Laconian black figure cup by Arkesilas painter c. 550 BC, Atlas to the west and Prometheus to the east on a column representing the world as conceived by Anaximander

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The 'cup of Nestor' from Pithekoussai,Ischia, c. 720 BC

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Late Geometric I oinochoe from the Dipylon cemetery,

Athens c. 740 BC. Inscribed: “He who of all the dancers

now performs most lightly . . .[shall have me]

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Gortyn, Crete, early 5th century BC

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Law code inscribed at Gortyn, Crete, Greece,

5th century BC.

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Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570-c. 475 B.C.)

Now Xenophanes holds that the earth is recurrently mingled with the sea and then as time passes is freed again of moisture. He puts forth such proofs as these: that shells are found far inland and on mountains; and that in the quarries of Syracuse imprints of a fish and of seaweed have been found, and in Paros the imprint of a small fry deep in the stone, and in Malta flat slabs [bearing the impressions] of all sorts of fish. He says that the imprint, made long ago when everything was covered with mud, then dried in the mud.

Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies I. 14.5-6

Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570-c. 475 BC)

The gods did not reveal, from the beginning,All things to us; but in the course of time,Through seeking we may learn and know things better.But as for certain truth, no man has known it,Nor will he know it, neither of the gods,Nor yet of all things of which I speak.And even if by chance he were to utterThe perfect truth, he would himself not know it—For all is but a woven web of guesses.

• Alphabetic literacy opens knowledge claims to inspection, comparison, and criticism. Public display of laws, written by men not revealed by gods, presumes that the public can read.

• Contact with Eastern cultures: Babylonian astronomical data and number systems inspire Thales; Egyptian papyrus allows more efficient writing.

• Breakdown of aristocratic society: a period of transition with no religious establishment to enforce dogma. Tyranny can be a step toward democracy.

• Prosperity and leisure allow public discussion and travel. Xenonphanes collects observations from diverse locations.

• Competitive style of Greek intellectual life: from the rules of discussion logic begins to develop. Herodotus compares theories on the rise of the Nile.