Tourism is one of the sectors believed to be able to contribute to the process of economic diversification in BruneiDarussalam. Kampong Ayer, which literally means ‘Water Village’ is one of the obligatory tourism attractions inthe country, as there is an expression that says that a visit to Brunei Darussalam is not valid if one does not visitKampongAyer. Although there exists a tourismpotential, there are challenges thatmust be addressed in order topromote tourism inKampongAyer, and to convince tourists of the uniqueness of this historic place. These includewaste disposal problems, crime, loss of authenticity, as well as the lack of information, facilities and tourist ser-vices in Kampong Ayer. Aside from the prospect of generating income, tourism development in Kampong Ayercan also lead to the preservation and revival of the socio-cultural heritage of its community.
Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world contributing 9%to the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and this sector has beenidentified as a potential income-generator and economy-diversifier inBrunei Darussalam. This is stated in a number of official documents in-cluding national development plans and tourism master plans of thecountry (GBD, 2007; OBG, 2010; MIPR, 1998). According to the 1998tourism master plan, some of the strengths of tourism development inBrunei Darussalam include the fascination over the Brunei Royal Familyand theway they live, safety factor in view of the low crime rate, strate-gic position of the country in Southeast Asia, pristine rainforest, as wellas cultural attractions such as Kampong Ayer, mosques and museums(MIPR, 1998).
To date, however, Brunei Darussalam's tourism sector is stillundeveloped and it is not as advancedwhen compared to neighbouringcountries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand or Indonesia. The num-ber of tourist arrivals into the country has slowly increased from118,900 in 2004 to 157,464 in 2009, though in contrast with tourismin Southeast Asia, these figures account for approximately 0.3% of theregion's tourist arrivals (OBG, 2010). As written by Sadi and Bartels(1997, p. 102), Brunei Darussalam's position is “on the first page at the
ghts reserved.
beginning of chapters in tourism development”. Substantial wealth de-rived from oil and gas is among the factors that contribute towards thelack of progress on other economicfields including tourism. The tourismsector is estimated to contribute only 1.9% to the country's GDP by theyear 2021 (WTTC, 2011).
Cultural tourismand ecotourismhave been recognised to be suitableand relevant to be developed in Brunei Darussalam (MIPR, 1998).Kampong Ayer, or literally ‘Water Village’, is comprised of houses builton stilts above Brunei River. Kampong Ayer is a primary cultural touristattraction in the country because of its historical heritage and archaeo-logical value. Kampong Ayer is estimated to be over 1000years old, andit was characterised as the ‘Venice of the East’ by Antonio Pigafettain 1521. Kampong Ayer possesses patterns of culture, tradition and lifethat are unique from other attractions and different from anythingever experienced by visitors. The World Tourism Organization (WTO)estimates that about 37% of all visits have an element or elements ofculture such as art, music, history and religion (Richards, 2001). The dis-tinctive cultural patterns embrace customs, beliefs, arts and crafts suchas dance and music, as well as an attractive economic activity thatare practised by the people in Kampong Ayer. Tourists are drawn toKampong Ayer in order to know and learn more about the culture andheritage of the people residing there, but also of Bruneians in general,since Kampong Ayer was one of the earliest sites where Bruneiansfirst settled in the country.
This paper serves to examine the status of Kampong Ayer in the con-text of tourism planning and development in Brunei Darussalam. It willalso analyse the present constraints that may hinder or obstruct theprogress of Kampong Ayer in the tourism industry, and finally, discuss
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the prospect of Kampong Ayer as a tourist destination in benefiting theeconomy and society, and also in advancing the sustainability of the cul-tural heritage of Kampong Ayer.
2. Kampong Ayer as a tourism destination
A visit to Brunei Darussalam is not complete without visitingKampong Ayer. This is a common expression conveyed to tourists visitingthe country. Kampong Ayer is thus one of the mandatory destinationsfor tourists in Brunei Darussalam, synonymous with the Great Wall inChina, Eiffel Tower in France, pyramids in Egypt, and windmills in TheNetherlands.
What is the attraction that makes Kampong Ayer a tourist destina-tion? Kampong Ayer is not only exhibiting the residential houses builton the water or river, but it also symbolises the country's Malay culturedeep-rooted in their sea-faring tradition and lifestyle. The history ofKampong Ayer is indeed widespread and recorded in the ancient writ-ings, where among other places, Kampong Ayer was recognised as oneof themost important trading centres on the island of Borneo. Inhabitedby approximately 39,000 people, or 10% of the country's population,Kampong Ayer is the largest of its kind in the world, and has a total of42 villages that are divided into 6 sub-districts. Its location in the heartof the capital city of Bandar Seri Begawan makes it accessible fromother parts of the country. Houses in Kampong Ayer are built on stiltsand linked up by wooden boardwalks of 1 m wide and over 36 km,and supported by concrete pillars. Water taxis in the form of smallboats with outboard engines ply through the Brunei River to transportpeople who want to cross over from the mainland to Kampong Ayeror vice versa. Kampong Ayer is not just a residential area, it is alsocomplemented by retail shops, restaurants, mosques, as well as schools.In other words, it is a living community similar to a village or town, butit is entirely located above water. This is a feature that makes KampongAyer distinct from other tourist destinations in the country.
Although modernity has seeped into the way of life in KampongAyer, it still retains stories and legends that continue to attract theinterest and attention of visitors. These are reflected in the namesof the villages such as Pekilong (Estuary), Pandai Besi (Manufactureof Iron), Sungai Bunga (River of Flowers), and also in tales and folk-lores such as the legends of Jong Batu, Pulau Chermin (Mirror Island),and the tomb of Sultan Muhammad Hassan, the 9th Sultan of Brunei.Kampong Ayer residents are well-known for their cottage industriesproducing handicraft items such as food cover, mats, baskets, fans,silver jewellery, copper tools, wood carving, and weaved-textiles,as well as foods such as pastries (bahulu, cacah, cincin, jala, jit manisand sapit). Kampong Ayer is also famous for its fishing activities,and the padian or women-traders who paddled their boats alongBrunei River selling food and household items. The padian has nowvanished. Traditional dance and music like the Adai-Adai danceusing musical instruments such gulingtangan (a set of small gongs)and hadrah (tambourine), are often displayed to entertain guestsand tourists to Kampong Ayer.
The number of tourists visiting Kampong Ayer is unknown becausethere are no statistics recorded at the destination. However, accordingto a tourism study among foreign visitors to Brunei Darussalam, atotal of 325 people or nearly 50% of the total 653 foreign visitors sur-veyed stated that they visited KampongAyer (DPPA, 1996). Consideringthat Kampong Ayer is an obligatory tourism destination in BruneiDarussalam, it appears that more than half of the foreign tourists visit-ing the country have not taken the opportunity or time to visit this cul-tural heritage site. In addition, when compared to other major touristdestinations in the country, Jerudong Park Playground recorded thehighest amount of visitation with 53% of the foreign tourists. Mean-while, the Jame ‘Asr Hassanil Bolkiah Mosque received 47%, SultanOmar Ali Saifuddien Mosque received 42%, Kota Batu Museum received32%, Royal Regalia Building received 30%, and Ulu Temburong NationalPark received 9% of the foreign tourists surveyed (DPPA, 1996).
Although Kampong Ayer is included as one of the popular tourist desti-nations in the country, there is still scope for improvement in makingKampong Ayer as an attractive destination that must be visited bytourists.
In the tourism industry, travel agents in the country provide packagetours to Kampong Ayer. For instance, Royal Brunei Airlines offer toursfor 1h, twice a day, around Kampong Ayerwith a fee of B$35 per person.Other agencies offer special tours on boats that navigate aroundKampong Ayer for 2 h in the evening followed by dinners and culturalperformances. Tourists are also given the opportunity to stay in a localfamily house (homestay) to experience living in Kampong Ayer, andenjoy a meal of Malay cuisine for two days and one night.
3. Constraints to tourism development at Kampong Ayer
Although cultural tourism has the potential to be further developedin Kampong Ayer, there are a number of challenges and threats thatneed to be addressed to prevent the disappearance of Kampong Ayerand its heritage and lifestyle. It is essential that these issues are consid-ered in order to avoid the adverse impact of tourism in Kampong Ayer,and thus to promote tourism activities in Kampong Ayer and convincethe tourists of the distinctiveness of this historic place. These challengesand threats include problems ofwaste disposal,fire disasters, crime, andthe authenticity of Kampong Ayer, as well as the problem of lack of in-formation, facilities and tourist services in Kampong Ayer.
3.1. River pollution
Waste disposal has been anon-going problem inKampongAyer, anddespite several initiatives introduced by the authorities to minimise it,they have not been completely effective in removing wastes and rub-bish entirely from Brunei River. According to international measure-ment, the rate of waste production in the country is too high and thecomposition of waste produced is equivalent to developed states(Othman, 2004). In the low-income countries, such as Bangladesh,Vietnam, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand, every resident generates lessthan 1 kg of waste per day, compared with Brunei Darussalam whichproduces about 1.24 kg per day (Othman, 2004). A study by Goh(1991) found that every family in Kampong Ayer produced an averageof 24.23kg of trash each week. The authorities in the country have pro-vided facilities to dispose waste, such as house to house rubbish collec-tion for Kampong Ayer residents and clean-up project along BruneiRiver (Chia, 2012). The clean-up project collects around 1700kg of rub-bish daily, mostly comprised of wood, plastic and solid waste. Theremay not be an effective waste disposal system in Kampong Ayer untilthe villagers refrain themselves from throwing garbage directly ontothe river.
Indiscriminate dumping of wastes produces a burden on the envi-ronment and can provide barriers to the flow of water and river,which may result in flooding. This problem can also produce breedingplaces for mosquitoes and attract animal scavengers. Kampong Ayerresidents always face such risks, including possible exposure to contam-ination and all water-based diseases. At the same time, pollution of rub-bish being thrown into Brunei River can bring about negative impact onthe biological diversity of the river, thus leading to ecological imbalancein the river. As a result, the types of aquatic species that inhabit theBrunei River can be reduced and limited to those that can adapt to theconditions and water quality in the river (Yau, 1988).
Destination images and associated specific destination attributes arethe most influential factors in travellers' decision-making and, there-fore, affect tourists' behaviour (Elliot, Papadopoulos, & Kim, 2011). Pol-lution in the river can certainly affect the image of Kampong Ayer.Tourists will be drawn away from Kampong Ayer when seeing thescattered debris floating in the Brunei River, as this would be unsightly,unhealthy and unhygienic. Furthermore, at low tide, an unpleasantodour would be produced from the scattered debris. Although 88% of
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foreign visitors expressed their satisfaction on the level of hygiene in thecountry (DPPA, 1996), the pollution along the river in Kampong Ayermay create a bad image of the country.
3.2. Fire disaster
Fire can threaten the existence of Kampong Ayer. Houses and prop-erties in Kampong Ayer have been lost due to fire over the years, takingaway the common historical and cultural heritage that has long beeninherited by Kampong Ayer and its inhabitants. Although they can berebuilt, homes that have been re-constructed do not generally havethe characteristics and architecture of traditional or original KampongAyer houses.
According to statistics from the Fire and Rescue Department (per-sonal communication, January 17, 2005), since 1985 to 2005, the De-partment has recorded a total of 52 fire incidents reported inKampong Ayer, which involved or destroyed 824 houses, a school anda mosque. Monetary loss suffered by fire in the past 20years is estimat-ed at B$47.7million. Theworstfire incident according to statisticswas in1990,where 194 houses caughtfire, estimated at B$8.4million.More re-cently, 12 houses in one of the villages in Kampong Ayer were gutted ina fire leaving more than 100 people homeless (Othman, 2013). Fires atKampong Ayer are preventable in order to preserve the site. Humancarelessness is normally a major cause of fire incidents, and in the caseof Kampong Ayer, the highest recorded source of fires is short-circuitof the electrical cables, which led to 16 fire disasters in the area. Othersources of fire in Kampong Ayer include cooking stove left running,flame from candles, children playingwith fire, cigarette butts and light-ning bolt, according to the Fire and Rescue Department (personal com-munication, January 17, 2005).
Fire incidents at Kampong Ayer can be attributed to the quality ofhouses which are largely built from timber, as well as the position ofthe houses which are very close to each other. It is estimated that awooden house in Kampong Ayer is expected to take a very short timeof only 7min to disappear in flames, as stated by the Fire and RescueDe-partment (personal communication, January 17, 2005). As a conse-quence, appropriate precautionary measures should be taken toprevent the continuance of fire outbreaks at Kampong Ayer. The causesof the fire can be evaded, for instance, the villagers could be more waryof electrical connections and the use of fire in their homes.
3.3. Crime and drugs
Crime and activities that violate the law such as the distribution andabuse of drugs, theft and illegal immigrants in Kampong Ayer are in-creasingly rampant and the situation is worrying the authorities andlocal communities. Police raids are frequently held in Kampong Ayerin order to combat these illegal activities. For example, several raidswere reported in some of the villages in Kampong Ayer that led to thearrest of 14 people, including six women suspected of drug traffickingand selling cocaine, as noted in a Borneo Bulletin article on January 29,2004.
News on thismatterwould taint the image of KampongAyer, aswellas that of the country, which iswell-known for its stability, peacefulnessand friendly people. Personal safety is certainly a major factor for anytraveller to make decisions and choices about the places to be visited.If a place is not safe and there is a crime, tourists will certainly avoidit. Studies have shown that in recent years, safety and security have be-come one of the most perceived inhibitors that avert prospective tour-ists from travelling to their preferred destinations (Kim & Chalip,2004; Pizam, 1999).
At present, the crime rate in Brunei Darussalam is estimated at a lowlevel compared with neighbouring countries, indicating its high safetystandards. This was acknowledged by foreign visitors where 88% ofthose surveyed expressed their satisfaction with the level of securityin the country (DPPA, 1996). This factor is important in assuring tourists
to visit Brunei Darussalam. However, if criminal activity becomes morewidespread and rampant in Kampong Ayer, prospective tourists will beless certain and less confident to visit Kampong Ayer or the country.
3.4. Loss of authenticity
Authentic or original features and values found in KampongAyer aregradually diminishing due to modernisation (Jones, 1997). House de-sign and architecture in Kampong Ayer have changed dramatically, ashouses are no longer roofed and walled by leaves and shoots, andfloored by bamboo and staircases made of nibong. The Kampong Ayerinhabitants are enjoying similar comforts and convenience felt bytheir counterparts on land, such as television, air conditioning, andother modern amenities. Such transformations are inevitable as thecountry's standard of living has risen and is comparable with developedcountries.
Many residents of Kampong Ayer have moved to land, but there aresome of those participating in housing schemes on water, includingthose offered by the Government and the Sultan Haji Hassanal BolkiahFoundation, a well-known non-governmental organisation. For in-stance, the Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Foundation built houses inthe Brunei River, such as in Kampong Sungai Bunga (112 homes), Kam-pong Bolkiah A (226 homes) and Kampong Bolkiah B (250 homes). Inview of the frequent fire incidences in Kampong Ayer, the Governmentof Brunei Darussalam has been establishing new community villages byconstructing brick houses, concrete bridges and jetties, and using flameretardant materials. They were also provided with basic amenities likeelectricity, water pipelines, and waste disposal systems. Although thenew housing settlements attempt to encourage local people to continueto live in Kampong Ayer by providing adequate facilities and amenities,it is not equivalent to the original lifestyle and experience because theshape and appearance of the community have changed.
Gradually, the composition of KampongAyer residents also changed.The best artisans are replaced byunskilled labour,which largely consistsof foreign construction and menial workers from overseas, includingIndia, Bangladesh and Thailand. Due to the relocation of the original in-habitants of Kampong Ayer to terrestrial ground, many abandonedhouses in Kampong Ayer are rented out to non-family members of theowner of the house, and some of the tenants are foreign workers. Thisissue concerns the authorities in the country, as has been reported inthe local media through the number and extent of raids conducted byenforcement agencies in several villages in Kampong Ayer (Anwar,2004). For instance, in a raid operation involving 47 dwellings, a totalof 24 houses were found to be rented out to foreign workers in one vil-lage alone (Anwar, 2004).
These statistics show that if this trend continues, Kampong Ayer isno longer a Malay village that has distinctive characteristics attractiveto the tourists. The cultural heritage symbolising the lifestyle in Kam-pong Ayer will change from its original, and will obviously affect thetouristic value of this Venice of the East.
3.5. Lack of information for tourists
Information plays an important role to attract the attention and in-terest of tourists to visit a destination. It is desirable if tourist-friendly in-formation relating to the history of Kampong Ayer, the means to visitKampong Ayer, and places that can be visited in Kampong Ayer, isprovided.
The Division of Tourism Development under the Ministry of Industryand Primary Resources does not provide leaflets containing specific in-formation about Kampong Ayer, although the general importance ofKampong Ayer as a tourist destination is already known. There is only lit-tle information about Kampong Ayer in the official handbook publishedby the Division. The Ministry of Home Affairs produced a coffee-tablebook entitled ‘Kampong Ayer The Water Village — Heritage of BruneiDarussalam’ in the year 2000, which contains very extensive and
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comprehensive information about Kampong Ayer, including its history.This book is very informative and useful to those who wish to deepentheir knowledge on Kampong Ayer, but it is not tourist friendly and notwidely publicised and available.
The Tourism Development Division or travel agents should strive topublish a brochure specifically about Kampong Ayer, which should besimple and clear to understand and useful for tourists. This brochureshould include a sketch map of Kampong Ayer together with informa-tion relating to the history, places of interest, activities that can bedone by tourists, the means to visit, and the materials that can be ob-tained as a keepsake in Kampong Ayer.
3.6. Lack of facilities and services for tourists
It is important that tourists are satisfied with their visit to a destina-tion. Basic needs such as tourist lodges or hotels, resting huts, clean toi-lets and eating places, as well as safe jetties should be available toconvince tourists to visit Kampong Ayer. Apart from the state of infra-structure, tourist services such as guides who are knowledgeable aboutKampong Ayer need to be provided as well. It is observed that local peo-ple still shy away from the tourism industry in the country such as pro-viding guide services. Travel agents still hire foreigners to provideguide services to the tourists. More than 27% of the country's populationconsists of migrant workers, while as much as 4.9% of the Brunei na-tionals have been unemployed (Tasie, 2009). As a result, there is still alack of guides who are capable and knowledgeable to provide their ser-vices to tourists interested to visit Kampong Ayer. Professions such astourist guides can be done on a part-time basis, which can bring addi-tional income to the individuals.
In terms of transport services, a variety of water or boat transporta-tion is to be provided to the tourists, which is more secure and comfort-able than what is currently available. River cruises should be expandedand improved by using suitable vessels and meeting safety standards.
The authorities should also identify routes that can be used by tourists.This tourist route must traverse areas that could showcase the culturalheritage of Kampong Ayer. Armed with simple and clear information,through brochures, signs or other audio device, the tourists will be ableto follow the description of the history, patterns of culture, tradition andlife in Kampong Ayer.With this tourist route, it will limit the areas visitedby tourists, and reduce disruption and negative effects on the residents ofKampong Ayer.
4. Tourism prospect
KampongAyer has the potential to be a tourist destination that gener-ates financial benefits or income to the country, in general, and to thecommunity as well as Kampong Ayer dwellers, in particular, but alsomaintain, preserve or revive the socio-cultural heritage of Kampong Ayer.
Cultural tourism is certainly a place in the hearts of would-be tour-ists and through Kampong Ayer, such type of tourism can be exploited.In a study among young travellers by Chen, Chen, and Okumus (2013),the destination image attributes which ranked high for BruneiDarussalam include the variety of unique cultural attractions, uniqueheritage, and diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture. Furtherfindings by DPPA (1996) have shown that almost 23% of foreign visitorsto Brunei Darussalam acknowledge that they do not know about thecultural traditions of the country during their visit here. As stated earli-er, with only half of foreign tourists visiting Kampong Ayer, there isroom for potential tourists to add Kampong Ayer in their list as one ofthe destinations that they will visit in Brunei Darussalam.
The challenges that have been identified in developing KampongAyer as a tourist destination, which includes the lack of tourist facil-ities and services, can be complemented by the community in Kam-pong Ayer. Local residents should be encouraged to venture intothe tourism industry. As the residents themselves are more familiarwith their strengths and opportunities, as well as their weaknesses
and threats, they are in a better position to shape and offer the prod-ucts and services suitable for the tourists. Thus, there is potential forthe Kampong Ayer residents to provide transportation and guide ser-vices for the tourists in Kampong Ayer. Career in the travel industrycan provide an opportunity to earn a living and help reduce the un-employment rate in the country. WTTC (2004) estimates that therate of employment in the travel and tourism sector in BruneiDarussalam is 1 in every 8.9 jobs.
According to DPPA (1996), spending by foreign visitors in BruneiDarussalam is concentrated on accommodation and daily necessi-ties, thus suggesting that the activity of shopping is minimal. Thisdoes not mean that the visitors are not interested to spend theirmoney in purchasing items such as handicrafts and clothing. Thesouvenir manufacturing sector can be developed in the country toprovide souvenir items for the tourists.
By involving the local community in the tourism development inKampong Ayer through exhibitions, dance and cultural performances,and cuisine, this will appeal to the people of Kampong Ayer to identifyand understand their culture and tradition that have not been practised.Indirectly, this activity will revive and thus preserve their culturalvalues. This was demonstrated in a study of tourism development inMerimbun Heritage Park, an ecotourism site in Brunei Darussalam,where locals have been involved in traditional activities such as weav-ing. This has led to providing a livelihood to those who do not have afixed job including mothers and the elderly (Ahmad, 2011). Becausethe activity of weaving was never practised by the young or was lesspractised by the elderly, those who are now involved in these activitiesare not only of the opinion that weaving can produce woven materialsfor sale to tourists, but also at the same time, it is reviving a local tradi-tion that was once abandoned. Weaving activity also appears to havesucceeded in generating awareness particularly among the youth ofthe community. With the involvement of young people, it will ensurethat the traditional skills will not disappear, and thus, will continue tobe inherited by future generations.
In addition, the interaction between tourists and local communitieswill enable knowledge sharing and learning about the elements of cul-ture of the destination. For example, by encouraging tourist involve-ment in cultural activities like cooking Malay dishes and cakes,weaving mats or baskets, wearing traditional Malay costumes, singingsongs and performing Malay dance, or catching fish using traditionalfishing gears, the tourists will know and be able to find out moreabout the culture of Malay inhabitants in Kampong Ayer. Tourists willalso be able to appreciate the local culture, while the community inKampong Ayer will gain satisfaction in providing and sharing their cus-toms and traditions to others.
5. Conclusion
Kampong Ayer is well known as an attractive tourist destination forvisitors to Brunei Darussalam. Kampong Ayer offers the charmof culture,history, traditions, customs, belief and life of the country that is unique tothe Malay community. However, pollution from indiscriminate disposalof waste, fire hazards, crime, loss of authenticity, lack of information,and lack of facilities and tourist services in Kampong Ayer are several fac-tors that can affect and challenge the progress of Kampong Ayer as atourist destination. At the same time, these factors can lead to problemsof cultural resistance or continuity of life and in particular the identity ofthe Brunei Malay community in Kampong Ayer.
The heritage of Kampong Ayer needs to be preserved. The authori-ties need to continue to improve the quality of life in Kampong Ayerin order to encourage the inhabitants to stay living in Kampong Ayer.As a national heritage, Kampong Ayer needs to be protected against amore dynamic and sophisticated development. To make it as a modelof development of a modern city, it is timely to invest in KampongAyer's potential as a tourist destination with infrastructure, facilitiesand services that meet the needs of travellers.
Fig. A1. Kampong Ayer houses next to the majestic Sultan Omar ‘Ali Saifuddien Mosque in the capital city, Bandar Seri Begawan.
Appendix A. Pictures of Kampong Ayer
Fig. A2. A row of residential houses along the bank of Brunei River.
110 A. Ahmad / Tourism Management Perspectives 8 (2013) 106–113
Fig. A3. View of Kampong Ayer during low-tide.
Fig. A4. Modern uniform houses recently built in Kampong Ayer.
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Fig. A5. A foreign tourist walks along the raised wooden boardwalk that link every house in Kampong Ayer.
Fig. A6. Solid wastes visible along the banks of Brunei River, especially during low-tide.
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Azman Ahmad is currently Vice President or AssistantVice-Chancellor for Academic Affairs at Universiti BruneiDarussalam (UBD). He is also an Associate Professor atthe Faculty of Business, Economics and Policy Studiesand the Sultan Omar ‘Ali Saifuddien Centre for IslamicStudies in UBD. His teaching and research interests in-clude environmental management, natural resource con-servation, tourism and sustainable development, Islamand the environment, and Islamic tourism.
