisis led developers William Levitt and Henry Kaiser to create efficient-assembly-line mass produced homes (Levittowns) Low interest rates on mortgages that were both government-insured and tax deductible made the move from the city to suburb affordableIn a single generation, the majority of middle-class Americans became suburbanites (white-flight)For many older, inner cities, the effect of the movement was disastrous (by 1960, Boston and L.A. became increasingly poor and racially divided)
Rise of the SunbeltUprooted by the war, millions of Americans made moving a habit in the postwar eraA warmer climate, lower taxes, and economic opportunities in defense-related industries attracted many GIs and their families to the Sunbelt states (Florida to California)The Cold War helped finance the shift of industry, people, and ultimately political power from the Northeast and Midwest to the South and WestPostwar PoliticsPresident Truman attempted to continue in the New Deal tradition of FDRTrumans proposals for full employment and for civil rights for African Americans ran into opposition from more conservative CongressesEmployment Act of 1946:-In September 1945, Truman urged Congress to enact a national health insurance, an increase in the minimum wage, and a bill to commit the government to full employment-the Employment Act of 1946 created the Council of Economic Advisors to promote national economic welfareInflation and StrikesTruman asked Congress to continue the price controls of wartime in order to hold inflation in check-instead Democrats and Republicans relaxed the control of the Office of Price AdministrationThe result was an inflation rate of almost 25%Workers and unions wanted wages increased after years of wage controlsOver 4.5 million workers went on strike in 1946-Truman took a tough approach by seizing the industries (mining) and using soldiers to keep them operatingCivil RightsTruman was the first modern president to use the powers of his office to challenge racial discriminationUsed executive power to establish the Committee on Civil Rights in 1946 Strengthened the civil rights division of the Justice Department (aided black leaders)In 1948, Truman ordered the end of racial discrimination in the departments of the federal government and the military Republicans Control of the 80th CongressUnhappy with inflation and strikes, voters were in a conservative mood the fall of 1946The Republicans won both houses of CongressUnder Republican control, the Congress tried to pass two tax cuts for wealthy Americans, however, Truman vetoedMore successful were Republican efforts to amend the Constitution and roll back some of the New Deal gains for laborConservative Congressional LegislationTwenty-second Amendment:-reacting to FDRs unprecedented 4 terms in office, Republicans proposed an amendment to limit a president to a max of two full termsTaft-Hartley Act:-in 1947, Congress passed a pro-business act that was deemed a slave labor bill and vetoed by Truman (Congress overrode veto)Its provisions included Outlawing the closed shopPermitting states to pass right to work lawsOutlawing secondary boycotts (several unions supporting a striking union by joining a boycott of a companys products)Gave the president the power to invoke an 80 day cooling-off period (national security concerns)
The Election of 1948As measured by opinion polls, Trumans popularity was at a low point during the election campaign for the presidency in 1948Republicans were confident of victory and nominated NY Governor Thomas E. DeweyRepublican confidence was bolstered by the following:A liberal and conservative faction in the Democratic party abandoned Truman and formed the Liberal Democrats (feared Trumans foreign policy) nominated Henry WallaceSouthern Democrats bolted from the party in reaction to Trumans support of civil rights (The Dixiecrats nominated J. Strom Thurman)
Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states won by Truman/Barkley; Red denotes those won by Dewey/Warren; Orange denotes those won by Thurmond/Wright (including a faithless elector in Tennessee). Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.The ResultsRepublicans expected Dewey to win and ran an overly cautious and unexciting campaignTruman toured the nation by rail attacking the do-nothing Republican Eightieth Congress with give-em-hell speechesThe feisty Truman confounded the polling experts with a decisive victory over Dewey (2 million more popular votes and 303-189 electoral votes)
The famously erroneous 1948 headline Dewey Defeats Truman The Fair DealFresh from victory, Truman launched an ambitious reform program called the Fair DealIn 1949, he asked Congress to enact national healthcare insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, funds for public housing, and a new farm programConservatives in Congress blocked most of the legislation except an increase in minimum wage (40 to 75 cents an hour)Most of the Fair Deal bills were defeated for two reasons:Trumans political conflicts with CongressThe pressing foreign policy concerns of the Cold War Origins of the Cold WarThe Cold War dominated international relations from the late 1940s to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991The conflict centered on the two superpowers-USSR and USMost of the conflict was conducted by means short of armed conflict, however, in several instances, the Cold War came close to a nuclear warAmong historians there is intense debate over how and why the Cold War began:Many analysts see Trumans policies as reasonableCritics argue that Truman misunderstood and overreacted to Russias historic need to secure its borderConservative critics at the time, attacked Truman as being weak or soft on communismU.S. Soviet Relations to 1945The wartime alliance between the Soviets and Americans was actually a temporary halt in their generally poor relationsThe Bolshevik Revolution was viewed as a threat to most western capitalist nations (Red Scare 1919)The U.S. did not recognize the Soviet Union until 1933 and FDRs advisors concluded that Joseph Stalin and the Communists could not be trusted (Nonaggression Pact of 1939)
Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, 195.Postwar Cooperation-the U.N.The United Nations was founded in the fall of 1945 and was seen as a sign of hopeThe General Assembly was created to represent all member nations, while the 15 member Security Council was responsible for international securityIn addition, the Soviets went along with a U.S. proposal to establish an Atomic Energy Commission in the UNThe Soviets rejected a plan proposed by Bernard Baruch for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons (Americans were suspicious of Soviet intentions)The U.S. also offered the Soviets participation in the new International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)The World Bank was created to fund rebuilding of a war-torn worldSatellite States in Eastern EuropeDistrust turned into hostility beginning in 1946, as Soviet forces remained in occupation of the countries of central and Eastern EuropeElections were help by the Soviets-as promised by Stalin at Yalta-but the results were manipulated in favor of CommunistsCommunist dictators came to power in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, and CzechoslovakiaThe Soviets argued they needed a buffer from the West, the Americans and British were alarmed by the takeover of Eastern EuropeThe West regarded Soviet involvement as actions against self-determination, genuine democracy, and open marketsOccupation Zones in GermanyAt the end of the war, the division of Germany into Soviet, French, British, and U.S. zones of occupation was meant to be temporaryIn Germany, however, the eastern zone under Soviet occupation gradually evolved into a new Communist state-the German Democratic RepublicThe conflict over Germany was in part a conflict over differing views of national security and economic recoveryThis led to differing U.S. and Soviet aims in Europe!
Post-war Allied occupation zones in Germany.U.S Aims Versus Soviet Aims in EuropeThe United States wanted to:
The Soviet Union wanted to:
-create a new world order in which all nations had the right of self-determination-encourage communism in other countries as part of a worldwide struggle between workers and the wealthy-gain access to raw materials and markets for its industries-rebuild its war-ravaged economy using Eastern Europes industrial equipment and raw materials-rebuild European governments to ensure stability and to create new markets for American goods-control Eastern Europe to balance U.S. influence in Western Europe-reunite Germany, believing that Europe would be more secure if Germany were productive
-keep Germany divided and weak so that it would never again threaten the Soviet Union Iron CurtainBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill noted the political divide of two regions in Europe and proclaimed that an Iron-Curtain had descended across the continentChurchills iron-curtain speech called for a partnership between Western democracies to halt the expansion of communismThe iron curtain metaphor was later used throughout the Cold War to refer to the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe
A map of the Eastern Bloc.Containment in EuropeEarly in 1947, Truman adopted the advice of three top advisers in deciding to contain Soviet aggressionHis containment policy was formulated by Secretary of State General George Marshall, undersecretary of state Dean Acheson, and an expert on Soviet affairs George F. KennanPro containment: Kennan wrote an influential article calling for a long term containment of the Soviet expansionCritics: Journalist Walter Lippmann argued that the government should support nations resisting communism but according to U.S. interests
With the Communist takeover of mainland China in 1949, that country switched from a close friend of the U.S. to a bitter enemythe two powers were at war in Korea by 1950. Critics blamed Acheson for what they called the "loss of China" and launched several years of organized opposition to Acheson's tenureThe Truman DoctrineTruman implemented the containment policy in response to two threats:A Communists-led uprising against the government in GreeceSoviet demands for some control of Turkeys Dardanelles In what became known as the Truman Doctrine, the president asked Congress in March of 1947 for $400 million in economic and military aid to assist the free people of Greece and Turkey
President TrumanThe Marshall PlanPost war Western Europe was ravaged (destroyed factories, millions of people living in refugee camps, looting, crime)The winter in 1946-1947 was extremely bitter (damaged crops, frozen rivers, fuel shortage)Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that the United States provide aid to all European nations that needed itThe Marshall Plan revived European hopes and over the next four years:(1) 16 nations received an estimated 13 billion dollars in aid (12 billion initially approved)(2) by 1952, Western Europe was flourishing(3) U.S. exports increased in Europe(4) the Communist party had lost most of its appeal to voters
Map of Cold-War era Europe and the Near East showing countries that received Marshall Plan aid. The red columns show the relative amount of total aid received per nation.
The Berlin AirliftThe issue of German reunification caused problems for the United States and its allies with the Soviet UnionGermany was divided into four zones occupied by the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet UnionThe western portion of Berlin was controlled by the U.S, Britain, and France but was surrounded by the Soviet occupied zoneAlthough the three nations had intended to unify their zones, there were no highways or rail that could be accessed without the Soviet Unions permissionSensing a weakness, Stalin ordered the closure of all rail and roads leading into the western part of BerlinAs a result, no food or fuel could enter this part of Berlin for the estimated 2.1 million Germans
Post-war Allied occupation zones in Germany.The Berlin Airlift continuedIn the attempt to break the blockade, American and British officials started the Berlin Airlift to fly supplies into western BerlinFor 327 days, planes took off and landed every few minutesWest Berlin survived because of the airliftBy May of 1949, the Soviets realized they were beaten and lifted the blockadethe U.S. helped to establish the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the Soviets created the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
C-47 Skytrains unloading at Tempelhof Airport during Berlin Airlift.
Loading milk on a West Berlin-bound aircraft
NATOThe Berlin blockade increased Western European fear of Soviet aggressionThe United States along with Canada and many other nations on April 4, 1949 formed a defensive military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)The 12 members of NATO pledged military support to another in case any member was attackedFirst time in U.S. history that America entered into a military alliance during peacetimeGeneral Eisenhower was the first Supreme Commander of NATO and stationed troops in Western Europe as a deterrent The Soviets countered with the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance in Eastern Europe
NATO flag and symbol
The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that AugustNational Security Act (1947)The U.S. started to modernize its military capability in 1947 by passing the National Security Act which:Centralized Department of Defense (Replaced War Department) to coordinate the operations of the Army, Navy, and Air ForceCreated the National Security Council (NSC) to coordinate the making of foreign policy in the Cold WarThe creation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to employ spies to gather information on foreign governmentsIn 1948, the Selective Service System and peacetime draft were instituted
President Truman signs the National Security Act Amendment of 1949 in the Oval Office.Atomic WeaponsAfter the Berlin crisis, teams of scientists in both the Soviet Union and the U.S. were engaged in an intense competition-or arms race-to develop superior weapons systemsFrom 1945 to 1949, the U.S was the only world power with atomic bombs(plus it had the next generation of heavy long-range bombers)The Soviets detonated their first atomic bomb in 1949, shortly after, Truman approved the development of a bomb thousand of times more powerfulIn 1952, the hydrogen bomb was developed by the U.S.
Castle Romeo was the code name given to one of the tests in the Operation Castle series of American nuclear tests. It was the first test of the TX-17 thermonuclear weapon (initially the "emergency capability" EC-17), the first deployed U.S. thermonuclear bomb.Evaluating U.S. PolicyIn 1950, the National Security Council recommended, in a secret report known as NSC-68, that the following measures were necessary:Quadruple U.S. government defense spending to 20% of GDPForm alliances with non-Communist nationsConvince the American public that costly arms buildup was imperative for the nations defenseCritics of NATO and the defense buildup argued that Truman only intensified Russian fears (arms race)Time would tell that NATO and U.S. deterrence effectively checked Soviet expansion in EuropeThe Cold War in AsiaThe success of the containment policy in Europe proved difficult to duplicate in AsiaFollowing WWII, the old imperialist system crumbled in India and Southeast Asia because: Former colonies became new nationsThese new nations had different political and cultural traditionsBitter memories of Western colonialism (nations were less responsive to U.S. influence)
AsiaJapanUnlike Germany, Japan was solely under the control of the U.S.General Douglas MacArthur took firm charge of the reconstruction of Japan (Seven Japanese generals, including Premier Hideki Tojo were executed for war crimes)Under MacArthurs leadership, a new constitution was drafted and adopted in May of 1947 by a Japanese parliamentary democracyJapan retained Emperor Hirohito as the ceremonial head of state, however, the emperor gave up his claims to divinityJapans new constitution also renounced war as an instrument of national policy and provided for limited military capabilityAs a result, Japan depended on the military protection of the U.S.
General Douglas MacArthur and cob pipe U.S.-Japanese Security TreatyThe occupation of Japan ended in 1951 with the signing of a peace treaty in which Japan agreed to surrender its claims to Korea and islands in the PacificA second treaty ended formal occupation of Japan but also provided for U.S. troops to remain in military bases in Japan (protect Japan from external enemies-communism)Japan became a strong ally and prospered under the American shield
Japans mainlandThe Philippines and the Pacific On July 4, 1946, in accordance with the act passed by Congress in 1934, the Philippines became an independent republicThe U.S. maintained important naval and air bases in the Philippines throughout the Cold WarThis, together with U.S. control of the United Nations trustee islands taken from Japan, expanded American influence throughout the Pacific
The PhilippinesChinaSince coming to power in the late 1920s, Chiang Kai-shek commanded the Nationalist party and Chinas central governmentDuring WWII, the U.S. provided massive military aid to prevent Japan from conquering all of ChinaAs soon as the war was over, China entered a civil war between Chiangs Nationalists and the Chinese Communists led by Mao ZedongThe Communists appealed to millions of Chinese because:Runaway inflation (economic troubles)Widespread corruptionCommunists were well organized (appealed to poor landless peasants)
Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek with United States ambassador Patrick J. Hurley, 1945U.S. Policy in ChinaTruman sent George Marshall in 1946 to China to negotiate an end to the civil war, but his compromise fell apart in a few monthsBy 1947, Chiangs armies were in retreat (Truman refused to send in the military to rescue Chiang)In 1948, Congress voted to give the Nationalist government $400 million in aid, but 80% of the U.S. military supplies ended up in Communist hands because of corruption and the collapse of the Nationalist armies
Clockwise from the top: Communist troops at the Battle of Siping, Muslim soldiers of the NRA, Mao Zedong in the 1930s, Chiang Kai-shek inspecting soldiers, CCP general Su Yu investigating the front field shortly before the Menglianggu CampaignTwo ChinasBy the end of 1949, all of mainland China fell to Communist forcesChiang and the Nationalists fled to the island of Formosa (Taiwan)The U.S. refused to recognize Mao Zedongs regime in Beijing (the Peoples Republic of China) until 30 years later-1979Republicans in the Congress were especially alarmed by the loss of China and blamed the Democrats for the disasterIn 1950, Stalin and Mao signed a Sino-Soviet pact
Mao Zedong declares the founding of the modern People's Republic of China, October 1, 1949The Korean WarAfter the defeat of Japan, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel by the victor nations- the Soviets in the north and U.S. forces in the southBy 1949 both armies were withdrawn, leaving the Communist leader Kim Il Sung in power in the north and conservative nationalist Syngman Rhee in power in the southInvasion:-On June 25, 1950, the North Koreans invaded South Korea causing an international crisis-Truman appealed to the U.N., taking advantage of a temporary boycott by the Soviet delegation, and the U.N. sent troops to defend South Korea-General Douglass MacArthur was placed in command of a police action in Korea
MacArthur observes the naval shelling of Inchon from USSMount McKinley, 15 September 1950 with Brigadier General Courtney Whitney (left) and Major General Edward M. Almond (right).The Korean War continuedCounterattack:-At first the war in Korea went badly, as the North Koreans pushed South Korean and American forces to the tip of the peninsula-General MacArthur engineered a brilliant amphibious assault at Inchon behind enemy lines that cut off and destroyed most of the North Korean army-General MacArthur pushed the North Koreans to the border of China before China intervened and overwhelmed U.N. forces -Chinese involvement changed the dynamic of the war and U.N. forces regrouped behind the 38th parallel
The Korean War continuedTruman versus MacArthur:-MacArthur made a series of public statements concerning the need to expand the war and bomb China which anger Truman-Truman warned the General, however, MacArthur continued criticizing official U.S. policy-In April of 1951, Truman and the Joint Chiefs of Staff recalled MacArthur for insubordination (He returned to a heros welcome)-Truman and the Democrats were viewed by many as appeasers for not destroying communism in Asia
On April 19, 1951, General Douglas MacArthur made a high-profile farewell address to a joint meeting of Congress. Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.The Korean War continuedArmistice:-peace talks started in July of 1951, but the police action dragged on for another two years-an armistice was finally signed in 1953, however, before the fighting stopped, more than 54,000 Americans had died in Korea
The DMZ as seen from the north, 2005The Korean War continuedPolitical consequences:-from the perspective of the Democrats, Trumans containment policy worked by stopping Communist aggression-the Truman administration used the Korean War as justification for expanding the military (funded new jet bombers the B-52 and more stationed troops overseas) -the Republicans exploited the stalemate in Korea and loss of China by painting the Democrats as soft on communism-they attacked leading Democrats as members of Dean Achesons Cowardly College of Communist Containment-the Republicans won the White House in the 1952 presidential election
Key Names, Events, and TermsServicemens Readjustment Act (GI Bill) 1944Baby boomSuburban growthWhite flightSunbelt regionHarry TrumanEmployment Act of 1946Council of Economic AdvisorsInflation; strikesCommittee on Civil RightsTwenty-second AmendmentTaft-Hartley Act 1947Progressive PartyHenry WallaceStates-Rights party (Dixiecrats)J. Strom ThurmondThomas DeweyFair DealCold WarSoviet UnionUnited NationsWorld BankCommunist satellitesIron CurtainWinston ChurchillGeorge KennanDean AchesonKey Names, Events, and TermsContainment policyTruman DoctrineMarshall PlanBerlin AirliftEast Germany; West GermanyNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)National Security Act 1947; arms race; NSC-68U.S.-Japanese Security TreatyDouglass MacArthurChinese Civil WarChiang Kai-shekTaiwanMao ZedongPeoples Republic of ChinaJoseph StalinKim Il SungSyngman RheeKorean War; U.N. police action38th parallelQuestionWhich U.S. action is NOT correctly paired with an event in international politics?airlift-Soviet blockade of Berlintroops sent to Korea-Churchills Iron Curtain speechTruman Doctrine-civil war in GreeceMarshall Plan-growing popularity of communism in Western Europedevelopment of hydrogen bomb-A-bomb tested in Soviet UnionAnswerB:troops sent to Korea-Churchills Iron Curtain speech
