Date post: | 28-Oct-2015 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | yanghongjiao |
View: | 40 times |
Download: | 5 times |
PREVIEW
UMI Number: 3447223
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI 3447223
Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
PREVIEW
ii
© Copyright by Elena A. Pakhoutova All Rights Reserved
December 2009
PREVIEW
iii
Table of Contents Table of Contents iii
Introduction 1 The Subject 1 Purpose/Objective 2 Methodology 3 Previous Scholarship 4 Plan of the Dissertation 10
Part 1 Portable representations 13 Chapter 1 Eastern Indian Representations of the Eight Great Events and Typology of Stūpas 13
Introduction 13 Textual Sources Related to the Practice of Building and Worshipping Stūpas 17 Clay objects (tsa tsa) 31
Identifiable Types of Stūpas among Clay Objects (tsa tsa) 33 Clay Plaques, Votive Stūpas, Enlightenment at Vajrāsana, and Dharmakaya 36
Manuscript Illuminations 41 Depictions of Stūpas within the Scenes of the Life of the Buddha 42 Images of Stūpas Related to Sacred Sites 44
Chapter 1 Conclusion 46 Chapter 2 Portable Objects Related to the Eight Great Events in Tibet 48
Introduction 48 Sculpture 50
The Mahābodhi Temple Models 50 Clay Plaques tsa tsa 54 Stūpa Models (Reliquaries) 60 Stone Plaques 62
Manuscript Illuminations of the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra 72 Eastern Indian Manuscripts in Tibet 72 Tibetan Manuscripts 78
Chapter 2 Conclusion 84 Chapter 3: Tibetan thang ka Paintings of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life 88
Introduction 88 Vajrāsana paintings 89 Paintings of the Eight Great Events 93
Thoughts on the use and production 96 The Khara Khoto painting 100 Iconographic considerations 102 Stylistic considerations 114 Chapter 3 Conclusion 122
PREVIEW
iv
Part 2 Representations in Murals, Structures, Sites 125 Chapter 4 Central Tibet 125
Introduction 125 The Early Temples’ Decoration 127
Kyangbu 127 Yemar 131 Zhalu Monastery 132
Vajrāsana, Lineages, and Monastic Seats 137 Stūpas, their Typology and Associations 141 Zhang’s Stūpa at Tsal 147 Chapter 4 Conclusion 154
Chapter 5 Yulin Cave 3 – Reflection on Sacred Sites 157 Introduction 157 Visual Program of Cave 3 at Yulin 159
Composition and Iconography of the Main (Eastern) Wall 160 Central Panel 160 North Panel 165 South Panel 170
Other Murals and Overall Iconography of the Cave 175 Panels with Maṇḍalas 176 Pure Land Panels 180 Scenes with Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra 182
Pictorial Means Employed in the Cave’s Visual Program 185 Chapter 5 Conclusion 189
Chapter 6: Western Tibet and Western Himalayan Sites 192 Introduction 192 Western Tibet 194
Tholing 194 Dungkar 205 Nyag Cave-temple at Khatse 214
The Western Himalayas 217 Tabo 217
The Main Temple at Tabo 217 The Decorated Stūpas at Tabo 220
Alchi, Ladakh 221 The Main Temple (Assembly Hall) at Alchi 223 The Three-story Temple at Alchi 227 Alchi Stūpa Shrines 230
The Five-Tower Stūpa 230 The Twin (Smaller) Stūpa 235
Other Decorated Stūpas in Ladakh and Zanskar 236 The Four Image Stūpa at Mangyu 237 The Stūpa at Kharsha 238 Stūpas at Lamayuru, Shangrong, and Basgo 241
PREVIEW
v
Stūpas at Nyarma 242 The Stūpa near Tikse 244
Chapter 6 Conclusion 245 Concluding remarks 248
Images 251
Select Bibiliography 368
PREVIEW
vi
List of Images 1.1 Clay plaque (tsa tsa) with stūpas, c. 8th-9th c. (?), the British Museum, OA 1887 1.2 Tsa tsa from Bodhgayā, circa 10th century, Bodhgaya Site Museum. After Lawson
(1988), fig. 12 1.3 Clay plaque, circa 10th-11th century, Nālandā, Bihar, India. After Huntington (1990),
fig. 56 1.4 Clay sealings with the Formula of Dependent Origination from Bodhgayā, 9th-10th
century, The British Museum. After Lawson (1988), figs. 9-11 1.5 Metal stūpa from Nālandā with the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, circa 9th
century, The National Museum, New Delhi. After Pal (1984), no. 69 1.6 Drawing of a clay stūpa, the British Museum, OA 40, circa 10th century. After
Lawson, page 81, c 1.7 Drawing of a clay stūpa from Gūdul-i Āhangarān, Ghazni, Afghanistan, circa
9thcentury (?) After Taddei fig. 2 1.8 Stone stele of the Buddha’s Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods, c.
800 C.E. The British Museum, OA 1963.2-14.1 1.9. Stone stele of the Buddha’s Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods,
Bihar, India circa late 9th century. After Huntington (1990), fig. 9 1.10 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, Jagdispur, near Nālandā,
Bihar, 10th century. After J. Huntington (1987), II, fig. 2 1.11 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, eastern India, 11th c., the
British Museum, OA 1942.4-15.3 1.12 Prajñāparamitā manuscript from Nālandā monastery, Bihar, India, 1073 C.E., Asia
Society 1987.1 1.13 Buddha’s Descend from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. Prajñāparamitā
manuscript India, 997 C.E., The Cambridge University Library, Add.1464, folio128 recto, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 60
1.14 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events, Sarnath, Bihar, India, 7th-8th century, Sārnāth
National Museum, no. C(a)2. After Williams (1975), fig. 3
PREVIEW
vii
1.15 Stone stele of the Taming of the Elephant Nalagiri, Bihar, India, c. 10th c., The Rubin
Museum of Art, C2006.71.9 1.16 Ornate stūpa in Oḍradeśa (northern Orissa, India). Prajñāparamitā manuscript,
Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio169 recto, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 48, 105
1.17 Ornate Rhinoceros stūpa (khaḍga caitya) on the Black Mountain in Konkan, India.
Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1463 folio 214 verso, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 55, 105
1.18 The stūpa in the Deer Park at Vārendrā (northwestern Bangladesh),
Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643 folio 176 verso, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 30, 104
1.19 The stūpa in Tirhut, Bihar, India. Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The
Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio 214 verso, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 64, 105
1.20 The golden stūpa at Puruṣapura, Gāndhāra (Peshawar), Prajñāparamitā manuscript,
Nepal 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio 123 verso, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 96, 106
2.1 Model of the Mahābodhi Temple at Bodhgayā, sandalwood, c. 11th century. Eastern
Indian work (?) Potala Collection: Lima lha khang, inv. no.1335. a: East face; b: West face, c: North face. After Schroeder (2001), figs. 113A-C
2.2 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Buddha in Vajrāsana. Tibet, 10th-13th century. After Lui Dong
(2000), figs. 28, 31 2.3 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Many doors and Descent type stūpas. Tibet, 10th-13th century.
After Lui Dong (2000), figs. 146, 147. 2.4 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Many doors, Descent, Parinivāṇa, Enlightenment, Miracles,
and Birth type stūpas. Tibet, 10th-13th century (?) 2.5 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Eight types of stūpas, a: Tholing monastery; b: Tibet, 10th-13th
century (?) 2.6 Clay plaques tsa tsa in a stūpa/cone shape
a: composite stūpa, Tibet, 13th-17th century (?); b: composite stūpas, India or Tibet (from an Indian mold), 10th-13th century
PREVIEW
viii
c: stūpa with relief of eight stūpas, Tibet, 13th-17th century (?). After Lui Dong (2000), figs. 151, 144, 152.
2.7 Metal reliquary stūpas a: Many doors type. Jo khang, Lhasa, inv. no. 178; b: Parīnirvaṇa type. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 227, Pāla style, Tibet, 12th-13th century. After Schroeder (2001), figs. 119A, 119C
2.8 Metal stūpas of Parīnivaṇa type, also known as Kadampa stūpa. Mindroling (Tib.
sMin grol gling) monastery, Tibet, 11th-13th century 2.9 Miniature stone sculptures of the Eight Great Events. Potala, Lhasa: Lima lha
khang. After von Schroeder (2001), fig. V-3 2.10 Miniature stone sculpture of the Eight Great Events, 11th – 12th century
A Tibetan inscription of the Verse of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda gāthā) and consecrational syllables Oṃ Āḥ, Hūṃ on verso. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma Lha Khang, inv. no. 1631. After von Schroeder (2001), fig. 129C, D
2.11 Miniature stone sculptures of the Eight Great Events. Potala, Lhasa.
a: 12th century, at Bla ma khang, inv. no. 2020 b: 1050-1150 C.E. at Li ma Lha Khang, inv. no. 1620 (?). After von Schroeder (2001), figs. 129 A, B
2.12 Illuminations of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra on palm leaf and painted wooden covers
eastern India, 1195 C.E., Bhara Khala Bhavan. After Kim (2006), figs. 2.88, 4.99, 4.100.
2.13 Miniature stone sculpture of the Eight Great Events (with Crowned Buddha and
Seven Stations). c. 12th century. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 1626. After Schroeder, fig. 130B
2.14 Illuminations of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra on palm leaf, eastern India, 1208 C.E.,
Asiatic Society, Mumbai. After Kim (2006), fig. 4.85 2.15 Tibetan teacher with his Lineage. Miniature stone stele. 12th century. Potala, Lhasa:
Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 1552. After Schroeder (2001), fig. 122D 2.16 Prajñāpāramitā sūtra manuscript, Nālandā, India, 1073 C.E., 1151 C.E. Asia Society,
New York, 1987.1 2.17 Prajñāpāramitā sūtra manuscript, eastern India, 1096 C.E. After Samkrtyayana and
Pathak (1986), pl. 24
PREVIEW
ix
2.18 Prajñāpāramitā manuscript, Nālandā, India, ca. 1124. Tibet Museum, Lhasa. After Treasures from the Roof of the World, fig. 37. A-C Details of the above
2.19 Frontispiece of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Poo village in Kinnaur, western Himalaya,
first half of the 12th century. After Klimburg-Salter (1994), fig. 1 2.20 Illustrated folio of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Western Tibet, c. 12th century. After
Pal (2003), fig. 98 2.21 Illustrated folios of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Central Tibet, c. 13th century. After
Pal (2003), fig. 126 2.22 Painted wooden manuscript cover. Central Tibet, c. 12th century. After Kossak and
Singer (1998), no. 8 2.23 Illustrated folio of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Central Tibet, c. 13th century. HAR
73811 3.1 Vajrāsana Buddha, painting on cloth, Tibet, second half of the 11th century. After
Himalayas, pl. 114) 3.2 Buddha at Vajrāsana, painting on cloth, Tibet, mid 11th century (?) After Bautze-
Picron, 1995/1996, fig. 1 3.3 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, painting on cloth, Tibet, 11th-12th century.
After Pal (1991), no. 81 3.4 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, thang ka painting, Tibet, c. 12th century.
After Pal (2003), no. 121 3.5 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, thang ka painting, Tibet, c. 12th century.
After Bautze-Picron (1995/1996), fig. 24 3.6 Layout of the scenes (based on fig. 3.4) 3.7 The Buddha at Vajrāsana and stūpas, painting on cloth, Khara Khoto, 12-13th
century. Aafter The Lost Empore of the Silk Route: Buddhist Art from Khara Khoto (X-XIIIth century) pl.6
4.1 Śākyamuni’s victory over Māra, Kyangbu temple, before 1037. After Tucci 1988,
vol. 4, fig. 7 4.2 Stūpa, in the south temple at Kyanbu, gilded bronze circa 11th-12th century,
no longer extant. After Tucci 1988, vol. 4, fig. 18
PREVIEW
x
4.3 Śākyamuni’s victory over Māra, Yemar temple, before 1037. After Vitali, 1990,
pl.28 4.4 Plan of the early chapels of Zhalu. Arawing by the author 4.5 Vajrāsana Buddha, mural painting, Zhalu, Entrance chapel, presently Protectors’
temple. Photo by Amy Heller 4.6 Teaching Buddha (First Sermon?), Zhalu Protectors’ Temple. Photo by Amy Heller 4.7 One of the eight stūpas (the Descent type), Circumambulation Path by
Tengyur Temple at Zhalu. Photo by Rob Linrothe 4.8 Shara Bumpa (the stūpa of Sharapa), Central Tibet.
After Richardson, BMR.6.8.221 4.9 Renovated Tsechu Bumpa (Water of Life Stūpa), Central Tibet.
After Richardson BMR.6.8.78 4.10 Neusur Monastery, present day, Central Tibet. After Roesler, page 39 4.11 Portrait of Zhang, circa late 12th – early 13th century, by Marpa Lhakar (?) Jaques
Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art, Staten Island, NY. After Sorensen and Hazod 2007, Appendix 1, fig. 4
4.12 Great Stūpa at Tsal Gunthang, early 13th century
a: Satellite Image. After Sorensen ad Hazod 2007, vol. 1, fig.4 b: Great Stūpa at Tsal Gunthang, photo by Charles Bell, circa 1920, Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford. After Sorensen and Hazod, 2007, vol. 1, fig. 7
5.1 General view of Yulin cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 141 5.2 Layout of Yulin cave 3 5.3 Yulin cave 3 ceiling decoration. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 171 5.4 Main (east) wall panels, Yulin cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 142, 144; The
Anxi Yulin Grottoes, pl. 19 5.5 Maṇḍala of Amitabha, Tibet, 13th century. After Pal (2003), pl.133
PREVIEW
xi
5.6 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, central panel of the east (main) wall, Yulin cave 3, detail of Parinirvāṇa scene, upper central section. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 143
5.7 Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, north panel of the east wall, Yulin cave 3. After
The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 142 5.8 Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, thang ka painting, Tibet, 12th century. After
Kossak and Singer (1998), pl.12 5.9 Thousand-armed deity with fifty one heads, north panel of the east wall, Yulin
cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 144 5.10 One of the Baisikou twin pagodas, Ningxia, ca. 12th century. After Linrothe (1996)
fig. 8 5.11 Detail of north panel of the east mural: working with metal, below is wine
production, husking of grain. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pls. 146, 147 5.12 Detail of eastern panel of the north wall: Vajrapāṇi maṇḍala. After The Yulinku
Grottoes, pl. 141 5.13 Uṣṇīṣavijaya maṇḍala, east panel of the south wall. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl.
153 5.14 Western panel of the south wall: maṇḍala of Vairocana. After The Yulinku Grottoes,
pl. 154 5.15 Central panel of the south wall: Pure Land of Amitabha, Amitayurdhyāna Sūtra.
After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 150 5.16 Samantabhadra panel, south part of west (entrance) wall. After The Yulinku
Grottoes, pl. 158 6.1 Tholing monastery main temple, Western Tibet. Photograph by the author 6.2 Outer stūpa on the corner of the main temple, Tholing, Western Tibet. Photograph
by the author 6.3 Satellite image of the main temple at Tholing and four outer stūpas visible at the
corners of the enclosure (NFGIS, Digital Globe, Europa Technologies, Google, 2009) 6.4 Vairāsana stūpa complex, Tholing monastery, western Tibet. Photograph by the
author
PREVIEW
xii
6.5 The renovated stūpa of the Descent type, on the northeast outside of the
monastery’s wall. Tholing complex, circa 11th century (?), recently renovated. Photograph by the author
6.6 Details of murals at Tholing monastery:
a: Prophesy by Asita, Amoghasiddhi temple, main temple b: Enlightenment, Mani Lhakhang, Tholing monastery. After Namgyal, pp. 89-90
6.7 Dungkar caves general view, Western Tibet. Photograph by the author 6.8 Dungkar cave 1, Western Tibet.
a: General view. Photograph by J. Poncar, WHAV b:Plan of cave 1 at Dungkar. Drawing by the author, not to scale
6.9 Details of section with the stūpas, Dungkar cave 1, Western Tibet.
a: Details of main wall, lower right corner. Photograph by Rob Linrothe b: Detail of fig. 6.9a. Seven stūpas. Dungkar cave 1. Photograph by the
author 6.10 Dungkar cave 1 lantern ceiling. Photograph by A. Maki, HAR 67005 6.11a Life of the Buddha, west wall, Dungkar cave 1. Photograph by the author 6.11b Donors assembly, south wall right, lower register, Dungkar cave 1.
Photograph by Rob Linrothe 6.12 Dungkar cave 2 ceiling maṇḍala. Photograph by T. Pritzker, HAR 8087 6.13 Mural depicting the Buddha and a large assembly, north wall of Nyag Lhakhang
Kharpo cave-temple near Khatse, Western Tibet. After Pritzker, 2008, fig. 4 6.13a Details of north wall mural at Nyag cave-temple showing a monk offering stūpas. 6.14 Central Vairocana throne, Four Decenty type stūpas on the central pole
Tabo Main Temple 6.15 Plan of Tabo Assembly Hall 6.16 Details of east wall murals showing scenes of the Buddha’s Life:
a: Gift of Honey b: Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods and Taming of the Mad Elephant. WHAV CL93 17, 33; CL93 17, 34
PREVIEW
xiii
6.17 Eight stūpas mural painting, Alchi Main Temple/Assembly Hall. WHAV Alchi Dukhang 7.5.21
6.18 Main Temple Wooden Portal, Alchi, Ladakh. Photograph by the author 6.19 Plan of the Three-Story Temple, Alchi, Ladakh. Drawing by the author 6.20 Akṣobhya/Śākyamuni in his realm, the right wall panel mural of the Maitreya
sculpture’s niche, Three-story Temple, Alchi, Ladakh. After Goepper, 1996, page 139
6.21 The Five Tower (Great) Stūpa at Alchi, circa 13th century. Photograph by the
author 6.22 View of the Inner Stūpa within the Five Tower (Great) Stūpa at Alchi. Photograph
by the author 6.23 Decorated Space of the inner stūpa of the Five Tower (Great) Stūpa, Alchi, Ladakh
Photograph by the author 6.24 Mural depicting the main teacher (Jigten Gompo), east wall of the interior space
within the inner stūpa of the Five Tower Stūpa at Alchi. Photograph by the author 6.25 Twin stūpas at Alchi, circa 13th century, Ladakh, western Himalaya. WHAV, CL98
102,1 a: View of the left stūpa b: View of the right stūpa that contains murals and an inner stūpa. Photograph by
the author 6.26 Murals of the interior space within the inner stūpa of the right of the Twin stūpas.
Photograph by the author 6.27 The Four Image Stūpa at Mangyu, Ladakh, western Himalaya:
a: View of the outside of the stūpa. After Linrothe 1994, fig. 2 b: View of the inside of the stūpa facing east wall. WHAV CL98 113,320
6.28 Decorated “entrance” stūpa at Karsha, Zanskar, western Himalaya, circa 13th
century a: View of the outside of the stūpa b: The ceiling with the figure of Akṣobhya inside the stūpa at Karsha
6.29 a: Shangrong stūpa near Alchi, Ladakh. WHAV CL98 119,12
b: Main (east) wall mural showing Vajrocana, Śākyamuni (proper right), and teacher portrait (proper left). WHAV CL98 119,5
PREVIEW
xiv
6.30 Lamayuru stūpa, Ladakh, western Himalaya
a: inside view up the lantern ceiling. WHAV CL94 28,8 b: Mural depicting Ratnasambhava. WHAV CL98 57, 23
6.31 Basgo stūpa, Ladakh, western Himalaya
a: outer view of the stūpa. CL05 DSCN4261 b: inner view of the stūpa. CL05 DSCN4262
6.32 Iconographic programs of stūpas at Nyarma, Ladakh, western Himalaya. After
Kozicz 2007, fig. 3 6.33 Stūpa at Tikse, Ladakh, western Himalaya. WHAV CL 98 88,02; CL98 88,04
a: view from outside b: view of the inner structure and murals showing different types of stūpas
PREVIEW
xv
Abstract
This project examines representations of the Eight Great Events of the
Buddha’s Life and their Commemorative Stūpas in the Medieval Art of Tibet as a
visual and religious theme. The Eight Great Events’ images were most prominent in
India during the Pāla period (8th-12th century) and in the medieval art of numerous
Buddhist countries. Various forms of these representations feature the scene of the
Buddha’s Enlightenment as central, surrounded by remaining scenes of the events
and reflect symbolic and religious connotations of later Buddhist tradition, including
esoteric. Textual sources on the Eight Great Events directly associate the main even,
the Buddha’s Enlightenment, with the sacred site of its occurrence Vajrāsana and the
other events with their respective sites as well.
I argue that this theme’s representations were central to the process of active
assimilation of Indian Buddhist culture and formation of Tibetan religious traditions
during the period known as the Renaissance of Buddhist culture in Tibet (10th - 13th
centuries). Founders of new Tibetan institutions were establishing their own
authority and sanctity through affinity with the Indian sacred sites, purposefully
utilizing various artistic forms of the Eight Great Events’ representations, re-
interpreting their symbolic and religious connotations, and eventually “reproducing”
them in the form and image of their stūpa-monuments. The representations,
especially those that articulate the three-dimensional, or maṇḍala-like layout of the
events and emphasize commemorative stūpas, suggest that the convention of
representing the Eight Great Events came to signify India as the central place where
PREVIEW
xvi
the Eight Great Events occurred and eventually reproduce the sacred sites in their
physical form but on a different soil, in Tibet.
This project considers these representations in all their media and in relation
to related textual traditions as well. Affinities between Indian and Tibetan
representations are interpreted as expressions of a common religious and visual
convention that found specific applications in Tibet, not merely in terms of Indian
artistic influences. The inquiry crosses geographic and disciplinary boundaries and
integrates visual and textual material within the specific context of this period,
which, despite the importance of this theme, has not been done in the past.
PREVIEW
xvii
Acknowledgements
I am glad that I can express my deepest gratitude to all people who in various
ways helped to make this project come to fruition. They are many and come from all
walks of academic and the other life. It is not possible to name them all, not for the
lack of wanting but space, so I acknowledge only some of them individually.
First of all, boundless thanks to my teachers of Tibetan Buddhist traditions:
late Kirti Tsenshap Rinpoche, Denma Lodro Rinpoche, Khamtrul Rinpoche, Kenpo
Thubten, Geshe Tashi Tsering, late Venerable Lobsang Gyatso, Gen Gyatso, Nechung
Kuten, and others whose patience, kindness, time, and effort greatly helped me to
understand Tibetan religious culture and eventually its visual expressions as well.
Utmost gratitude to my artist teachers: Lopön Karma from Bhutan, his fellow
masters, and Tibetan sculptors who initially facilitated the First Encounter, of the
Best Kind, with traditional Tibetan and Bhutanese art. Thank you to my Tibetan
language teachers who taught me more than Tibetan language.
Thanks to all my teachers at the McIntire Department of Art at the University
of Virginia, who offered wealth of knowledge and resources, as well as appropriate
guidance and direction throughout the course of my studies: particularly my
dissertation adviser Professor Dorothy Wong, who taught me amazing arts of East
Asia and Dunhuang and kept me on track, Professor Daniel Ehnbom, who opened up a
wonderful world of Indian painting and sculpture, and counseled as the Graduate
Studies Director. I was fortunate to learn from these specialists in the East and South
Asian Arts. Other Graduate Studies advisers helped, supervised, and encouraged
PREVIEW
xviii
along the way -- Professors Marion Roberts and Howard Singerman. I thank
Professors Malcolm Bell for his inspiring classes and encouragement, David Summers
for his appealing theoretical inquiries into all aspects of art including Asian Art, John
Dobbins for his interest in my progress and an occasional kind advice, Eric Ramirez-
Weaver who graciously agreed to be on my dissertation committee and provided
feedback and support at the final stages of the project. Thanks to all other professors
at the Department who indirectly supported my studies and this project. Finally, a
special appreciation goes to Professor Larry Goedde, the Chair of the Department
who always offered time, advice, and support often needed especially during the
dissertation writing period.
My thanks to the stuff at the University of Virginia Museum of Art: the Chief
Curator Dr. Andrea Douglas, then Interim Director Professor Beth Turner, Exhibitions
Manager AnnaMarie Liddell, and everyone there for providing an exciting
opportunity to learn first hand and curate exhibitions. Even though not related to
this dissertation, the time spent at the Museum on a fellowship allowed for
continuing work on this project and exploring the world of museums as well.
Another round of gratitude is to professors at the Department of Religious
Studies: David Germano on my dissertation committee for his time, advice, ideas and
support, and for stimulating classes on Tibetan Buddhist Renaissance and Tantra
directly related to the period of this project; Karen Lang, Paul Groner, and Kurtis
Schaeffer who always offered kind advice and help.
PREVIEW
xix
A few scholars of Tibetan Buddhist art have been a great impetus and
invaluable source of knowledge – Dr. Amy Heller, who always found time to respond
and shared her research, images, and expertise; Professor Rob Linrothe, who also
shared his discoveries, photographs, research, and offered counsel when the
dissertation was just getting started; and Christian Luczanits whose research on
western Himalayan and West Tibetan sites continues being published. Heartfelt
gratitude for your work and inspiration.
Thanks to a generous support of the Gerda Henkel Stiftung Foundation’s
Dissertation Research Fellowship and the McIntire Department of Art Nichols Travel
Grant, this project took me to European Museum collections and libraries, to Indian
western Himalaya and to Tibet, where I greatly depended on kindness and help of
many people. Heartfelt thanks to late Henry Ginsburg, then at the British Library, for
his tremendously kind support, and hospitality. Thanks to Dr. Jerry Losty and Dr.
Burkhard Quessel of the British Library for their time and advice as well. Thanks to
Dr. Michael Willis at the British Museum for his interest and discussions of parts of
this project. Many thanks to Dr. Simon Lawson at the Oxford Indian Institute Library
for providing access to his unpublished Doctoral thesis on Indian clay plaques that
was used in this dissertation. Thanks to Kabir Heimsath at Oxford University for his
hospitality, support, and help with several books.
Sincere gratitude to Professor Deborah Klimburg-Salter and all the people at
the Himalayan Archive Vienna who facilitated research on this project in Vienna and
found time for advice. I truly appreciate time and effort given by Professor Dr.
PREVIEW
xx
Marianne Yaldiz, Russell Dick, and everyone who helped to accommodate my
research at the Berlin Museum of Indian Art.
Thanks to Tsering Gyalpo at the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences (TASS)
who shared his knowledge of Western Tibetan travels and sites. Thanks to Puchung
(TASS) and Professor Karl Ryavec (University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point) for being
traveling companions to Western Tibet where often our lives literally hang in a
balance. Thanks to Ying Liu who was a point person at Lhasa Tibet University and
provided kind advice and friendship.
Thanks to my other numerous traveling companions in western Himalaya
(Tibetan, Ladhaki, and westerners) for sharing a lot of tsampa, thukpa, tea, and stories.
Special thanks to other scholars and friends whose direct help or advice led
me to eventually embark on the academic path: Gene Smith at the Tibetan Buddhist
Resource Center, Professor Janet Gyatso at Harvard Divinity School, Professor Andy
Quitman, now at Yale Religious Studies Department, Alex Kocharov, the artist
working in Tibetan traditional painting, all encouraged and supported me going back
to school. Great thanks to Jake Dalton, now Professor at Berkeley, who was a great
partner on our Indian and Himalayan adventures, and a motivating force during
academic applications writing and waiting process.
My fellow graduate students at the McIntire Department of Art: Tanya Paul,
Catherine Walden, Cory Korkow, Kevin Cole, Liz Hahn and others created welcome
and collegial environment, warm thanks to them all. Particular thanks to SeungJung
Kim, a great friend beyond school, and to her family, including Xiabalba.
PREVIEW
xxi
Many thanks to graduate students at the Religious Studies Department who
helped make Charlottesville my home, sometimes in a literal sense: my housemates
Dan Kent and David Newman (formerly of the THDL), and neighbor Suzanne
Bessenger. Thanks to Jann Ronis for camaraderie during the writing and numerous
other help, Chris Hatchel and Kimberly Dukes for friendship and companionship,
Brenton Sullivan, his wife Kerri, and other students for being a fun group to be
around.
Thanks to Jonathan Partridge, an incredible artist in his own right, who
mastered traditional Tibetan clay sculpture and was a friend and inspiration after my
apprenticeship with Bhutanese artists. Thanks to my non-academic friends in Russia,
Europe, India, Nepal, Tibet, and Japan. I am always grateful for your amazing
friendship, love, and acceptance.
Thanks to my extended family that is spread across two continents for their
support. Deepest gratitude to my grandparents whose treasured and hidden
knowledge of Kalmuk culture and tradition could have been mined more but served
as an impetus for the quest to discover, understand, and know our own history
through stories of ancestors, memories, and appreciation of the present. Loving
thanks to my immediate family -- my mother and father whose intellectual curiosity,
travels, and academic learning constantly inspired me, and whose unwavering
support, love, and understanding allowed for unlikely paths to eventually converge
here.
PREVIEW
xxii
To my parents
PREVIEW
1
Introduction
The Subject
Depictions of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life -- the Birth, His
Enlightenment, the First Sermon, His Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three
Gods, His Multiplication Miracle, the Taming of the Mad Elephant, the Gift of Honey,
and the Buddha’s Parinirvana -- were a prominent narrative and artistic theme found
in the medieval art of numerous Buddhist countries. Developed in India during the
fifth to the ninth century as a hagiographical, visual convention representing the
main episodes in Śākyamuni’s life, they were also associated with locations of the
events and their commemorative monuments, stūpas.
Representations of these events include various forms, portable as well as
monumental. Among the former are illustrated manuscripts of the Perfection of
Wisdom Sūtra (Prajñāpāramitā), paintings on cloth (thang ka), clay and stone plaques,
and votive clay stūpas. Large sculptural images (steles), murals, architectural
structures, such as temples founded at this time in Tibet and western Himalaya,
decorated stūpa-shrines, and the eight types of stūpa monuments built at monastic
sites comprise the latter group of representations.
Although the subject matter, forms, and style of the Eight Great Events’
depictions originated in India, they took different artistic and symbolic forms in
Tibet and came to reflect particular socio-political circumstances of the Tibetan
PREVIEW