i
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE
(An Experimental Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English
Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
A THESIS
Submitted as a Final Fulfillment of the Requirement
for Getting the Master Degree of Education in English
By: NINA AFRIDA
S8909082013
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTEMENT
GRADUATE SCHOOL
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
2010
ii
ABSTRACT
Nina Afrida, S890908013. 2010. The Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching to
Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Intelligence (An Experimental Study at the
Fourth Semester Students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala
Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Year). Thesis. Surakarta. English Education Department, Graduate School. Sebelas Maret University.
This research is aimed at finding out whether: (1) reciprocal teaching
model is more effective than direct instructional model to teach reading; (2)
students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those who have
low intelligence; (3) there is an interaction effect between teaching models and students’ intelligence on the students’ reading skill.
This research is an experimental research. The population is the fourth
semester of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa in the
2009/2010 academic year. It consists of 166 students. Cluster random sampling is
used to get the sample. The sample used in this research is 40 students of the English Department 3 as the experimental class and 40 students of the English
Department 1 as the control class. The techniques of collecting data in this
research are tests (reading test and intelligence test). Before the reading test is
used, a tryout is done to know the validity and reliability. The techniques of
analyzing the data are descriptive statistics in looking for mean, standard deviation, mode, median, and inferential analysis. The researcher uses normality
test adopting Lilliefors and homogeneity testing adopting chi-square (X) test. The
data are analyzed using ANOVA 2x2 or F-test. To know which teaching model is
more effective and which group is better, the Tukey’s test is used. The critical
value used in this test is α=0.05. Based on the result of this research, the findings are: (1) reciprocal
teaching model is more effective than direct Instructional model to teach reading;
(2) the students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those
who have low intelligence; (3) there is an interaction effect between teaching
models and students’ intelligence in terms of the students’ reading skill.
Referring to the findings above, it can be concluded that reciprocal
teaching model is a very effective model for teaching reading to the fourth
semester students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala
Langsa. Therefore, it is suggested that: (1) it is better for teacher to apply
reciprocal teaching model in instructional process; (2) the students must be aware of the importance of active involvement in teaching learning process; and (3) for
the other researchers who would like to conduct future research of the same kind
with different sample and different students’ condition, this result of study can
become reference.
iii
APPROVAL
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING
MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’
INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English
Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
By:
Nina Afrida
S8909082013
This thesis has been approved to be examined by the Board of Thesis examiners
of the English Department, Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University,
Surakarta on: 26 July 2010
Consultant I Consultant II
Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd. Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd.
NIP. 196 212311988031009 NIP. 195203071980031005
Approved by
The Head of the English Education Department of Graduate School
Sebelas Maret University Surakarta
Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd NIP. 196 212311988031009
iv
THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING
MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’
INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English
Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
This thesis has been examined by the board of thesis examiners on: July 26th,
2010
The Board of Thesis Examiners:
Name Signature Date
The Chairman Dr. Sujoko, M. A July 26th
, 2010
NIP 195109121980031002
Secretary Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd. July 26th
, 2010
NIP 196101241987021001
Member 1 Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd July 26th, 2010
NIP 196212311988031009
Member 2 Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd. July 26th, 2010
NIP 195203071980031005
The Director of Graduate Program The Head of English Education
Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Suranto, M. Sc. Ph. D Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd
NIP. 195708201985031004 NIP. 196 212311988031009
v
PRONOUNCEMENT
I write this thesis by myself, entitled “The Effectiveness of Reciprocal
Teaching Model to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Intelligence (An
Experimental Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English Department of
STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Year). It is not
plagiarism. In this thesis, the others’ works and opinions have been listed on the
bibliography.
I will accept the academic punishment, if this pronouncement is proven
wrong.
Surakarta, 2010
Nina Afrida
S8909082013
vi
ACKNOWLEDMENT
First, the writer says thank is to Allah who has provided health and ability so
that she can finish this thesis well. This thesis entitled “THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING MODEL TO TEACH
READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental
Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English Department of STAIN
Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Year)” is written to fulfill
one of the requirement for getting Master Degree of Education in English.
Writing this thesis is not easy; the writer has encountered many problems and
obstacles to overcome it, and she exactly needs many helps from other people.
Therefore, she tries to do her best.
1. Thank is due to the Director of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University.
2. The writer is fully indebted to the Head of the English Department and all of
the staffs who have served her.
3. Thank is also due to Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd as consultant I and Dr. Abdul Asib,
M.Pd as consultant II who have given guidance and suggestion from the
beginning up to the end.
4. Thank is to the Head of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa and his staffs who
have given her permission to conduct research at the college.
5. Her special thank is to all of her boarding house friends at Putri Ayu (PA), and
her earnest thank is to Dyah, Destia, Septi, Endah, and Dian. And thank is to
her friends in the English Department A and B, especially Muzam, mbak
Hani, Umi, Angel. And she doesn’t forget to express a lot of thank is to Dini,
Evy, and Khaidir.
6. At last, the writer wishes to express the greatest appreciation to her beloved
parents, Rusli Rus and Alm. Siti Zulaiha, and to her sisters, Rusmayani and
Mauli Husna. And is also to Hj. Rosmidah as her mother in law. They always
give support and motivation.
7. She expresses sincere gratitude to someone special (Farid Wajidi) who is
always willing to assist the writer in all activities.
vii
Finally, the researcher realizes that this thesis is not perfect yet, so she always
expects criticism from any readers to make this thesis perfect. Then, the
researcher hopes that this research can give contributions to the development of
education in Indonesia.
Surakarta, 2010
Nina Afrida
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LIST OF CONTENTS
TITLE…………………………………………………………………………… i
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………... ii
APPROVAL……………………………………………………………………... iii
BOARD OF EXAMINERS……………………………………………………… iv
PRONOUNCEMENT…………………………………………………………… v
MOTTO……………………………………………………………..…………… vi
ACKNOWLEDMENT…………………………………………………………... vii
LIST OF CONTENTS…….……………………………………………….…….. ix
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………….. xi
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………… xii
LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………………… xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………..…..………………………………… 1
A. Background of the Study…..………………………………... 1
B. Identification of the Problem….…………………………….. 4
C. Problem Limitation………………………………………….. 5
D. Problem Statement…………………………………………... 5
E. Objective of the Study……………………………………..... 6
F. Benefit of the Study………………………………..………… 6
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8
A. Reading..…………………………………………………….. 8
1. Definition of Reading……………………………………. 8
2. Skill for Reading Comprehension….................................. 9
3. Reading Purpose………………………………………… 14
4. Type of Classroom Reading Performance..……………... 15
Pages
x
5. Model of Reading………………………………………... 17
B. Reciprocal Teaching Model...……………………………….. 18
1. Basic Strategy of Reciprocal Teaching…………………..
2. Stage of Reciprocal Teaching…………………………….
19
20
3. Reciprocal Teaching Guidelines…...……………………..
4. Benefit of Reciprocal Teaching………………………….
23
24
C. Direct Instructional Model…………………………………... 25
D. Intelligence…………………………………………………... 28
1. Definition of Intelligence….……………………………... 28
2. Factor of Intelligence…………………………………….. 29
3. Theory and Type of Intelligence…………………………. 30
E. Rationale …………………………………………………….. 36
F. Hypothesis…………………………………………………… 40
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 41
A. Place and Time of the Study...………………………………. 41
B. Research Method…….....……………………………………. 41
C. Population, Sample, and Sampling………………………….. 43
D. Technique of Collecting Data……………………………….. 44
E. Technique of Analyzing Data………………………………... 47
CHAPTER IV THE RESULT OF STUDY
A. Description of Study…………………………………………. 51
B. Normality and Homogeneity………………………………… 63
C. Data Analyzing………………………………………………. 67
D. Discussion……………………………………………………. 72
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion................................................................................ 77
B. Implication................................................................................ 77
C. Suggestion................................................................................ 78
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………… 80
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………….. 83
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Factorial Design.………………………………………………………... 43
Table 2. Factorial Design 2x2……………………………………………………. 47
Table 3. Frequency Distribution of Data A1B1…………………………………... 52
Table 4. Frequency Distribution of Data A2B1…………………………………... 54
Table 5. Frequency Distribution of Data A1B2….……………………………….. 55
Table 6. Frequency Distribution of Data A2B2……………………….………….. 56
Table 7. Frequency Distribution of Data A1………….………………………….. 57
Table 8. Frequency Distribution of Data A2…….……………………………….. 58
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of Data B1…………….……………………….. 61
Table 10. Frequency Distribution of Data B2……………………...…………….. 62
Table 11. The Normality Test………………………………..………………….. 66
Table 12. The Homogeneity Test...……………………………………………… 66
Table 13. Multifactor Analysis of Variance…………………………...………… 67
Table 14. Tukey Test …………………………….………………..…………….. 69
Pages
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Types of Classroom Reading Performance…………………………… 16
Figure 2. Reading Style and Reason for Reading……………………………….. 16
Figure 3. Stages of Reciprocal Teaching Model………………………………… 22
Figure 4. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B1………………………………… 53
Figure 5. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B1………………………………… 54
Figure 6. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B2………………………………… 55
Figure 7. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B2………………………………… 56
Figure 8. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1…………………………………… 57
Figure 9. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2…………………………………… 58
Figure 10. Histogram and Polygon of Data B1………..………………………… 61
Figure 11. Histogram and Polygon of Data B2…………………..……………… 63
Pages
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Lesson Plan………………………………………………………… 83
Appendix 2. Blue Print of Reading Test (tryout test)……...…………………..… 143
Appendix 3. Instrument of Reading Test (tryout test)…………………………… 144
Appendix 4. The Validity Test……………...…………………………………… 161
Appendix 5. The Reliability Test………………………………………………... 183
Appendix 6. Blue Print of Reading Test……………………….………………... 184
Appendix 7. Instrument of Reading Test……………….……………………….. 185
Appendix 8. Scores of Reading Test……………………………………………. 197
Appendix 9. Scores of Intelligence Test …...…………………………………… 198
Appendix 10. Descriptive Statistics…………………………...………………… 202
Appendix 11. Normality Test…………………………………………………… 210
Appendix 12. Homogeneity Test……………………………………………….. 216
Appendix 13. Two Ways Analysis of Variance…………………………………. 218
Appendix 14. Tukey HSD Test………..………………………………………... 221
Pages
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Language is systematic. Language is a set of arbitrary symbol.
Language is used for communication (Brown, 2000: 5). Think about the
importance of language in our everyday life. Language is needed to speak
to others, listen to others, read, and write. Our language enables us to
describe past event in detail and plan for the future. Language lets us pass
down information for one generation to the next. One of the languages that
is acceptable and spread in the world is English language. English is called
as International language or Lingua Franca. It is used to help people to
communicate in doing their daily activities such as education, politic,
trading, etc.
English is regarded as a foreign language in Indonesia. It is a
compulsory subject taught from junior high school up to university. There
are four major skills which are important to be learnt in learning English,
they are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Reading and listening
are said to be passive or receptive skills, while writing and speaking are
said to be active and productive skills.
In university, reading skill is very important . Reading remains the most
accessible for the satisfaction of the varied needs of many people
(Robinson, 1975: 10). It will give much information that is useful for life.
2
Harmer (1998: 68) says that many of the students want to be able to read
texts in English either for their careers, for study purposes or for simply
pleasure. By reading the students can get and become familiar with the
new grammar and can widen their vocabularies. Nunan (2003: 69) says
that for most of these learners it is the most important skill to master in
order to ensure success not only in learning English, but also in learning
any content subject where reading is required. In short, with the
strengthened reading skill, learners will make greater progress and
development in all order areas of learning.
Based on preliminary study, many students of university have
difficulties to know the words in the text and they have low understanding
of the message from the text. Probably the students know the words but
they don’t know the meaning of the text . Some students know the meaning
of the words or vocabularies of the text but they cannot get the message of
the text. And there are some students who don’t know the meaning of the
text at all. It can be seen from their mistakes when the teacher/lecturer asks
them to read, to translate, and to comprehend the texts. And it also can be
seen from the result of tests, their result is still low.
The teacher models to teach reading is one of factors in this case. The
teacher of reading must have a variety of approaches. There are many
approaches and models to teach reading, one of them is reciprocal
teaching. Reciprocal teaching has two major features: (1) instruction and
practice of the four comprehension strategies—predicting, question
3
generating, clarifying, and summarizing; and (2) a special kind of
cognitive apprenticeship where students gradually learn to assume the role
of teacher in helping their peers construct meaning from text, it is said by
Alverman and Phelps (http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/612/
reading/Reading%20strategies/reciprocal%20teaching.htm). It is designed
as a discussion technique and built on the cooperative nature of learning
that causes the student’s reading comprehension of the text to be deeper
through social interaction.
But, many teachers still use ―Direct Instructional Model‖ to teach
reading. In this model, the activity is teacher-centered and the students
lack of opportunities in the class. They just become the followers and
depend on the teacher during the teaching and learning process. Usually,
the teacher asks the students to read the text, asks the difficult word, and
then asks the students to translate the text.
Methods that are used by the teacher in teaching material have
important role to improve the students’ ability in learning the material,
especially in teaching reading.
The other things that can influence the students’ reading skill come
from other factor besides teacher’s model. It is the students’ intelligence.
Deboer (1966: 131) says that background experience, interest, and native
intelligence may also play a part in determining how many and which
individual words a reader may miss and still have high comprehension.
The students’ intelligence has the crucial thing to improve the students’
4
reading skill. Deboer (1966: 132) states there is a substantial correlation
between intelligence and reading ability. It is true that a child who is
intelligent enough to go to school is intelligent enough to learn to read
simple materials. It means that the students who have high intelligence
will have high ability in understanding a text, while the students’ who
have low level of intelligence will have low ability in understanding a text.
To solve the problem above, the researcher uses the reciprocal
teaching in teaching reading on the consideration that it can facilitate the
teacher to arouse the students’ attention and improve the students’ reading
skill. She considers students’ intelligence (high or low) to know whether
reciprocal teaching model is suitable for students who have high
intelligence or low intelligence, and to know whether direct instructional
model is suitable for students who have high intelligence or low
intelligence.
In this study, the researcher is interested in conducting an
experimental research entitled: ―The Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching
Model to Teach Reading Viewed from the Students’ Intelligence‖
B. Identification of the Problem
The problems can be identified as follows:
1. Why do the students have difficulties to understand the text?
2. What factors cause low understanding of texts?
3. Is reciprocal teaching effective to teach reading?
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4. Does the students’ intelligence influence their reading skill?
5. Is there any interaction between intelligence and teaching model to
teach reading?
C. Problem Limitation
It is impossible for the writer to investigate all identified problems
above, therefore, the writer limits the problems of the research which are
supposed to influence the students’ reading skill, namely: the models used
by the teacher (reciprocal teaching and direct instructional model) and the
students’ intelligence
D. Problem Statement
This research focuses on the problems formulated as follows:
1. Is reciprocal teaching model more effective than direct instructional
model to teach reading?
2. Do students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than
those who have low intelligence?
3. Is there any interaction effect between teaching model and students’
intelligence on the students’ reading skill?
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E. Objective of the Study
This research is aimed at finding out the influences of the teaching
model and the students’ intelligence on the students’ reading skill. In
detail, this research has the objectives to find out whether:
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instruction
model to teach reading.
2. Students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than
those who have low intelligence.
3. There is an interaction effect between teaching model and students’
intelligence on the students’ reading skill.
F. Benefit of the Study
1. For the teachers/lecturers
The writer expects that this study will give contribution to other
teacher/lecturer to use an alternative model and strategy in teaching
and learning process. Reciprocal teaching is the technique to
comprehend the text. This model can improve the students’ reading
skill.
2. For the students
By applying reciprocal teaching model to teach reading, it can
motivate students to improve their reading skill. If intelligence plays
extremely important role for the students’ reading comprehension, it is
the urgent thing in the teaching learning process to support the
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students’ reading skill. The results of the research can also the
interaction between teaching model and students’ intelligence in terms
of reading comprehension. If there is an interaction, it necessary to
contemplate the use of reciprocal teaching model, which is acceptable
for the students who have high intelligence or those who have low
intelligence.
3. For researchers
For the other researchers who would like to conduct further research at
the same subject, the result of this research can help them and can be
reference.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer describes theoretical description
underlying the research, rationale, and hypothesis.
A. Reading
1. Definition of Reading
Reading is the most important activity in the language class. It is
not only as the source of information but also as a means of extending
knowledge of the language. William (1984: 2) says reading has received
increasing attention in recent year.
There are many definitions of reading, William (1996: 2) defines
reading as a process whereby one looks and understands what has been
written. It is meant that reading is process of obtaining meaning from
written text.
According to Adams (1990: 1974) reading is acquisition of the
multiple acts, skills, and knowledge that enable individuals to
comprehend the meaning of text. Nunan (1989: 32) states that reading is
a process of decoding written symbol, working from smaller units
(individual letter) to larger ones (words, clauses and sentences). In other
word, it is process of understanding the meaning of written forms.
Other definition come from Schoenbach, et al.
(http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/download/nwp_file/380/WhatisReadinge
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xcerpt.pdf?x-r=pcfile_d) reading is a simple process of decoding (figure
out how to pronounce) each word in a text and then comprehends the
meaning of the words. It is said by Silberstain (1994: 12) that reading is
a complex information processing skill in which the reader interacts with
text in order to create meaningful discourse. According to Richards
(1997: 15) reading is what occurs when people look at a text and select
message of the written symbols in that text.
2. Skills for Reading Comprehension
According to Brown (2004: 187-188) there are two skills in
reading, micro- and macro-skills.
a. Micro-skills
1) Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and
orthographic patterns of English.
2) Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short-term
memory.
3) Processing writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the
purpose.
4) Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns
and their significance.
5) Recognizing grammatical word classes (noun, verbs, etc.)
systems (tense, agreement, and pluralisation) patterns, rules, and
elliptical forms.
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6) Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in
different grammatical forms.
7) Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role
in signalling the relationship between and among clauses.
b. Macro-skills
1) Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their
significance for interpretation.
2) Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts,
according to form and purpose.
3) Inferring context that is not explicit by using background
knowledge
4) From events, ideas, etc. infer links, and connections between
events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as
main idea, supporting idea, new information, given
information, generalization, and exemplification.
5) Distinguishing between literal and implied meaning.
6) Detecting culturally specific references and interpret them in a
context of the appropriate cultural schemata.
7) Developing and using a battery of reading strategies, such as
scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing
the meaning from context, and activating schemata for the
interpretation of texts.
11
Davis in Charles (2000: 9) defines eight skills in reading, they are:
1) Recalling word meanings
2) Drawing inferences about the meaning of a word from context
3) Finding answer to questions answered explicitly or in
paraphrase
4) Weaving together ideas in the content
5) Drawing inferences from the content
6) Recognizing a writer’s purpose, attitude, tone and mood
7) Identifying a writer’s technique
8) Following the structure of a passage
Munby in Charles (2000: 10) distinguishes the following reading
―micro-skills‖:
1) Recognizing the script of a language
2) Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items
3) Understanding explicitly stated information
4) Understanding information when is not explicitly stated
5) Understanding conceptual meaning
6) Understanding the communicative value of sentences
7) Understanding relations within sentence
8) Understanding relations between parts of the text through
lexical cohesion devices
9) Understanding cohesion between parts of the text through
grammatical cohesion devices
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10) Interpreting by going outside it
11) Recognizing indicators in discourse
12) Identifying the main point or important information in
discourse
13) Distinguishing the main point from supporting details
14) Extracting salient details to summarize (the text, an idea)
15) Extracting relevant points from a text selectively
16) Using basic reference skills
17) Skimming
18) Scanning to locate specifically required information
19) Transcoding information to diagrammatic display
In general there are two kinds of reading skill (Tarigan, 1990: 11-
12) as follows:
a. Mechanical skill, ketrampilan yang bersifat mekanis, yaitu:
1) Pengenalan bentuk huruf
2) Pengenalan unsur-unsur Linguistics (fonem, frase, kata,
kalimat,dll)
3) Pengenalan hubungan ejaan dan bunyi
4) Kecapatan membaca bertaraf lambat
b. Comprehension skill, keterampilan yang bersifat pemahaman
1) Memahami leksikal sederhana (leksikal, gramatikal, retorikal)
13
2) Memahami signifikansi atau makna (maksud dan tujuan
pengarang, reaksi pembaca, dll)
3) Evaluasi atau penilaian (isi, bentuk)
4) Kecepatan membaca yang flexible, mudah disesuaikan dengan
keadaan.
According to Anderson in Aebersold and Field (1997: 16) the
followings are skills for reading:
a. Recognizing word quickly
b. Using text features (subheadings, transitions, etc).
c. Using title (s) to infer what information might follow
d. Using word knowledge
e. Analyzing unfamiliar words
f. Identifying the grammatical functions of words
g. Reading for meaning, concentrating on constructing meaning
h. Guessing about the meaning of the text
i. Evaluating guesses and trying guesses if necessary
j. Monitoring comprehension
k. Keeping the purpose for reading the text in mind
l. Adjusting strategies to the purpose for reading
m. Identifying or inferring main ideas
n. Understanding the relationships between the parts of text
o. Distinguishing main ideas and minor ideas
14
p. Tolerating ambiguity in a text
q. Paraphrasing
r. Using context to build meaning and aid comprehension
s. Continuing reading even when unsuccessful, at least for a while.
3. Reading Purposes
Reading is a variant skill in which there are different types of
reading skills that correspond to the many different purposes we have for
reading. Rivers and Temperley in Nunan (1989: 33) suggest that the
second language learners will want to read for the following purposes:
a. To obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious
about some topic
b. To obtain instruction on how to perform some task for the work or
daily life.
c. To act in a play, play a game, do a puzzle.
d. To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand
business letter.
e. To know where on when something will take a place or what is
available.
f. To know what is happening or has happened.
g. For enjoyment or excitement.
15
4. Type of Classroom Reading Performance
According to Brown (2001: 312) there are some kinds of reading
performance, as follows:
a. Oral and silent reading.
The teacher can ask the students to read orally, at the
beginning and intermediate levels. Oral reading can serve as an
evaluative check on bottom-up processing skills, check the
students’ pronunciation, and serve to add some extra student
participation if the teacher wants to highlight a certain short
segment of reading passage.
For advance levels, oral reading has some disadvantages,
they are: oral reading is not very authentic language activity, while
one student is reading, others can easily lose attention, and it may
have the outward appearance of students participation when in
reality is mere recitation.
b. Intensive and extensive reading
Silent reading may be subcategorized into intensive and
extensive reading. Intensive reading calls students’ attention to
grammatical forms, discourse makers, and other surface structure
details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning,
implications, rhetorical relationship, and the like.
Extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general
understanding of a usually somewhat longer text such as book,
16
long article, or essay, etc. Most extensive reading is performed
outside class time and for pleasure.
Classroom reading performance
Oral S ilent
Intensive Extensive
Linguistics Content Skimming Scanning Global
Figure 1. Type of classroom reading performance
William (1996: 12) shows the diagram of reason for reading and
style of reading:
Reading
(Involuntary) Rapid Intensive Extensive
Skimming Scanning
General information Information Pleasure or interest
Figure 2. Reading style and reason for reading
In reading, there is reason for reading and there is style of reading.
Reasons for reading involve to get general information, to gain the
17
information from the text, and perhaps just for pleasure. And styles of
reading are involuntary, rapid, intensive and extensive reading. Both them
have relationship. The foreign language students’ lack knowledge of the
language often results in slow and intensive reading. In order to become an
effective reader, the students need to have appropriate texts and
appropriate tasks that allow them not only to develop their language, but
also to develop purposeful reading style.
5. Model of Reading
There are three main models of reading.
a. Bottom-up theory
It means the reader constructs the text from the smallest unit, from
letters to words to phrases to sentences, etc. and then become
automatic, readers are not aware of how it operates. Decoding is
earlier term in this process.
b. Top-down theory
It argues that the reader brings a great deal of knowledge,
expectations, assumptions, and questions to the text, and given a
basic understanding of vocabulary, they continue to read as long as
the text confirms their expectations.
c. The interactive school of theorist.
It describes a process that combines bottom-up and top-down,
depending on the type of the text as well as on the reader’s
18
background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation,
strategy use and culturally shaped beliefs about reading.
Based on the theories above, reading skill is the ability to obtain
meaning and select the massage from written text by finding reference,
identifying main ideas, finding detail information, comprehending the
meaning based on the context, identifying lexical meaning, and
understanding communicative function.
B. Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is strategy in learning process to improve reading
comprehension. According to Alverman and Phelps
(http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/612/reading/Reading%20Stra
tegies/reciprocal%20teaching.htm) reciprocal teaching has two major
features: (1) instruction and practice of the four comprehension
strategies—predicting, question generating, clarifying, and summarizing;
and (2) a special kind of cognitive apprenticeship where students gradually
learn to assume the role of teacher in help ing their peers construct meaning
from text. This model has four foundations, the foundations involve: think-
aloud, cooperative learning, scaffolding, and metacognition (Oszkus,
2005: 6)
Reciprocal teaching involves a high degree of social interaction and
collaboration, as students gradually learn to assume the role of teacher in
helping their peers construct meaning from text. In essence, reciprocal
19
teaching is an authentic activity because learning, both inside and outside
school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social
construction of knowledge
Pallinscar and Brown in Ruddell (1994: 765-767) identify four basic
strategies that help students recognize and react to signs of comprehension
breakdown: clarifying, predicting, questioning, and summarizing.
In the beginning, reciprocal teaching is demonstrated to the students
by the teacher. The teacher's role in this instructional procedure changes as
the strategies are taught to the students. The teacher starts the instruction
of each strategy as ―the sage on the stage‖ and ends up as ―the guide on the
side.‖ The teacher has to be proficient in modeling these strategies to the
students and then gradually fade away and let the students take over the
control of their learning
And then the teacher introduces the four steps: predicting,
questioning, clarifying, and summarizing. In this model, students will
work as a team. Reciprocal teaching provides chances to explore the
content to be learnt via classroom dialogue. At the centre of reciprocal
teaching are group discussions in which the teacher and the students take
turn as leader in discussing the text.
1. Basic Strategy of Reciprocal Teaching
Pallinscar and Brown in Borich (1996: 397-398) describe four basic
strategies in reciprocal teaching, as follows:
20
a. Predicting, discussion begins by generating prediction about the
content to be learned from the text, based on: its title or subheading
in the text, the group prior knowledge or information pertaining to
the topic, and experience with similar kind of information. Following
the group’s prediction about what they expect to learn from the text,
the group reads and listens to the portion of it.
b. Questioning, one individual is chosen to leads a discussion of each
portion of the text that is read. Afterward, the discussion leader asks
questions about the information. Students respond the question and
raise additional question.
c. Summarizing, the discussion leader then summarizes the text and
other students are invited to comment or elaborate on the summary.
d. Clarifying, if points in the text are unclear (e.g. concept or
vocabulary) the students are discussed until clarity is achieved. In
this case more predictions may be made and portions of the text are
reread for the text clarity.
2. Stages of Reciprocal Teaching
The following are the steps to use the reciprocal teaching model
(www.education.vic.gov.au/studentlearning/teachingresources/esl/):
a. At the beginning, teachers may want to hand out a poem or short
piece of fiction or nonfiction that he/she has annotated that models
all four strategies.
21
b. One suggestion is to start with very short pieces of literature or short
sections of a larger work (a chapter or section of a novel, biography,
etc.). This allows students to practice and hone their skills before
moving on to longer readings.
c. It is important that the role of "teacher" is rotated on a regular basis,
so that all students have a chance to be the leader of the group; this
kind of validation is an important part of the process.
Pelinscar and Brown (1984: 175) state that the teacher hands out a
passage of text to each student in the group. Each student reads the
passage and writes summarizing, clarifying, predicting questions related
to what they have read. The ―teacher‖ of the group asks one of the
questions. The ―teacher‖ is leader of the group who starts off the
questioning. One group member responds, using the text to support their
answer. The student, who answers the question, then asks a question and
the process repeats.
22
Figure 3. Stages of reciprocal teaching
Adapted from: http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~ yq6048/*
Teacher
modeling
Teacher models and explains the four
strategies: summarizing,
question generating,
clarifying, and predicting.
Students’
practice
Students practice
the four strategies and receive
feedback from the teacher.
Teacher-Student
Groups
Students’
group
Teacher leads
discussion with students in small
groups. Students take turns leading
and practicing the
strategies while getting teacher
feedback.
Students take turns leading the discussion
by using the four
strategies in small groups. The teacher
observes progress and
offers feedback.
23
3. Reciprocal Teaching Guidelines
To prepare for class discussion, the teacher will read the text and
compose questions in each of the four areas.
a. Summarizing
1) What happened?
2) What is essential to tell?
3) What is the outcome?
4) Who is involved?
5) Why does this happen?
6) What is the main point?
7) What does the author want me to remember or learn from the
passage?
b. Clarifying
1) What was confusing?
2) What words or phrases did you need more information on?
3) What strategies can you use to clarify your understanding?
c. Generating questions, write three kinds of questions:
1) Questions of fact
• Focus on details from the text.
• Ask about people, places, and things.
• Choose surface questions for others to answer.
2) Questions of interpretation
• Focus on meanings that the text communicates.
24
• Ask about symbols, themes, and underlying messages.
• Choose deeper questions for others to answer.
3) Questions that are open ended
• Focus on moving beyond the text.
• Ask about future effects and implications.
• Choose open-ended questions for others to answer.
d. Predicting
1) What will happen next?
2) Why do you think what you do?
3) What effect will events in what you have read have on the story
or the characters?
4. Benefits of Reciprocal Teaching Model
The following are benefits of reciprocal teaching model:
(www.education. vic.gov.au/studentlearning/teachingresources/esl/)
By reciprocal teaching, learners can gain an improved
understanding of complex text in content areas. This leads to:
1. Greater knowledge of the topic
2. Improved skills
3. More positive attitudes when extracting, organizing, and recording
information
4. More self-confidence and motivation to read
5. Improved leadership skills
6. Increased co-operation and greater initiative.
25
C. Direct Instructional Model
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is
among the most commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as
lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and
demonstrations.
The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing
information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works
well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students
in knowledge construction.
Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or
generalization is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this
strategy may be considered among the easier to plan and to use, it is clear
that effective direct instruction is often more complex than it would first
appear.
Direct instruction methods are widely used by teachers, particularly
in the higher grades. The predominant use of direct instruction methods
needs to be evaluated, and educators need to recognize the limitation of
these methods for developing the abilities, processes, and attitudes
required for critical thinking, and for interpersonal or group learning.
Students’ understanding of affective and higher level cognitive objectives
may require the use of instructional methods associated with other
strategies.
26
In this model the teacher becomes the decision maker. Person,
Hinson, and Brown (2001: 11) say the teacher will be engaged in many
planning decisions, such as deciding what he/she would like to teach,
he/she wishes to teach, about and how he/she will go about the reading
process. It is highly structured and teacher directed. The teacher control
occurs when the teacher selects and directs the learning tasks.
According to Joyce and Weil (1986: 326) the teacher also provides
feedback and correction for the students’ mistake. Direct instructional
model is one of the highest priorities on the assignment and complexion of
academic tasks in the classroom
Direct instructional model is similar to traditional teaching.
Generally speaking traditional teaching is directed toward teaching
academic content. It is also characterized by teacher-centered and teacher-
dominated classroom (Peterson, 1999: 231)
The disadvantages of direct instructional teaching model
(http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/methods/direct.html)
are that:
1. We must learn simple tasks before complex ones, and that only
measurable learning is worthwhile.
2. Students do not have a sense of the overall purpose of the simple steps.
However, if the teacher/lecturer tells them the purpose, by using
advance organizers, this disadvantage is overcome.
27
3. Teachers/lecturers cannot assess what the students’ prior knowledge is,
so will be unaware of why particular students cannot learn.
4. Retention of how to solve the problems is low, because the students
have not struggled with the problem themselves. This disadvantage can
be overcome by having the students do many complex problems on
their own. However, this means that one of the advantages (time
efficiency) is lost.
5. Direct instruction as an instructional method works for only a small
percentage of students, not for a great variety. The students who have
other than verbal intelligence, or who come from different cultural
world views will fail.
The advantages of direct instructional model are that:
1. The teacher/lecturer has control of the timing of the lesson.
2. Students are physically easy to monitor.
3. The teacher/lecturer has control over what will be learned, and who
will learn. If the teacher/lecturer wants to reward the middle class
students, this is the kind of teaching method to use.
4. The curriculum can be covered, so the teacher/lecturer can say that
she/he taught the material.
5. Some material should be taught this way. Any information for which
there is one right answer, and for which that answer is relatively
simple, can be taught efficiently and honestly by using direct
instruction.
28
D. Intelligence
1. Definition of Intelligence
Thordike in Djaali (2007: 64) defines intelligence as demonstrable
in ability of individual to make good responses from the stand point of truth
or fact. According to Terman in Djaali (2007: 64) intelligence is the ability
to carry on abstract thinking. Binet in Aiken (1997: 136) defines intelligence
as the ability to think abstractly, the ability to learn, and the ability to adapt
to environment. Another definition comes from wordnetweb (www.
wordnetweb.princenton.edu/perl/webwn) states that intelligence is the ability
to comprehend, understand, and profit from experience.
Santrock (1990: 115) states intelligence is problem-solving skills,
the ability to adapt and to learn from life’s everyday experience. Vygotsky
in Santrock (1990: 115) says that intelligence is the ability to use the tools
of the culture with help for more- skilled individual.
It is said by Super and Cites in Soemanto (1990: 178) intelligence
is the ability to adjust to the environment or to learn from experience.
According to Garret in Soemanto (1990: 179) intelligence is the abilities
demanded in the solution of problem which require the comprehension and
use of symbol. Another definition comes from Biscrof (1990: 179), he says
that intelligence is the ability to solve the problem of all kinds. Intelligence
is the ability to think abstractly and to learn readily from experience
(Flynn in Christensen, 2000: 114).
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2. Factors of Intelligence
Djaali (2007:74-75) states there are some factors that influence
intelligence:
a. Faktor pembawaan, factor ini ditentukan oleh sifat yang dibawa sejak
lahir
b. Faktor minat dan pembawaan yang khas, dimana minat mengarahkan
perbuatan kepada suatu tujuan dan menjadi pendorong perbuatan
tersebut
c. Faktor pembentukan, pembentukan adalah segala keadan diluar diri
seseorang yang mempengaruhi perkembangan kecerdasannya
d. Faktor kematangan, tiap organ dalam tubuh manusia mengalami
pertumbuhan dan perkembangan
e. Faktor kebebasan, berarti manusia dapat memilih metode tertentu
dalam memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi.
There seem to be three main factors that influence intelligence:
(http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/intell/intronotes5.html)
a. Genetics
b. Biology and Biochemistry, there are a wide range of biological factors
that can impact intelligence.
c. Environment, there are a number of environmental factors that impact
child cognitive development: demographics, poverty, bird order,
childhood trauma, environmental stress, and parenting.
30
3. Theories and types of Intelligence
Wagner (http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/
intelligence.htm) states that the following are some of the major theories
of intelligence:
a. Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British Psychologist, Charles Spearman, (1863-1945) describes a
concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using
a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental
aptitude tests, Spearman concludes that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test
tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on
one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that intelligence is
general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically
expressed (Spearman, 1904).
b. Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist, Louis L. Thurstone, (1887-1955) offers a differing
theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general
ability, Thurstone's theory focuses on seven different "primary mental
abilities". The abilities that he described were: verbal comprehension,
reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, associative
memory, and spatial visualization
31
c. Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory
of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test
scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human
intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His
theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and
abilities that are valued within different cultures. The eight intelligences
Gardner described are: visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic
intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical
intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, musical intelligence, intra
personal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence
4) Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental
activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping
of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985: 45).
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a
single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's
intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed
what he refers to as 'successful intelligence, which is comprised of three
different factors:
1) Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-
solving abilities.
32
2) Creative intelligence: this aspect of intelligence involves the
ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and
current skills.
3) Practical intelligence: this element refers to the ability to adapt to
a changing environment.
Good and Brophy (1990: 596) say that Gardner’s work has resulted
in a list of nine types of intelligence, the list includes:
a. Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)
It designates the human ability to discriminate among living things
(plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world
(clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our
evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be
central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of
our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be
mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup,
and the like.
b. Musical Intelligence (M usical Smart)
Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm,
timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us to recognize, create,
reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers,
conductors, musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there
is often an affective connection between music and the emotions; and
mathematical and musical intelligences may share common thinking
33
processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing
or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others
may miss.
c. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning Smart)
Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate,
quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete
mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and
connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning
skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence
is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives.
Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns,
categories, and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems,
strategy games and experiments.
d. Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get
here.
e. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact
effectively with others. It involves effective verbal and nonverbal
communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to
the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple
perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians are all
34
exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of
intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and
seem to understand others’ feelings and motives.
f. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects
and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence also involves a sense
of timing and the perfection of skills through mind–body union. Athletes,
dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily
kinesthetic intelligence.
g. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use
language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic
intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to
apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic
intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in
poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults
with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or
doing crossword puzzles.
h. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart)
Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and
one’s thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and
direction one’s life. Intra-personal intelligence involves not only an
appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in
35
psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may
be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated.
i. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)
Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core
capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation,
graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots,
sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young
adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or
jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming.
To measure person’s intelligence, Binet in Santrock (1990: 115)
uses Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Djaali (2007: 72) states that Binet’s test
result can be seen in the following classification:
Genius > 140
Gifted > 130
Superior > 120
Normal 90 – 110
Debil 60 – 79
Imbesil 40 – 55
Idiot > 30
Based on the quotations above intelligence is the ability to think
abstractly, the ability to learn, and the ability to adapt to environment that
is influenced by some factors. There are three categories of intelligence
36
that are usually tested to the people. They are: visual-spatial intelligence,
verbal-linguistic Intelligence, and logical-mathematical intelligence.
E. Rationale
1. The differences between Reciprocal Teaching Model and Direct
Instructional Model
In the direct instructional model the teacher becomes the decision
maker, the teacher will be engaged in many planning decisions, such as
deciding what he/she would like to teach, and he/she wishes to teach. The
activity is teacher centered. The students have lack of opportunities in the
classroom. The students just become the follower and depend on the
teacher during the teaching and learning process and usually work
individually. Student activity can be mainly passive and the attention span
of students may be limited.
On the contrary, reciprocal teaching model requires different way
in teaching learning process especially in reading process. It makes
students work cooperatively which will develop their ability in their social
and human relation. Reciprocal teaching must be carefully scaffold to
ensure success for the students, reciprocal teaching is a routine for
scaffolding reading comprehension, where students work as active
members of a cooperative and collaborative group and are taught to use
the strategies of predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing to
comprehend text.
37
The process of this model is the discussion leader (a teacher or
student) leads the group in making predictions about the text based on the
information from the text (often the title, heading or subtitle and perhaps
browsing through the text). The leader can then ask the group if they need
clarification of words or ideas (clarification may be discussed throughout
the dialogue). Firstly a review of the main points is covered so far. The
text is usually read silently and notes may be individually written about
points to clarify or questions to ask.
The leader generates questions and the group responds. Other members
of the group are invited by the leader to ask additional questions and seek
clarification of any words, phrases or sentences of which they are unsure.
The leader then summarizes what that particular section of the text is
about, and asks other members if they would like to elaborate upon, or
revise the summary. Finally, in preparation for moving on to the next
portion of text, the group repeats the process beginning with predictions.
The students have to be more active in joining the learning process. In
short, reciprocal teaching model is supposed to be more effective than
direct instructional model.
2. The difference between the students who have high intelligence and
the students who have low intelligence.
The students who have high level of intelligence have better
attitudes in joining the teaching and learning process. They have high
38
interest to pay much attention to the teacher and all of the activities in the
class and always do the task well and correctly. They are not bored in
joining class because they are more active than the students who have low
intelligence.
The students who have low level of intelligence usually don’t have
any interest in joining the learning process and they have little attention to
the teacher and the material that is given. The students depend on the
teacher all the time in teaching learning process. They are passive to learn
in the class. They prefer becoming the follower and listener, and also
slower in doing any tasks which are given to them.
That is why the students who have high intelligence are supposed
to have higher reading skill than the students who have low intelligence.
3. Interaction between model of teaching and students’ intelligence.
The teaching technique which is used by the teacher in the class
gives a big influence for the success of the teaching and learning process.
In reading process, the teacher also needs to use suitable technique that
will motivate the students in joining the class. Direct instructional model
cannot motivate the students because this model just focuses on academic
content. Their intelligence cannot grow up.
Reciprocal teaching model is effective for students who have high
level of intelligence, because by using reciprocal teaching model the
teacher will try to teach reading in group and independently. The students
39
will not depend on the teacher’s translation and explanation, and they try
to find the meaning and message from the text by themselves. The students
will be more active and the teacher not only teaches academic content but
also consider making the students develop their social relation with other
students. This model is supposed to be more effective for students having
high intelligence.
Intelligence gives a big influence to the students to improve their
reading skill. If the students have high level of intelligence they will have
high ability in reading many texts. They can read anything that the teacher
gives to them. They will be active in joining the teaching learning process
especially in reading because they have high level of intelligence.
Direct instructional model seems satisfy the students having low
intelligence in joining the reading class. They depend on the teacher’s
explanation to read something. They don’t need to be more active, and just
wait for their teacher’s translation and explanation to know the message of
the text. They are passive in joining reading class, and they are slower in
doing the task. That is why direct instructional model is supposed to be
more effective for the students who have low level of intelligence toward
students’ reading skill. So, it is assumed that there is an interaction
between teaching models and students’ intelligence.
40
F. Hypothesis
Based on the theoretical description and the rationale above, the
hypotheses can be formulated as follows:
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional
model to teach reading at the forth semester students of the English
Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa.
2. The students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than
the students who have low intelligence at the forth semester students of
the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa.
3. There is an interaction effect between teaching models and students’
intelligence on the students’ reading skill of the forth semester students
of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa.
41
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of the Study
This research has been conducted in Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam
Negeri (STAIN) Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa. This college is located on Jl.
Meurandeh - kota Langsa - Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, phone (0641)
23129 fax (0641)425129. It has 3 faculties, they are: Syari’ah Faculty,
Tarbiyah Faculty , and Da’wah Faculty. There is English Teaching
Department or Tadris Bahasa Inggris/TBI in Tarbiyah Faculty. This
Department is the biggest class and it has 3-4 classes annually, which
consist of 40 students in every class. This research has been done from
January to March 2010.
B. Research Method
Experimental study is chosen in conducting this research. The
purpose of experimental study is to determine cause-and-effect
relationship. Through experimentations, cause and effect relationship can
be identified. Because of this ability to identify caution, the experimental
approach has come to represent the prototype of scientific method for
solving problems (Johnson and Christensen, 2000: 23).
By experimental study, the researchers find out the effect of at least
one independent variable on one or more dependent variable. This study
42
involves three kinds of variables. The first is independent variable, it is
experimental or treatment variable. The independent variable is the
teaching model (X), and the term intelligence, as the second independent
variable. The second variable is reading skill as dependent variable (Y).
The writer supposes that the relationship between X and Y is changed by
the level of a third factor Z, or intelligence.
This research uses quasi-experimental research design, quasi-
experiments do not use proper random assignment, and typically they
recruit people in a way that can cause bias, such as using ―people on the
street‖. In compensation for this, other methods are used to increase the
reliability and validity of the experiment, for example by using a control
group (http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/design/ experiment
types.htm). There are a lot of quasi-experimental designs types; one of
them is factorial design.
The most appropriate experimental design of this research is
factorial design. This research design allows a researcher to study the
interaction of an independent variable with one or more variables. This
design is possible to assess the effect or interaction (Tuckman, 1978: 135).
The factorial design is illustrated as follows:
43
Table 1. Factorial Design
Main Effect
S imple Effect
A 1 A2
B 1 A 1 B 1 A2B 1
B 2 A 1 B 2 A2B 2
A 1 A2
C. Population, Sample and Sampling
Johnson and Christensen (2000: 158) say that population is the set
of all elements. The population may be all the individual of particular type
or a more restricted part of that group all public school teacher. The
population of this research is the fourth semester of TBI students in
STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa (2009-2010 academic year). It consists
of four classes (166 students).
A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population
according to certain rules (Christensen 2000: 158). The sample used in the
research is two classes of TBI 1 (40 students) and TBI 3 (40 students). TBI
3 is experimental class and the other is control class.
According to Kelley, et al. in Rashid and Mansur (2007: 246)
―Pembagian kelompok yang paling stabil, sensitif, dan paling banyak
digunakan dengan menentukan 27% kelompok atas dan 27% kelompok
bawah”. It means the writer takes 27% from experiment class (40
44
students) and 27% from control class (40 students) for students who have
high and low level of intelligence.
The writer uses cluster random sampling to get the sample.
Arikunto (2006:133) suggests that the sample can be used if the number of
the population is too large to be observed wholly. Considering the number
of population the technique of cluster random sampling is used to take the
samples. Each class is divided into two groups, students who have high
level of intelligence and the students who have low level of intelligence.
One of the classes is taught by the reciprocal teaching model and the other
is taught by the direct instructional model. So, there are four groups: (1)
students with high intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching
model; (2) students with high intelligence who are taught by direct
instructional model; (3) students with low intelligence who are taught by
reciprocal teaching model; and (4) students with low intelligence who are
taught by direct instructional model.
D. Technique of Collecting Data.
The writer uses tests to obtain the data. According to Arikunto
(2002: 127) test is a set of questions, exercises of other instrument which
are used to measure skill, knowledge, intelligence, and aptitude of an
individual or group. The tests are used to obtain the data of the students’
intelligence and the students’ reading skill. The form of test is objective
test.
45
The reading test is used to know the students’ skill in reading. And
to know the students’ intelligence, a test is also used, it is called
intelligence quotient (IQ) test. IQ test is determined by dividing the
student’s mental age (MA) - The total number of month credit earned on
the test- by chronological age (CA) in month and then multiplying the
resulting quotient by 100. In symbol, this ratio IQ is computed as:
100CA
MAIQ
Binet in Aiken (1997: 140)
For the IQ test, the students were already tested at the third
semester by a college academy; the writer uses these scores as the data
(see appendix 9, p.195).
The reading test is in multiple choice forms. Test must be valid and
reliable. Therefore, the test is tried out to know the validity and reliability.
It is done before the treatment. The tryout is not done in the experiment or
control class.
The Product Moment formula is used to know the validity of the
reading test:
1
1
22
q
p
Sr
n
xS
t
tio
t
If ro is higher than rt , the item is valid.
46
The next formula (KR 20 Kuder-Richardson) is used to know the
reliability of the reading test:
rkk=
2
2
11
tS
pq
k
k
If ro is higher than rt , the item is reliable.
To make the instrument to test the students’ reading skill those are in
Reading 3 class, the researcher needs to relate the constructing theory that
has been extended before. The reading construct is ―reading skill is the
ability to obtain meaning and select the massage from a written text by
finding reference, identifying main ideas, finding detail information,
comprehending the meaning based on the context, identifying lexical
meaning, and understanding communicative function‖.
For conducting the tryout test, the reading test consists of 70 items.
Those items are based on 2 types of texts. They are analytical and
hortatory exposition. They consist of 8 reference items, 14 main ideas
items, 27 detail information items; 18 explicit meaning items and 9
implicit meaning items, 6 the meaning based on the context items, 10
identifying lexical meaning items; 5 antonym items and 5 synonym items,
and 5 communicative function items. All of the tryout items are 70 items.
It can be seen from the blue-print of the test (see appendix 2, p.141)
The tryout test is done in TBI IV consists 30 students in 90
minutes. It is done before the treatment.
47
After conducting the tryout test, the next step is analyzing the data
for validity and reliability. The result of the tryout shows that from 70
items, there are 42 items are valid. The researcher uses 40 valid items to
test the students of the experiment and the control class after the treatment.
And the instrument of reading test is reliable; it can be seen in appendix 5,
p. 180.
The total of reading test items that are used is 40 items. The
complete result of the tryout can be seen in appendix 4 on page 159-180.
E. Technique of Analyzing the Data
The writer uses a descriptive analysis and inferential analysis in
this research. The descriptive analysis is used to know the mean, median,
mode, and standard deviation of the score of reading test. Normality and
homogeneity test are used before testing the hypothesis. The data are
analyzed using multifactor analysis of variance 2X2. Ho is rejected if Fo >
Ft. If Ho is rejected the analysis is continued to know which group is better
using Tukey test. The design of multifactor analysis of variance is as
follows:
48
Table 2. Factorial Design 2X2
Teaching Model
Intelligence
Reciprocal
Teaching Model
(A 1 )
Direct
Instructional
model
(A2)
High (B 1 ) A 1 B 1 A2B 1 B 1
Low (B 2 ) A 1 B 2 A2B 2 B 2
A 1 A2
N o t e :
A1B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high
intelligence who are taught by using reciprocal teaching model
A2B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high
intelligence who are taught by using direct instructional model
A1B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
who are taught by using reciprocal teaching model
A2B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low reading
who are taught by using direct instructional model
A1 : The mean score of reading test of experimental class which is
taught by using reciprocal teaching model
A2 : The mean score of reading test of control class which is taught by
using direct instructional model
49
B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high
intelligence
B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
The data are analyzed using the following ways:
1. The total sum of squares:
N
XXx
t
tt
2
22
2. The sum of squares between groups:
N
X
n
X
n
X
n
X
n
Xx
t
b
2
4
2
4
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
12
3. The sum of squares of within groups:
222
btw xxx
4. The between-columns sum of squares:
N
X
n
X
n
Xx
t
c
c
c
c
bc
2
2
2
2
1
2
12
5. The between rows sum of squares:
N
X
n
X
n
Xx
t
r
r
r
r
br
2
2
2
2
1
2
12
6. The sum-of-squares of interaction:
222
int brbcb xxxx
50
The number of degrees of freedom associated with each source of variation:
1. df for between-columns sum of squares = C – 1
2. df for between-rows sum of squares = R – 1
3. df for between-groups sum of squares = G – 1
4. df for within-columns sum of squares = ∑ (n-1)
5. df for interaction = (C-1) (R-1)
6. df for total sum of squares = N – 1
Note:
C = the number of columns
R = the number of row
G = the number of group
n = the number of subjects in one group
N = the number of subjects in all group
After analyzing the data by ANOVA, the researcher uses Tukey HSD
test, HSD is Honestly Significant Different. Tukey test is used to know
which teaching model is more effective or better to teach reading and which
group is better.
1. Between columns q =
√
51
2. Between columns q=
√
3. Between columns q =
√ or q =
√
The statistic test is obtained by dividing the difference between the
means by square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the
sample size.
TS: q =
√
CHAPTER IV
THE RESULT OF STUDY
52
This chapter shows the result of study. It consists of four parts, the
description of study, normality and homogeneity test, data analysis, and the
discussion of the result of the study.
A. Description of Study
There are 2 classes of Reading 3 used for the research, class I and class III.
For the sake of research, students who join in class III are taught by using
reciprocal teaching while students who sit in class I are taught by using direct
instructional model. Each class consists of 40 students. There is a border
separating the students. The border is their level of intelligence.
The data described here are the result of the reading test. The description
includes mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequency distribution
followed by histogram and polygon. Based on the group analyzed, the
descriptions of the data are divided into eight groups, they are as follows:
1. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high intelligence
who are taught by reciprocal teaching (A1B1).
2. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high intelligence
who are taught by direct instructional model (A2B1).
3. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low intelligence
who are taught by reciprocal teaching (A1B2).
4. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low intelligence
who are taught by direct instructional model (A2B2).
53
5. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who are taught by
reciprocal teaching (A1).
6. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who are taught by
direct instructional model (A2).
7. The data of the reading test of the students who have high intelligence (B1).
8. The data of the reading test of the students who have low intelligence (B2)
To describe the data, the writer works on the highest score, the lowest
score, the range, the class, and the interval to know the frequency distribution. The
data of each group are presented as below:
1. The data of reading test of students having high intelligence who are taught by
using Reciprocal Teaching (A1B1)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B1 shows that the score is 70 up to
90. The mean is 79.6, the standard deviation is 6.16, the mode is 77.5, and the
median is 78.7. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B1 is in table 3. The
highest score is 90 while the lowest score is 70. From these, the range is 20. The
class is 4, and the interval of these scores is 6. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 4.
Table 3. Frequency Distribution of data A1B1
Class Class Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
54
Class Limits
Fre
qu
en
cy
6
5
4
3
2
0
1
86.5
Group A1B1
74.568.5 92.580.5
Figure 4. Histogram and Polygon of data A1B1
2. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high
intelligence who are taught by direct instructional model (A2B1).
Descriptive analysis of the data of A2B1 shows that the score is 55 up to
68. The mean is 60.95, the standard deviation is 3.69, the mode is 61.5, and the
median is 61. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B1 is in table 4. The
highest score is 68 while the lowest score is 55. From these, the range is 13. The
class is 4, and the interval of these scores is 4. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 5.
limits boundaries
69 - 74
75 - 80
81 - 86
87 - 92
68.5 - 74.5
74.5 - 80.5
81.5 - 86.5
87.5 - 92.5
71.5
77.5
83.5
89.5
II
IIII
II
II
2
5
2
2
18.18
22.72
18.18
18.18
11 100
55
Table 4. Frequency Distribution of data A2B1
Class limits Class
boundaries Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
54 – 57 53.5 - 57.5 55.5 II 2 18.18
68 – 61 57.5 - 61.5 59.5 IIII 4 36.36
62 – 65 61.5 - 65.5 65.5 IIII 4 36.36
66 – 69 65.5 - 69.5 67.5 I 1 9.09
11 100
Class Limits
61.5 65,557.553.5 69,5
Fre
qu
en
cy
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 5. Histogram and Polygon of data A2B1
3. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching (A1B2).
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B2 shows that the score is 35
up to 58. The mean is 44.04, the standard deviation is 7.33, the mode is 38.25, and
the median is 42. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B2 is in table 5. The
highest score is 58 while the lowest score is 35. From these, the range is 23. The
56
class is 4, and the interval of these scores is 6. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 6.
Table 5. Frequency Distribution of data A1B2
Class limits Class
boundaries Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
35 – 40 34.5 - 40.5 37.5 IIII 5 22.72
41 – 46 40.5 - 46.5 43.5 II 2 18.18
47 – 52 46.5 - 52.5 49.5 II 2 18.18
53 – 58 53.5 - 58.5 55.5 II 2 18.18
11 100
Class Limits
46.5 52.5
Group A1B2
40.534.5 58.5
Fre
qu
en
cy
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 6. Histogram and Polygon of data A1B2
4. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence who are taught by direct instructional model (A2B2).
57
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B1 shows that the score is 40 up to
65. The mean is 52.81, the standard deviation is 7.89, the mode is 49, and the
median is 51.62. The frequency distribution of the data of A2B2 is in table 6. The
highest score is 65 while the lowest score is 40. From these, the range is 25. The
class is 4, and the interval of these scores is 7. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 7.
Table 6. Frequency Distribution of data A2B2
Class limits
Class boundaries
Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
39 – 45 38.5 - 45.5 42 II 2 18.18
46 - 52 46.5 - 52.5 49 IIII 4 36.36
53 – 59 52.5 - 59.5 56 II 2 18.18
60 - 66 59.5 - 66.5 63 III 3 27.27
11 100
Class Limits
52.5 59.5
Group A2B2
45.538.5 66.5
Fre
qu
en
cy
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
58
Figure 7. Histogram and Polygon of data A2B2
5. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who are taught by
reciprocal teaching (A1).
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1 shows that the score is 35 up to 90.
The mean is 62.5, the standard deviation is 18.14, the mode is 76.5, and the
median is 68.5. The frequency distribution of the data of A1 is in table 7. The
highest score is 90 while the lowest score is 35. From these, the range is 55. The
class is 5, and the interval of these scores is 12. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 8.
Table 7. Frequency Distribution of data A1
Class
limits
Class
boundaries Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
33 – 44 32.5 - 44.5 38.5 IIII 5 22.71
45 – 56 44.5 - 56.5 50.5 IIII 5 22.71
57 - 68 56.5 - 68.5 62.5 I 1 9.09
69 – 80 68.5 - 79.5 74.5 IIII 7 63.63
81 - 92 80.5 - 92.5 86.5 IIII 4 36.36
22 100
59
Class Limits
5
3
2
44.532.5 80.5
6
Fre
qu
en
cy 7
9
Group A₁
4
92.5
1
056.5 68.5
Figure 8. Histogram and Polygon of data A1
6. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who are taught by
direct instructional model (A2).
Descriptive analysis of the data of A2 shows that the score is 40 up to 68.
The mean is 57.23, the standard deviation is 8.03, the mode is 63.5, and the
median is 58.5. The frequency distribution of the data of A2 is in table 8. The
highest score is 68 while the lowest score is 40. From these, the range is 28. The
class is 5, and the interval of these scores is 6. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 9.
Table 8. Frequency Distribution of data A2
Class limits
Class boundaries
Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
40 - 45 39.5 – 45.5 42.5 II 2 18.18
46 - 51 45.5 – 51.5 48.5 IIII 4 36.36
52 - 57 51.5 – 57.5 54.5 IIII 4 36.36
58 - 63 57.5 – 63.5 60.5 IIII I 6 54.54
64 - 69 63.5 – 69.5 66.5 IIII I 6 54.54
60
22 100
Class Limits
5
4
69.5
1
063.551.5 57.545.539,5
Group A₂
Fre
qu
en
cy 7
6
3
2
Figure 9. Histogram and Polygon of data A2
7. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who have high
intelligence (B1).
Descriptive analysis of the data of B1 shows that the score is 90 up to 55.
The mean is 70.5, the standard deviation is 10.401, the mode is 84.5, and the
median is 69.3. The frequency distribution of the data of B1 is in table 9. The
highest score is 68 while the lowest score is 90. From these, the range is 55. The
class is 8, and the interval of these scores is 6. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 10.
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of data B1
Class limits
Class boundaries
Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
55 - 62 54.5 – 62.5 58.5 IIII I 6 54.54
61
63 - 70 62.5 – 70.5 66.5 IIII I 6 54.54
71 - 78 70.5 – 78.5 74.5 IIII 5 22.71
79 - 86 78.5 – 86.5 82.5 III 3 27.27
87 - 94 86.5 – 94.5 90.5 II 2 18.18
22 100
Class Limits
4
1
0
3
2
82.566.5 74.5
Group B₁
5
58.554.5 90.5
Fre
qu
en
cy 7
6
Figure 10. Histogram and Polygon of data B1
8. The data of the reading test of the students or the group who have low
intelligence (B2).
Descriptive analysis of the data of B2 shows that the score is 65 up to 35.
The mean is 47.86, the standard deviation is 8.271, the mode is 84.5, and the
median is 64.16. The frequency distribution of the data of B2 is in table 10. The
highest score is 65 while the lowest score is 35. From these, the range is 30. The
62
class is 7, and the interval of these scores is 6. Histogram and polygon are
presented in figure 11.
Table 10. Frequency Distribution of data B2
Class
limits
Class
boundaries Midpoint Tally Frequency Percentage
35 - 41 34.5 – 41.5 38 IIII I 6 54.54
42 - 48 41.5 – 48.5 45 IIII I 6 54.54
49 – 55 48.5 – 55.5 52 IIII I 6 54.54
56 - 62 56.5 – 62.5 59 III 3 27.27
63 - 69 62.5 – 69.5 66 I 1 9.09
22 100
Class Limits
66
Fre
qu
en
cy 7
6
5945 52
Group B₂
5
3835
4
1
0
3
2
Figure 11. Histogram and Polygon of data B2
B. Normality and Homogeneity
63
The tests that have to be done before analyzing data are normality and
homogeneity. The normality test is to check whether the data are in normal
distribution or not. And the homogeneity is applied to find out whether the data
are homogeneous or not. This test is important because homogeneity of the data
shows that the population is well-formed.
1. Normality test
If Lo (L obtained) is lower than Lt (L table) at the level of significance
α=0.05 on Liliefors, the sample is in normal distribution. The formula used in
this testing is:
√
( )
a. Cell (A1B1).
In this cell, that contains 11 students having high intelligence who are
taught by using reciprocal teaching (n = 11), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi)
or Lo is 0.142. Lt at the level of significance α=0.05 is 0. 249. Because Lo is
lower than Lt (0.142 < 0.249), it can be concluded that the sample is in
normal distribution.
b. Cell (A2B1).
In the cell A2B1, that contains 11 students having high intelligence who are
taught by using direct instructional (n = 11), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi)
or Lo is 0.175. Lt at the level of significance α=0.05 is 0.249. Because Lo is
64
lower than Lt (0.175 < 0.249), it can be concluded that the sample is in
normal distribution.
c. Cell (A1B2).
In the cell A1B2, that contains 11 students having low intelligence who are
taught by using reciprocal teaching (n = 11), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi)
or Lo is 0.184. Lt at the level of significance α=0.05 is 0.249. Because Lo is
lower than Lt (0.184 < 0.2492), it can be concluded that the sample is in
normal distribution.
d. Cell (A2B2).
In the cell A2B2, that contains 11 students having low intelligence who are
taught by using direct instructional (n = 11), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi)
or Lo is 0.171. Lt at the level of significance α=0.05 is 0.249. Because Lo is
lower than Lt (0.171<0.249), it can be concluded that the sample is in normal
distribution.
e. Cell (A1).
In the cell A1, that contains 22 who are taught by using reciprocal teaching
(n = 22), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi) or Lo is 0.145. Lt at the level of
significance α=0.05 is 0.190. Because Lo is lower than Lt (0.145 < 0.186), it
can be concluded that the sample is in normal distribution.
f. Cell (A2).
In the cell A2, that contains 22 students who are taught by using direct
instructional (n = 22), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi) or Lo is 0.096. Lt at the
65
level of significance α=0.05 is 0.190. Because Lo is lower than Lt (0.096 <
0.0.186), it can be concluded that the sample is in normal distribution.
g. Cell (B1).
In the cell B1, that contains 22 students who are having high intelligence
(n = 22), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi) or Lo is 0.151. Lt at the level of
significance α=0.05 is 0.186. Because Lo is lower than Lt (0.151< 0.0.186), it
can be concluded that the sample is in normal distribution.
h. Cell (B2).
In the cell B2, that contains 22 students who are having low intelligence (n
= 22), the highest value of F(Z i)-S(Fi) or Lo is 0.146. Lt at the level of
significance α=0.05 is 0.185. Because Lo is lower than Lt (0.146 < 0.0.186),
it can be concluded that the sample is in normal distribution.
Table 11. The Normality Test
. No Data
The
Number of
sample
L
Obtained
(Lo)
L
Table
(Lt)
Alfa
( )
Distribution
of
Population
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
A1B1
A2B1
A1B2
A2B2
A1
A2
B1
B2
11
11
11
11
22
22
22
22
0.142
0.175
0.184
0.171
0.145
0.096
0.151
0.145
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.249
0.186
0.186
0.186
0.186
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
2. Homogeneity Test
66
The testing is done to find out whether the data are homogeneous. This test
is important because homogeneity of the data shows that the population is well-
formed. To test homogeneity of data, ( ) test is used. If 2
o is
lower than 2
t at the level of significance α=0.05, the data are homogeneous.
Table 12. Homogeneity Test
Group ni – 1 1 / (ni – 1) si2 Ln(si
2) (ni – 1) Ln(si
2)
1 10 0.1 40.273 3.696 36.957
2 10 0.1 19.473 2.969 29.690
3 10 0.1 57.655 4.054 40.545
4 10 0.1 54.655 4.001 40.010
40 0.4 147.202
2 =
kN
1
1n
1
1k3
11
sln1nB
i
2
ii
=
40
14.0
143
11
202.147461.150
= 3.128
2
0. 05 = 7.815
Because 2
o (3.128) is lower than )815.7(2
t , the data are homogeneous.
C. Data Analysis
Hypothesis test can be done after the results of normality and homogeneity
test are fulfilled. The test is done by using multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2.
Ho is rejected if Fo > Ft meaning that there is a significant difference and an
67
interaction. If Ho is rejected, the analysis is continued to know which group is
better by using Tukey test. The multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2 and Tukey
test are described as below.
1. Summary of a 2 x 2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance
Table 13. Multifactor Analysis of Variance
Source of variance SS df MS Fo Ft (.05)
Between columns
(model)
Between rows
(Intelligence)
Columns by rows
(Interaction)
295.364
5324.000
1833.091
1
1
1
295.364
5324.000
1833.091
6.867
123.775
42.617
4.08
Between groups
Within groups
7452.455
1720.545
3
40
2484.15
43.014
Total 9173.00 43
a. Because Fo between columns (6.867) is higher than F t (.05) (4.08), the
difference between columns is significant. It can be concluded that the
model used differs significantly from one another in their effect on their
performance of the subjects in the experiment. The students’ mean of c1
(62.09) is higher than the students’ mean of c2 (56.90), so the students who
are taught by using reciprocal are better in reading skill than students who
are taught by using direct instructional.
b. Because Fo between rows (123.77) is higher than F t (.05) (4.08), it means
difference between rows is significant. It can be concluded that the
difference between the achievement of those subjects having high
68
intelligence and those having low intelligence is significant. The students’
mean of r1 (70.50) is higher than the students’ mean of r2 (48.50), so the
students who have high level of intelligence have better reading skill than
the students who have low intelligence
c. Because Fo interaction (42.617) is higher than F t (.05) (4.08), it can be
concluded that there is interaction effect between the two variables, the
teaching models and the degree of intelligence. It means that the effect of the
teaching model used on the achievement depends on the subjects’ degree or
level of intelligence.
2. Tukey Test.
Tukey test is done to find which model is more effective and which group
is better. q is found by dividing the difference between the means by the square
root of the ration of the within group variation and the sample size.
Table 14. Tukey Test
PAIR TUKEY CRITICAL
A1 – A2 3.92 2.95
A1B1 –
A2B1
9.18 3.11
A1B2 –
A2B2
4.06 3.11
B1 – B2 15.8 2.95
A1B1 - A1B2 17.1 3.11
A2B1 - A2B2 4.56 3.11
69
a. Comparing two means between columns to find which model is more
effective
1) Comparing two means between columns qo is 3.92. The value of qt for α =
0.05 and n = 22 is 2.95. Because qo (3.92) is higher than qt (2.95)
reciprocal teaching differs significantly from direct instructional for
teaching reading. The mean score of students who are taught by using
reciprocal teaching (62.09) is higher than who are taught by using direct
instructional (56.90), so reciprocal teaching is more effective than direct
instructional for teaching reading.
2) Comparing two means between cells (A1B1 and A2B1). qo is 9.18. The
value of qt for α = 0.05 and n = 11 is 3.11. Because qo (9.18) is higher than
qt (3.11) reciprocal teaching differs significantly from direct instructional
for teaching reading for students having high intelligence. The mean score
of students having high intelligence who are taught by using reciprocal
teaching (79.54) is higher than those who are taught by using direct
instructional (61.45), so reciprocal teaching is more effective than direct
instructional for teaching reading for students having high intelligence
3) Comparing two means between cells (group A1B2 and group A2B2). qo is
3.42. The value of qt for α = 0.05 and n = 11 is 3.11. Because qo (4.06) is
higher than qt (3.11) instructional model differs significantly from
reciprocal teaching model to teach reading for students who have low
intelligence. The mean score of students having low intelligence who are
taught by using direct instructional (52.36) is higher than those who are
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taught by using reciprocal teaching (44.63), so direct instructional is more
effective than reciprocal teaching for teaching reading for students having
low intelligence.
b. Comparing two means between rows to find which group is better
1) Comparing two means between rows (group B1 and group B2). qo is 15.8.
The value of qt for α = 0.05 and n = 22 is 2.95. Because qo (15.8) is higher
than qt (3.95) the students who have high intelligence are significantly
different in reading from the students who have low intelligence. The
mean score of students having high intelligence (70.5) is higher than those
who have low intelligence (48.5), so the students who have high level of
intelligence have better reading skill than the students who have low
intelligence.
2) Comparing two means between cells (group A1B1 and group A1B2). qo is
17.7. The value of qt for α = 0.05 and n = 11 is 3.11. Because qo (17.7) is
higher than qt (3.11) the students who have high intelligence who are
taught by using reciprocal teaching are significantly different in reading
from the students who have low intelligence who are taught by using
reciprocal teaching. The mean score of students having high intelligence
(70.5) is higher than those who have low intelligence (48.5), so the
students who have high level of intelligence have better reading skill than
the students who have low intelligence those taught by using reciprocal
teaching.
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3) Comparing two means between cells (group A2B1 and group A2B2). qo is
4.56. The value of qt for α = 0.05 and n = 11 is 3.11. Because qo (4.56) is
higher than qt (3.11) the students who have high intelligence who are
taught by using direct instructional model are significantly different in
reading from the students who have low intelligence who are taught by
using direct instructional model. The mean score of students having high
intelligence (61.4) is higher than those who have low intelligence (52.4),
so the students who have high level of intelligence have better reading
skill than the students who have low intelligence those taught by using
direct instructional model.
D. Discussion
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional
model to teach reading.
Reciprocal teaching is better applied for teaching reading in university
because the students are no longer medium level students indeed they are
advanced level students. It is seen from their cognitive learning process. In
advanced level class, the students have to be the centre of process; the
teacher only facilitates students to obtain the knowledge including the skill
for comprehending reading text. The role of lecturer in teaching advanced
level students is assisting in the ongoing attempt to automatism. One
72
teaching model that is appropriate with the cognitive level of the university
students is reciprocal teaching model. This model helps students to build
their cognitive by generating and answering some questions cooperatively;
the students work in a team to solve the problem of a text. This model
permits students to be more active in searching and overcoming the
problem of a text. In reciprocal teaching class the lecturer presents a
certain text and students have to summarize, make some questions, clarify
the difficult word or grammar, and predict what will be the next. Pelinscar
and Brown (1984: 175) state that the teacher hands out a passage of text to
each student in the group. Each student reads the passage and writes
summarizing, clarifying, predicting questions related to what they have
read. The ―teacher‖ of the group asks one of the questions. The ―teacher‖
is leader of the group who starts off the questioning. One group member
responds, using the text to support their answer. The student, who answers
the question, then asks a question and the process repeats. This model is
designed as a discussion technique and built on the cooperative nature of
learning that causes the student’s reading comprehension of the text to be
deeper through social interaction. On contrary, direct instructional used by
the teacher is less effective to improve the students’ reading skill since the
direct instructional less encourages students to involve in teaching-
learning process. Joyce and Weil (1986: 326) say that in direct
instructional the teacher also provides feedback and correction for the
students’ mistake. Direct instructional model is one of the highest
73
priorities on the assignment and complexion of academic tasks in the
classroom. It is also characterized by teacher-centered and teacher-
dominated classroom (Peterson, 1999: 231). Teachers/lecturers cannot
assess what the students’ prior knowledge is, so will be unaware of why
the students cannot learn and improve their reading. It can be concluded
that reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional
model to teach reading.
2. The students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than
the students who have low intelligence
The students who have high level of intelligence will be encouraged if
the lecturer gives them a chance to involve in teaching-learning process.
They have better attitudes in joining the teaching and learning process. They
have high interest to pay much attention to the teacher and all of the
activities in the class and always do the reading task well. The situation of
the class is more cheerful. There are a lot of argumentation and opinion. The
students become the centre of teaching-learning process. They are not bored
in joining class because they are more active than the students who have low
intelligence. There is a substantial correlation between intelligence and
reading ability. It is true that a child who is intelligent enough to go to
school is intelligent enough to learn to read simple materials. It means that
the students who have high intelligence will have high ability in
understanding a text (Deboer, 1966: 132).
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The students who have low level of intelligence don’t have any interest
in joining the learning process and they do so since they don’t have a desire
to learn more. They have little attention to the lecturer and the material that
is given. The students depend on the teacher and their friends all the time in
teaching learning process. They are passive to learn in the class, and tend to
listen to the lecturer’s explanation during the lesson rather than express the
opinion and ask the question. They prefer becoming the follower and
listener, and also slower in doing any reading tasks which are given to them.
Deboer (1966:132) states that the students’ who have low level of
intelligence will have low ability in understanding a text.
3. There is an interaction between teaching models and students’
intelligence.
Model tends to be concerned primarily with students and lecturer roles
and behavior. In reading process, the teacher also needs to use suitable
technique that motivates the students to join the class. Direct instructional
model cannot motivate the students because this model just focuses on
academic content. The students are passive in learning. Reciprocal teaching
requires the students to be active in learning-process.
The fact shows that the students having high intelligence perform very
well in the class when they are taught by using reciprocal teaching; they
attempt to be active in teaching learning process and do the task better. The
75
students will not depend on the teacher’s translation and explanation, and
they try to find the meaning and message from the text by themselves. This
model makes the students develop their social relation with other students.
Borich (1996: 397) says reciprocal teaching provides opportunities to
explore the content to be learned via classroom dialogue. At the centre of
reciprocal teaching are group discussions in which you and your students
take turns as leader in discussing the text. The high level of intelligence
students got higher score than the low level students. The students who have
high level of intelligence will have high ability in reading many texts. They
can read anything that the teacher gives to them. They will be active in
joining the teaching learning process especially in reading because they have
high level of intelligence. So reciprocal teaching is more effective for
students having high intelligence toward students’ reading skill.
Meanwhile, the students taught by using direct instructional learn
reading material as usual. They have less attention to the lecturer’s
explanation and need support in comprehending a text. They depend on the
teacher’s explanation to read something. They don’t need to be more active,
and just wait for their teacher’s translation and explanation to know the
message of the text. They are passive in joining reading class, and they are
slower in doing the task. Direct instruction as an instructional method works
for only a small percentage of students, not for a great variety. The students
who have other than verbal intelligence, or who come from different cultural
world views will fail (http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/
76
methods/direct.html). Direct instructional seem satisfy the students having
low intelligence. That is why direct instructional model is more effective for
the students who have low level of intelligence toward students’ reading
skill.
The effect of teaching model used depends on the level of students’
intelligence. In the end, it can be concluded that there is an interaction
between teaching model and students’ intelligence.
77
BAB V
CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
The findings of the research are:
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional model
to teach reading.
2. The students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than the
students who have low intelligence.
3. There is an interaction between teaching models and students’ intelligence to
teach reading.
Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that reciprocal teaching
model is a very effective model for teaching reading and improving the students’
reading skill at the fourth semester students of the English Department of STAIN
Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa. Consequently, the teacher/lecturer should choose the
suitable model for their students in order to improve their reading skill.
B. Implication
As the result, reciprocal teaching is proved as an effective model to teach
reading. It is so because it offers possibility for the students to build their
cognitive by generating and answering some questions for summarizing,
questioning, clarifying and predicting a text cooperatively. The role of lecturer is
assisting in the ongoing attempt to automatism. Before applying, the four
78
strategies of reciprocal teaching have to model by the teacher. After students have
practice with each of strategies, the students work together in small groups. The
teacher monitors the small groups and guides those students having difficulty with
the activity. It is designed as a discussion technique and scaffolding that causes
the students’ reading skill of the text to be deeper and more optimal.
Intelligence contributes to the effectiveness of teaching model in the class.
The lecturer/teacher must know which model is suitable in the class considering
the students’ intelligence. The students having high intelligence who are taught by
using reciprocal teaching have higher score than the students having high
intelligence who are taught by using direct instructional, while the students having
low level of intelligence that are taught by using reciprocal teaching have lower
score than the students having low intelligence who are taught by using direct
instructional. It means that reciprocal teaching is well used for high intelligence
and directs instructional is effective used for low intelligence.
C. Suggestion
1. For the lecturer/teacher.
The teacher/lecturer has to know which model is exactly suitable for the
member of class. Referring to the result of study, reciprocal teaching is effective
for students’ reading skill. Lecturer/ teacher can use this model to improve the
students’ reading skill. In choosing the model of teaching, we should consider
some factors. One of the factors is the students’ psychological condition
including the students’ intelligence. Intelligence influences the students in
79
teaching learning process. The teacher has to know the students’ intelligence, so
he/she can choose the appropriate model for their students.
2. For the students.
Students have to be more active in teaching learning process in order to
improve their reading skill. For low intelligence students, they must be aware of
the importance of active involvement in teaching learning process and their
lecturer is not the only source in learning, then they have to encourage
themselves.
3. For the other research
There are some weaknesses in this study, which should be considered by
other researchers to conduct better research. And this result of study can become
reference for the other researchers who would like to conduct further research at
the same subject.
80
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