The Cold WarLimits of Superpower: 1969-1980

A New Decade Student protests

July ’69- We reach the moon! NASA success

Watergate

Slow economy

Fall of SV to communists

High inflation

Into the 70s Liberation movements of 60s swing back towards

conservatism in early 70s Nixon/Agnew success in ‘68, Wallace rise as political force signal

emergence of SILENT MAJORITY

White, working-class, middle-class want to regain control of PERMISSIVE society.

Continued disagreement on Vietnam War

Nixon and Vietnam

50%+ of US troops in Vietnam

Nixon + Henry Kissinger (Nat’l Security Adv.) = new plan for “peace with honor”

3 areas of focus: Paris peace talks:

US demand NV withdrawal, recognition of US backed SV gov. deadlock secret meetings b/t Kissinger & NV

Defuse domestic unrest

Via “Vietnamization”- turn combat missions over to SV units, reduce US ground forces, $/weapons/training to SV

(‘69- 560k, ‘73- 50k)

Expansion of air war effort

Pressure NV to come to terms

March 18, ‘69- Operation Menu- 14 months of bombing Cambodia

SECRET- not known by Congress until ‘70

Division at Home Slow withdrawal of military low morale, reputation of troops

“No one wants to be the last grunt to die in this lousy war.”

“fragging” = troops vs. officers (fragmentation grenades)

Drug abuse- 4x more hospitalized for overdose than combat wounds (’71)

Leaked reports of atrocities My Lai, Pentagon Papers

Antiwar Opposition By ‘70- Reaction to Nixon’s war effort

My Lai massacre, ‘68 (Army Lt. William Calley, 200 Vietnamese civilians)

College wide protests , violence/shooting (Kent State- 4 dead, Jackson State- 2 dead)

Pressure from activists, escalation in reaction repeal of Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

1971- US learn about slaughter of women/children by US in Vietnam (‘68), antiwar sentiment from NYT, revelation of “Pentagon papers” with history of mistakes/deceptions of gov. in dealing w/ Vietnam (released by Daniel Ellsbert, DOD) ‘64 on- plans for expansion of war effort, US entry (LBJ)

From War to Peace. . . Talks Tactical success in Cambodia

SV troops struggle to replace US forces (defeats ‘71-’72, disorganized, poorly led) reliance on US air power

By ‘72- Kissinger (SOS, ‘73) + NV foreign minister on cease-fire Agreement drops removal of ALL NV troops from SV

Summer ‘72- peace at hand. . . but SV won’t compromise

B-52 bombing of NV for several weeks = “Christmas bombings & jugular diplomacy”

Paris Accords- Jan. 27, ‘73 NV agreement to armistice

NV retain request for: 150k troops in S, idea of unified Vietnam

Fighting between NV/SV continues

By April 30, ‘75- Communist forces take Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City)

Shift from ‘72 was SV acceptance of terms

Why? US promise to respond “with full force” if violation of agreement

US withdraw remaining troops, receive 500+ POWs,

Cease-fire, free elections

Legacy March 29, ‘73 = last US combat troops leave Vietnam

MIA in thousands

$150 b. spent on war, 58k US death

Democracy not easily transferred to third-world nations No history of liberal values, no rep. gov.

Lack of respect for military service

Division among American society

Reaction? noninterventionist foreign policy

Détente w/ China & USSR Nixon + Kissinger play off rivalry b/t China, USSR

Diplomacy = détente call for reduction of Cold War tensions Relax, ease tension

Visit to China BOLD effort to improve relations w/ Mao, PRC

Feb., ‘72- travel to Beijing diplomatic exchanges US recognize PRC ‘79

Arms control w/ Soviets Pressure USSR to limit antiballistic missile testing (ABMs) no renewal or

expansion of arms race

Hold Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I)- agreement to “freeze” number of ballistic missiles w/ nuclear warheads

No end to arms race, step toward reducing tension, toward détente

Nixon at Home John Mitchell (A-G), H.R. Haldeman, John Ehrlichman

(advisors), Will Rogers (SOS, A-G under Ike), Kissinger (NS Adv.)

Dems = majority in Congress Compromise on legislation

New Federalism Slow growth of LBJ Great Society- $$$$$$, BIG gov.

Family Assistance Plan (welfare reform) – defeated, BUT move much of social welfare from FED to STATE

Revenue sharing (New Fed.)- Fed gov. gives $ to local govs. ($30 b.) in form of 5 year grants for local needs

New Federalism Domestic program under Nixon

To “start resources and power flowing back from Washington to the states and to the people.”

5-year revenue-sharing $30 b. of federal $ to states for use as see fit

No specific uses- gave DC too much control over how $ was spent

Want responsibility to go to states (prior to New Deal)

“New American revolution”- promotion of traditional values

Why didn’t it catch on? “hodgepodge of reactionary and progressive initiatives”

He was “liberal and conservative, generous and begrudging, cynical and idealistic. . .”

Nixon’s Courting of the South ‘68- Nixon only held 43% of popular vote = minority

president

How can a Republican majority be established? Appeal to voters who are tired of antiwar protests, black militants,

busing, excesses of youth culture

Who are these voters? The SILENT MAJORITY = Dems (southern whites, Catholic ethnics, blue-collars, suburbanites) that disagree w/ liberal swing in party

Nixon ask Fed. Courts in south to delay integration, busing; nominate 2 southerners to SC, block renewal of VRA 65 VP Spiro Agnew- verbal assaults vs. war protesters, liberal press

Success? Senate won’t confirm SC candidates, courts reject request for delay

BUT- southern white voters encouraged by efforts

The Burger Court Nixon to fill 4 open seats on SC liberal, activist Warren

Court at an end in 1969

Warren Burger (MN) = Chief Justice

2 conservatives rejected by Congress (Clement Haynsworth, G. Harold Carswell), so turn to moderates Harry Blackmun (Roe v. Wade, ‘73), Lewis Powell, William Rehnquist

Irony? The court that denies his claims to exec. Privilege- order to turn over Watergate tapes (U.S. v. Nixon, ’74)

Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Ed. (‘69)- mandated integration of MS public school

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Ed (‘71)- school systems MUST bus students out of neighborhoods to achieve integration spread of protest into north, midwest

Etc. Milliken v. Bradley (‘74)- deseg. in Detroit by transfer of

students from inner-center to suburbs UNCONSTITUTIONAL

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (‘78)- RESTRICTED use of college-admission quotas to achieve racial balance

Desegregation not just about justice- about group & individual rights

Legislation from a Dem. Congress 26th Amendment = vote at 18, 1971

Increase in SSA benefits (tied to inflation rate)

Increase food-stamp funding

Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971

Clean Air Act, 1970

Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1970

Economy ‘67 on = inflation, fall of stocks, unemployment up

70 brings recession- in decade, swings of inflation, economic slowdowns = STAGFLATION

Why? LBJ expenses- Great Society & Vietnam without tax increases federal

deficit, expansion of money supply, inflation

By late 60s- US goods have competition in int’l markets (from W. Germany, Japan)

Heavily dependent on cheap sources of energy (cars), much from OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (oil = leverage)

How to slow inflation? Decrease fed. Spending. . . BUT recession, unemployment

So? Keynesian style of deficit spending to protect middle-class, blue-collars

‘71- 90-day wage/price freeze to stop inflation, dollar off gold standard

By ‘72- recession over, approval of increases in SS benefits (based on COL) Good and bad? Aid to needy, budget problems

1972 Election Nixon vs. Dem. George McGovern (Senator- SD)

McGovern- very liberal, antiwar

Repub. Win majority in EVERY southern state Carried all but Mass., 60.8% pop vote

Why Nixon? FP success

George Wallace shot, paralyzed

Poor campaigning by McGovern- VP Thomas Eagleton dropped (depression), limited support (Sargent Shriver)

First time 18-20 can vote! 26 Amend. Passed in ‘71

Watergate Nixon admin. Attitude? Any means can be used to promote

nat’l security Is protecting the president from critics nat’l security?

June ‘72- men hired by Nixon’s reelection committee caught breaking into Watergate complex- offices of Dem. NHQ Attempted bugging, break-in organized by CREEP + “dirty tricks”

Wiretaps on gov. employees, reporters to stop news leaks (bombing of Cambodia) by “The Plumbers”

Broke in to office of Daniel Ellsberg (Pent. Papers leak) to get info. to discredit Ellsberg

Creation of “enemies list” = prominent Americans who oppose Nixon, Viet. War

investigations by IRS, other gov. agencies

Investigation No SOLID proof of Nixon’s involvement, orders, BUT clear involved in

COVER-UP to avoid scandal Washington Post- Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein

Jan. ‘73- Watergate burglars sentencing info. about $, pardons by White House staff to keep quiet Ordering of CIA to call off FBI investigation into burglary = obstruction of justice

May ‘73- Senate investigation by Sam Ervin (D- SC) in TV hearings John Dean, White house lawyer, linked president to cover-up

H.R. Haldeman, John Erlichman (aids) resigned, later indicted for obstructing justice

Discovery of taping system in Oval Office struggle b/t Nixon & investigators Nixon says exec. Privilege, investigators want for proof

June ‘74- ordered to turn over by SC (18 min.?)

By ‘74- HOR hearings on impeachment began w/ three articles listed Obstruction of justice, abuse of power, contempt of Congress

Nixon feared impeachment, trial in Senate decision to RESIGN

Aug. 9, 1974- Nixon OUT, VP Gerald Ford IN

Other Issues in ‘73 War Powers Act- authorization of 3,500 secret bombings in

Cambodia (neutral) leaked public outrage Congress begins attempt to limit Pres. Powers over military

Nov. ‘73- passage of WPA- presidents must report to Congress w/in 48 hours of taking military action, Congress must approve military action that lasts more than 60 days

October War Oct. 6 starts Yom Kippur War

Syria, Egypt launch surprise attack on Israel to recover lost land from ’67

Nixon airlift $2 b. in arms to Israel, end of conflict

Price for supporting Israel? Oil embargo by OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries) in Oct. ‘73 Embargo to anyone supporting Israel

Through March ‘74

shortage of oil, runaway inflation on gas prices, loss of jobs in manufacturing, lower standard of living for blue-collars

Effect? Switch to more economic vehicles (smaller, fuel-efficient Japanese cars),

55 mph speed limit (save gas), approval of oil pipeline in AK

Gerald Ford

Why Ford? VP Spiro Agnew resigned in ‘73

Bribes when gov. of MD

Ford = 1st UNELECTED president

Ford’s Administration: 74-77 In first month- Ford lost much support when granted Nixon full

pardon for any crime occurred before any charges or indictment had been made

Dem. Congress look for abuses of power in exec. Branch & CIA Assassination of foreign leaders?

Economy- inflation! Recession!

No more $ approved for SV (‘74- facing attacks from NV) April, ‘75- US supported gov. in Saigon fell, Vietnam = one united nation under

NV

Genocide in Cambodia ‘75- US supported gov. in Cambodia fell to radical Comm. Group

Domino theory?

Election of 1976 Watergate looming still for Repubs.

Ford nominated for reelection over Ronald Reagan

Vs. Jimmy Carter (D- former gov. of GA) Carter carried South, 97% of black vote

Carter VICTORIOUS!

Carter’s Presidency Informal style = end of “imperial” presidency

Carried own bags, didn’t ride in limo on inaug. Day – easy for average Americans to connect to

Many in Congress saw him as outsider who depended on inexperienced advisers from GA

Foreign Policy HUMAN RIGHTS

Andrew Young = US ambassador to UN

Denounced oppression of blacks in South Africa, Zimbabwe

In LA- human rights violations end of US aid to Argentina, Chile

Panama Canal- attempt to correct inequitites New treaty negotiated in ‘78- transfer of operation and control from US to

Panama (by 2000)

A “give away” by opponents

Camp David Accords, 1978 Peace settlement b/t Egypt and Israel

Invite to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat & Israeli PM Menachem Begin

framework for peace, Egyptian recognition of Israel, Israel removal of troops

Iran Hostage Crisis ‘79- Islamic fundamentalists (Ayatollah Kohmeini) take over

shah’s dictatorship in Iran Shah- oil to West in 70s, autocratic rule, “westernization”

New regime stop oil production 2nd worldwide oil crisis

Nov. – militants seize US embassy in Teheran (50+ hostages)

Hostage crisis through 1980 April, ‘80 = failed attempt @ rescue mission (helicopters down in Iranian

desert)

Cold War Carter attempt to continue Nixon-Ford policy of détente

‘79- US ended recognition of Nat’list Chinese gov. of Taiwan Ambassadors to PRC

Signing of SALT II treaty- limit size of nuclear delivery system Treaty not ratified by Senate due to tension in Afghanistan

Dec. ‘79- Soviets invade Afghanistan = end to 10 yrs of improving relationship b/t US and Soviets US react by embargo on grain to USSR, sale of tech and boycotting 1980

Olympics in Moscow

Inflation 79-80- inflation seemingly out-of-control, slowed econ.

Growth (high interest rates, high prices)

“Taxpayers revolt” Chairman of Fed push int. rates higher (20%) in 1980

Fail- hurt auto, constr. Industry lay-offs

Middle-class hurt when pushed to higher tax bracket

Social programs indexed to inflation rate pushed to limit (deficit increases)

By ‘79, Carter prestige down “national malaise” speech- blame issues on “moral and spiritual crisis” of

Americans

Americans blame president- weak, indecisive