The Cultural ‘Turn’ in Modern The Cultural ‘Turn’ in Modern Sociology Sociology A) A) Parsons’ Parsons’ ‘Cybernetic Hierarchy’: ‘Cybernetic Hierarchy’: A A daptation→ daptation→ G G oal oal attainment→ attainment→ I I ntegration→ ntegration→ L L atency atency (modernisation = movement from from (modernisation = movement from from high ‘energy’ (economy) to high high ‘energy’ (economy) to high ‘information’ (culture) ‘information’ (culture) B) B) Elias Elias modernisation as process of modernisation as process of cultural civilisation re manners, cultural civilisation re manners, etiquette, self-control etiquette, self-control C) C) Western Marxism Western Marxism modernity as modernity as
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The Cultural ‘Turn’ in Modern SociologyThe Cultural ‘Turn’ in Modern Sociology
A) A) Parsons’Parsons’ ‘Cybernetic Hierarchy’:‘Cybernetic Hierarchy’: AAdaptation→daptation→GGoal attainment→oal attainment→IIntegration→ntegration→LLatencyatency(modernisation = movement from from high ‘energy’ (modernisation = movement from from high ‘energy’ (economy) to high ‘information’ (culture)(economy) to high ‘information’ (culture)
B) B) EliasElias modernisation as process of cultural modernisation as process of cultural civilisation re manners, etiquette, self-controlcivilisation re manners, etiquette, self-control
C) C) Western MarxismWestern Marxism modernity as transition from modernity as transition from ‘physical’ to ‘cultural’ class control (‘hegemony’) ‘physical’ to ‘cultural’ class control (‘hegemony’)
Foucault SummaryFoucault Summary
1.1. The centrality of ‘Knowledge’ & ‘Power’The centrality of ‘Knowledge’ & ‘Power’a)a) ‘‘Archaeology’ of KnowledgeArchaeology’ of Knowledge
b)b) ‘‘Genealogy’ of KnowledgeGenealogy’ of Knowledge
2.2. From ‘necessary knowledge’ to ‘relativism’From ‘necessary knowledge’ to ‘relativism’
3.3. Deconstruction of truth claimsDeconstruction of truth claims
4.4. The role of social scienceThe role of social sciencea)a) instrument of ‘power’instrument of ‘power’
b)b) subverter of ‘power’subverter of ‘power’
5.5. Resistance to powerResistance to power
6.6. Goal Goal → → de-centring the ‘self-disciplining’ subject de-centring the ‘self-disciplining’ subject
Contrasting views of Western RationalityContrasting views of Western Rationality
A.A. Enlightenment Enlightenment – (– (Kant, Voltaire, Diderot, Kant, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau Condorcet, Rousseau Condorcet, MarxMarx etc) etc) rational rational critique of received knowledge as means to critique of received knowledge as means to human freedom/emancipation.human freedom/emancipation.
B.B. WeberWeber – – application of rational calculation application of rational calculation restricts human freedom re Iron Cage restricts human freedom re Iron Cage (Technocracy = rule or control by technical (Technocracy = rule or control by technical experts)experts)Source: Source: Collins Concise Oxford DictionaryCollins Concise Oxford Dictionary
[The] archaeological level -- the level of what [The] archaeological level -- the level of what made [an event or a situation] possible.made [an event or a situation] possible.
Source: Foucault Source: Foucault The Order of ThingsThe Order of Things, p.31 , p.31
Goal of Archaeology of KnowledgeGoal of Archaeology of Knowledge
(exposing/uncovering) (exposing/uncovering) Grand NarrativesGrand Narratives
Stories/ways of thinking that seek to give Stories/ways of thinking that seek to give meaning to the whole of human existence (re meaning to the whole of human existence (re ‘myths‘myths’) ’) and that typically exclude other ‘stories’and that typically exclude other ‘stories’
Source: MeSource: Me
‘‘Progress’ as a myth of the age of EnlightenmentProgress’ as a myth of the age of Enlightenment
The Social Organisation of KnowledgeThe Social Organisation of Knowledge 1 1
DiscourseDiscourse
(linguistic) practice obeying certain rules.(linguistic) practice obeying certain rules.
Source: Foucault Source: Foucault Archaeology of KnowledgeArchaeology of Knowledge, 138 , 138
The Social Organisation of KnowledgeThe Social Organisation of Knowledge 2 2
EpistemesEpistemes
the total set of relations that unite, at a given the total set of relations that unite, at a given period, the discursive practices that give rise to period, the discursive practices that give rise to epistemological figures, sciences and possible epistemological figures, sciences and possible formalised systems for knowledgeformalised systems for knowledge
Source: Foucault Source: Foucault The Order of ThingsThe Order of Things
i.e. a general way of thinking accepted within a i.e. a general way of thinking accepted within a particular society or setting (re also particular society or setting (re also Berger & Berger & LuckmanLuckman on ‘of course’ statements) on ‘of course’ statements)
Source: Me Source: Me
Goal of Archaeology of KnowledgeGoal of Archaeology of Knowledge
RelativismRelativismany theory holding that truth…is not universal or any theory holding that truth…is not universal or absolute but may differ between individuals and absolute but may differ between individuals and cultures.cultures.
RelativisationRelativisationThe strategy of explaining the existence and The strategy of explaining the existence and authority of an idea or set of ideas by presenting it authority of an idea or set of ideas by presenting it as the outcome of social/psychological processes as the outcome of social/psychological processes located in a particular time and place.located in a particular time and place.
Source: MeSource: Me
Foucault’s MethodFoucault’s Method 2 2
Genealogy of KnowledgeGenealogy of KnowledgeGenealogy: Descent traced continuously Genealogy: Descent traced continuously from an ancestorfrom an ancestor
The genealogy (of knowledge) explores what The genealogy (of knowledge) explores what was not evident because of the was not evident because of the institutionalization of knowledge by those in institutionalization of knowledge by those in powerpower..
Source: ShawverSource: Shawver Dictionary for the Study of the Works of Dictionary for the Study of the Works of Michel FoucaultMichel Foucault (internet source) (internet source)
Power, Truth and Sociological AnalysisPower, Truth and Sociological Analysis
Foucault’s challenge to the Enlightenment traditionFoucault’s challenge to the Enlightenment tradition
PowerPowerCapacity to exercise control over another’s actions Capacity to exercise control over another’s actions which would otherwise have been differentwhich would otherwise have been different
Adapted from FoucaultAdapted from Foucault
TruthTruthWe are subject to the production of truth through We are subject to the production of truth through power and we cannot exercise power except through power and we cannot exercise power except through the production of truththe production of truth
Interpreting Truth Claims Interpreting Truth Claims
DeconstructionDeconstructionOriginally an approach in linguisticsOriginally an approach in linguistics (re (re DerridaDerrida). ). In Sociology it is typically seen as an In Sociology it is typically seen as an approach to social interpretation that regards approach to social interpretation that regards the ‘meaning’ of actions and objects as un-the ‘meaning’ of actions and objects as un-fixed, variable and revisable. The typical goal fixed, variable and revisable. The typical goal of deconstruction is to show how seemingly of deconstruction is to show how seemingly ‘fixed’ meanings have been socially ‘fixed’ meanings have been socially constructedconstructed. . For Foucault this means ‘constructed’ For Foucault this means ‘constructed’ through the exercise of powerthrough the exercise of power
Source: MeSource: Me
Power & ModernityPower & Modernity 11
1. 1. SovereignSovereign – – public demonstration of power on public demonstration of power on body body of miscreant e.g. tortureof miscreant e.g. torture
2. 2. DisciplinaryDisciplinary – – reformation of reformation of charactercharacter of of deviant through confinement e.g. penitentiary deviant through confinement e.g. penitentiary
““A form of surveillance which is internalized. With A form of surveillance which is internalized. With disciplinary power, each person disciplines him or disciplinary power, each person disciplines him or herself. Disciplinary power is also one of the poles of herself. Disciplinary power is also one of the poles of bio-powerbio-power. The basic goal of disciplinary power is to . The basic goal of disciplinary power is to produce a person who is docile”. produce a person who is docile”.
Source: Dreyfus, H. L. & Rabinow, P. Source: Dreyfus, H. L. & Rabinow, P. Michel Foucault: Michel Foucault: beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics 134-135134-135
Sovereign & Penitentiary PowerSovereign & Penitentiary Power
3.3. Bio(graphical?)Bio(graphical?) – –accumulation of personal knowledge accumulation of personal knowledge on citizens and consumers e.g. datafiles.on citizens and consumers e.g. datafiles.““The increasing state concern with the biological well-being The increasing state concern with the biological well-being of the population including disease control and prevention, of the population including disease control and prevention, adequate food and water supply, sanitary shelter, and adequate food and water supply, sanitary shelter, and education”.education”. Foucault Foucault Discipline and punish Discipline and punish 170170
4. 4. PastoralPastoralThe kind of power that is exercised by the Church. It rests on The kind of power that is exercised by the Church. It rests on the church's power to assure individual salvation in the next the church's power to assure individual salvation in the next world. It is linked with the notion of individualism (as in world. It is linked with the notion of individualism (as in individual salvation). individual salvation). In modern times, the salvation in the In modern times, the salvation in the next life has been commuted to a salvation in this life next life has been commuted to a salvation in this life (health, wellbeing, security, etc.)(health, wellbeing, security, etc.) Foucault, in Dreyfus, H. L. & Foucault, in Dreyfus, H. L. & Rabinow, P. (1982). Rabinow, P. (1982). Michel Foucault: beyond Structuralism and Michel Foucault: beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics Hermeneutics 213-215 (emphasis added) 213-215 (emphasis added)
Bio(graphical) and Pastoral powerBio(graphical) and Pastoral power
We'd like to know a little We'd like to know a little bit about you for our files bit about you for our files We'd like to help you learn We'd like to help you learn to help yourself to help yourself Look around you, all you Look around you, all you see are sympathetic eyes see are sympathetic eyes Stroll around the grounds Stroll around the grounds until you feel at homeuntil you feel at home
Paul Simon ‘Mrs Robinson’Paul Simon ‘Mrs Robinson’
Power and ModernityPower and Modernity 2 2
Sovereign→: Disciplinary→: BioSovereign→: Disciplinary→: Bio
In the old days the heretic walked to the stake still a In the old days the heretic walked to the stake still a heretic, proclaiming his heresy, exulting in it. Even the heretic, proclaiming his heresy, exulting in it. Even the victim of the Russian purges could carry rebellion victim of the Russian purges could carry rebellion locked up in his skull as he walked down the passage locked up in his skull as he walked down the passage waiting for the bullet. But we make the brain perfect waiting for the bullet. But we make the brain perfect before we blow it outbefore we blow it out..
The long-hoped-for bullet was entering his brain….He The long-hoped-for bullet was entering his brain….He had won the victory over himself. He loved Big Brotherhad won the victory over himself. He loved Big Brother..
Source: George Orwell Source: George Orwell 19841984
Foucault’s metaphor for modernityFoucault’s metaphor for modernity
PANOPTICON;PANOPTICON; the total surveillance prison the total surveillance prison
PanopticPanoptic: : taking in all parts, aspects in a single view, all-taking in all parts, aspects in a single view, all-embracingembracing [from Greek [from Greek panoptespanoptes ‘seeing everything’] ‘seeing everything’]The Panopticon…allows seeing without being seen. The Panopticon…allows seeing without being seen. ‘Such ‘Such asymmetry of seeing-without-being-seen is, in fact, the very asymmetry of seeing-without-being-seen is, in fact, the very essence of power for Foucault because, ultimately, the power to essence of power for Foucault because, ultimately, the power to dominate rests on the differential possession of knowledge’.dominate rests on the differential possession of knowledge’.‘‘According to Foucault, the new visibility or surveillance According to Foucault, the new visibility or surveillance afforded by the Panopticon was of two types: the afforded by the Panopticon was of two types: the synopticsynoptic and and the the analyticanalytic. The Panopticon, in other words, was designed to . The Panopticon, in other words, was designed to ensure a ‘surveillance whichensure a ‘surveillance which would be both global and would be both global and individualizing’individualizing’
Source: Barton & Barton Source: Barton & Barton Modes of PowerModes of Power 139-141 (emphasis in the original) 139-141 (emphasis in the original)
A PanopticonA Panopticon
ExpertiseExpertise
DurkheimDurkheim Product of the division of labour and Product of the division of labour and potential source of social solidaritypotential source of social solidarity
WeberWeber The status of professionals who carry the The status of professionals who carry the modern sense of vocationmodern sense of vocation
Foucault Foucault The claim to power of engineers of the The claim to power of engineers of the soul, exercised through the power of the gazesoul, exercised through the power of the gaze
Power, Knowledge and Self –Hood in ModernityPower, Knowledge and Self –Hood in Modernity
The Self in Modern SociologyThe Self in Modern Sociology
ParsonsParsons selves as ‘role performers’ re selves as ‘role performers’ re socialisationsocialisation
EliasElias selves as ‘pacified’ re selves as ‘pacified’ re ‘civilising process’‘civilising process’
Western MarxismWestern Marxism selves as ‘incorporated’ re selves as ‘incorporated’ re ideological hegemonyideological hegemony
FoucaultFoucault selves as ‘self-disciplining’ subjectsselves as ‘self-disciplining’ subjects (the ambiguity of this last term is intentional)(the ambiguity of this last term is intentional)
The Narcissistic (self-regarding) SelfThe Narcissistic (self-regarding) Self
NarcissismNarcissism
the culture of narcissism ...(which uses)the culture of narcissism ...(which uses) a a therapeutic jargon that celebrates not so therapeutic jargon that celebrates not so much individualism as solipsism, justifying much individualism as solipsism, justifying self-absorption as ‘authenticity’ and self-absorption as ‘authenticity’ and ‘awareness’‘awareness’
Source: C. Lasch Source: C. Lasch The culture of narcissismThe culture of narcissism 218 218
Power & ResistancePower & Resistance
Power = PotentialPower = Potential
(electrical) Resistance(electrical) Resistance
(physics) (physics) property of hindering passage of property of hindering passage of electrical current, heat etcelectrical current, heat etc
The potential to resist is powerThe potential to resist is power
Negative power is Negative power is power that says no…. there power that says no…. there are no relations of power without resistanceare no relations of power without resistance
naive knowledges, located low down on the naive knowledges, located low down on the hierarchy, beneath the required level of hierarchy, beneath the required level of cognition or scientificitycognition or scientificity Foucault in Gordeon C (ed) Foucault in Gordeon C (ed)
Power/KnowledgePower/Knowledge 82 82
The goal of critique is to make these The goal of critique is to make these available, not to endorse themavailable, not to endorse them
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