The Emotional Power of Music DRAFT Introduction Section

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The Emotional Power of Music: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Musical

Arousal, Expression and Social Control

(2013, Oxford UP)

Review Essay (unpublished draft, 2014)

by Dylan van der Schyff, Simon Fraser University

Introduction

The power of music has been a topic of fascination for thousands of years; there is perhaps no

human activity that so fully spans the range of human experience and potentials. Music exercises

our cognitive abilities for pattern recognition and structure and thus affords some of the most

exquisite formal phenomena we are capable of experiencing. Beginning early in life, musicality

also plays a central role in developing the corporeal and social bonds that allow us to form

interpersonal relationships, a sense of identity, belonging and community. As a result, music has

traditionally provided an important public ÔspaceÕ where we come together to participate in

culture. Musical experiences do move us physically, intellectually, socially and spiritually; and

the transformative musical phenomena associated with ritual, ceremony, therapeutic contexts and

everyday life are shared features of human existence around the world. But while it appears to be

largely agreed that musicÕs ability to do what it does must be related to the way it engages our

emotional faculties, explaining just how this is so is extremely difficult.For most of the last century, this project was dominated by a focus on the relationship

between structure and expressivity in Western classical musicÐÐuntil relatively recently the

putative superiority and autonomous status of the Classical canon went largely unquestioned and

the locus of musical expressivity was often thought to be found in (or 'possessedÕ by) the formal

structural relationships of the Ômusic itselfÕ. From this so-called ÔexpressionistÕ perspective, the

subjective experiences of listeners and performers are largely irrelevant; it is only necessary that

they are in possession of the appropriate cognitive apparatus to perceive, represent and correctly

appraise the supposedly objective formal relationships encoded into the score by the composer

(Bohlman, P, 1999; D. Clark, 2012; Small, 1999; Davies, 2002).

This perspective has developed hand-in-hand with the dominant information-processing

model of the mind. By this light, cognition is understood to occur through a hierarchical input-

output process, where representations of a 'world out there' are computed through abstract symbol

processing at non-conscious levels in the brainÑi.e. Ôthe mind as computer metaphorÕ (Pinker,


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2009; Varela et al ., 1993). Thus research and theory has been dominated by a strangely

disembodied, detached and decontextualized focus on the cognitive appraisal (i.e. processing) of

musical stimuli in terms of ÔbasicÕ or Ôgarden variety emotionsÕ (such as joy, fear, anger and so

on) according to rule-based processesÐÐwhere socio-cultural environments, human development,

and personal agency receive little attention.Eric Clarke has argued that this so-called ÔcognitivistÕ orientation reduces musical

cognition to an "abstract reasoning or problem solving process" where Òperception is treated as a

kind of disinterested contemplation with no connection to actionÐÐwhich bears little relationship

to the essentially exploratory function of perception in the life of an organism" (2005:15). Indeed,

recent decades have seen a shift in our understanding of how the mind functions, as well as a

much richer conception of what music and meaning-making entails. The notion of innate ÔbasicÕ

emotions has come under growing scrutiny (see Colombetti, 2014); and an increasingly

influential ecological-embodied paradigm has emerged that suggests more plastic, adaptive, and

interactive (or ÔenactiveÕ) conceptions of the mind-brain and organism-environment relationships

(Doidge, 2007; Gallagher, 2005; Johnson, 2007, Ramachadran, 2011). These new insights offer us

a deeper perspective on the affective power of musicÐÐone that goes to the core of our embodied

existence to consider how, beginning in infancy, our involvement with music originates in an

embodied emotional-aesthetic context that is based in movement, cross modal perceptions, and

pre-linguistic recognitions of embodied affective states (Johnson, 2007; Trevarthen, 2002).

That we engage with music at this primordial biological level is evident in clinical settings

(music therapy), developmental contexts, and in everyday life (DeNora, 2000; van der Schyff,

2013). Along these lines, a range of researchers are exploring the affective power of music at the

levels of culture and direct lived experience, revealing that even within rather codified cultural

contexts individuals do enact unique relationships with music that are central to their sense of

identity, embodiment and self. As DeNora writes, music is Òa device for ordering the selfÓ; Òa

resource for meaning and world makingÓ (2000; 2011). In brief, a greater emphasis is being

placed on understanding how people become involved with music in terms of enacting individual

and social-cultural economies, not as passive listeners-consumers but rather as active and

embodied participants in the construction of musical meaning.

This is all to say that it is indeed a very exciting and productive time for the study of

musical emotion. A more nuanced story is beginning to be toldÐÐone where the factors that give

rise to emotional-affective musical experiences span ecological-embodied interactions, primary

bodily processes and social contexts, as well as cognitive appraisals and abstract cultural and

individual meanings. Not surprisingly, the complexity associated with these richer conceptions of

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music, emotion and meaning is too much for one discipline to accommodate and recent decades

have seen a surge in cooperative research across diverse fields of inquiry. Much of the knowledge

generated by this interdisciplinary work has been presented in excellent edited anthologies (e.g.

Juslin & Sloboda, 2010). The most recent contribution is The Emotional Power of Music:

Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Musical Arousal, Expression, and Social Control (Cochrane,Fantini & Scherer, 2013), which will be the subject of the review that follows.

Review: The Emotional Power of Music

Like its predecessors, The Emotional Power of Music is organized around broad themes. Three

sectionsÐÐrespectively entitled ÔMusical expressivenessÕ, ÔEmotion elicitationÕ and ÔThe powers

of musicÕÐÐprovide the general categories by which a diverse range of ideas and approaches are

presented and discussed. Each section receives an introduction by one of the editors where

constituent chapters are outlined and placed in context. These introductions offer useful

background information for readers who may be new to this area of research. Likewise they allow

more experienced readers to better orient the research offered by each author within the field at

large. The writing is generally clear and well referenced; key terms and concepts receive adequate

explanation. As a result, the book should be accessible to anyone interested in the topic while

remaining a valuable reference for professional musicologists. For the most part, the ÔmusicÕ and

musical practices discussed are restricted to Western art music and this will certainly frustrate

some readers. This notwithstanding, the book offers critical perspectives, as well as welcome

enhancements to traditional approaches, with many of the authors embracing important current

concerns associated with embodiment. The focus of this review is on areas associated with

philosophical and psychological musicology, which comprises the majority of the volumeÐÐ

chapters dealing with historical issues are considered only briefly.

Section 1 Ð Musical expressiveness

Following Tom CochraneÕs introduction, Section 1 opens with Michael SpitzerÕs analysis of

ÒTrocken BlumenÓ from SchubertÕs song cycle Die Schšne MŸllerin. Spitzer begins with a

traditional musicological approach, initially looking for emotional meaning within the melodic

and harmonic structure of the work. The chief focus here is on understanding how the composer

constructs the pieceÐÐand, as Spitzer suggests, the whole cycleÐÐaround a Òmelodic apexÓ (the

highest sung note) that coincides with the emotional peak of the composition. What makes

SpitzerÕs approach so interesting, however, is the way he develops a more explicitly biological

and movement-based conception of musical emotion than one usually finds in traditional score

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based analysisÐÐsee, for example, his discussion of the subconscious physiological-emotional

power of the ÔcryÕ, as well as the metaphor of ÔgrowthÕ and ÔblossomingÕ. Indeed, Spitzer argues

that Òmost analytical approaches to musical emotion are staticÓ and he suggests that we would do

better to consider music in terms of its Òaffective trajectory.Ó This perspective allows Spitzer to

analyze Òthe core affectÓÐÐin this case sadnessÐÐas a Òcomplex package of entailmentsÓ; or as agroup of Ògoal drivenÓ processes.

This approach is not necessarily at odds with attribution, expressionist or persona models

of musical expressivity. However, it does tend to radicalize such possibilities with the listener by

highlighting the fundamental transformative aspects of musical experience; and by recognizing

that emotions are not simply Òexpressive modes,Ó but rather Òstates of mind or beingÓ that involve

Òaction tendencies.Ó Thus, for Spitzer, our affective involvement with music is grounded, first and

foremost, in empathic experiences of movement, the body and social interactions (e.g. separation

anxiety). According to him, these primal responses and associations are what allow Òemotional

contagionÓ to occur in the first placeÐÐwhich, in turn, allows us to ÔaestheticizeÕ the feelings we

refer to with terms such as sadness, joy and so on.

Some readers will recognize the influence of theories developed in affective neuroscience

and may wish that this connection be developed more fully. The work of Panksepp, for example,

is discussed only briefly. Mark JohnsonÕs (2007) work in embodied aesthetics is also relevant to

SpitzerÕs Òaffective trajectoryÓ approach; the inclusion of such research would lend further

support from the fields of neuroscience, human development and philosophy of mind.

Nevertheless, the chapter provides a welcome ÔembodiedÕ extension to traditional musicology that

may point the way towards enhanced forms of analysis.

Following SpitzerÕs analytical approach, Chapter 3 offers an interesting change of focus.

Here Tom Cochrane interviews three very different composers in order to discover how they

understand and employ the expressive powers of music in their practice. Cochrane begins each

interview with essentially the same question, ÒDo you believe music arouses emotions in

listeners?Ó This allows each composer to move off in his own direction, with Cochrane providing

further questions that do an excellent job of clarifying and advancing the ideas at hand. The first

interview is with electro-acoustic composer, Jean-Claude Risset. Risset works outside the context

of traditional tonal harmony and is therefore able to offer a unique perspective on the relationship

between sound and feelingÐÐone developed over many years of creative practice and research

composing with sound and composing sound itself. The composer discusses our affective

relationship with sound on a number of levels (bodily states, environmental context, survival and

evolution) and he considers how music and sound may be used to manipulate listeners, for better

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and for worse. Along these lines, Risset shares some of the fascinating discoveries and

experiences he and his colleagues have encountered in their practice, as well as reflections on

how post-tonal and non-tonal music is received and experienced emotionally in different contexts

(e.g. film, theatre, acousmatic listening environments and so on). In all it is a fascinating

discussion, underpinned by RissetÕs quasi-ethical position that the generation of emotion in musicshould be an interactive process, Òperformed by the active and attentive listener, rather than as a

result of systematic processes intended to make the music emotional by using tricks of the trade

producing direct psychological effectsÓ (p.26).

This is followed by a brief conversation with Brian Ferneyhough that examines concerns

associated with the relationship between emotion and the Òcultural milieu,Ó as well as the

composerÕs understanding of his relationship with the performers of his works. FerneyhoughÕs

recognition of the fundamentally embodied status of the performer and listener (and thus the

music itself) is revealing. Also interesting is the embrace of ambiguity and Òmulti-layeredÓ

contextual interpretation in his understanding of composer-performer-listener relationships. As

Ferneyhough puts it, ÒÔsincerityÕ [is] not interchangeable with the abandonment of ambiguityÓ (p.

31).

An insightful discussion with film composer Carter Burwell concludes the chapter. Among

other things, Burwell reveals the central role music plays in highlighting the subtext of a

cinematic narrativeÐÐhow music conveys emotional context when the visual imagery might

otherwise be neutral or ambiguous: Òlike Psycho where the music is telling you to be tense, even

when youÕre just watching someone in a hotel room doing nothingÓ (p.36). Of course, the way

this is done varies drastically from film to film. As Burwell discusses, cinematic music may be

employed both rhetorically and ironically to underscore more nuanced aspects of character

development, plot, and style. See, for example, his entertaining discussion of musical

exaggeration in the Cohen BrotherÕs film, Fargo ÐÐwhere the fact that the music ÒcanÕt see the

comedy is itself funny. ItÕs like the music is the straight man who has no idea that anything funny

is going onÓ (p.39). In all, the chapter provides fascinating insights into how these three

composers understand the emotional power of music and develop it in their work: BurwellÕs

approach is overtly manipulative in order to support (or sometimes even drive) the narrative of

the film; Ferneyhough plays with ambiguity and interpretation; and similarly, Risset highlights

the active agency of the listener for enacting the emotional meaning of the work.

Having considered the perspective of the analyst and the composer(s) in chapters 2 and 3,

the following three chapters take up themes related to performance. In Chapter 4, Daniel Leech-

Wilkinson begins with a look at the Òanxiety about the ontology of musical works.Ó The author

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useful in analyzing how performers actually convey emotion in practice. What is needed, he

claims, is a more nuanced middle ground approach. To this end, Scherer offers some interesting

possibilities for analysis such as his Òpush-pullÓ model, which considers how the performative

aspects of emotional expression in the theatre may be understood as extensions of those

experienced in everyday lifeÐÐi.e. the distinction between largely involuntary ÔinternalÕ physiological factors that ÒpushÓ emotional expression in certain ways, and those external socio-

cultural conventions that ÒpullÓ the expression to take on certain forms rather than others. As

Scherer writes, Ò[É] we all constantly play emotion theatre. Thus the distance from real life to

professional acting is not nearly as clear-cut as it is usually made out to beÓ (p.66).

Some readers may wonder if such a clear Òpush-pullÓ distinction may actually be tenable

outside of isolated cases. Scherer responds to this concern by suggesting that Òpush and pull

factors occur only very rarely in isolationÓ and that both Òexpression determinants interact with

each otherÓ (p.66). Thus it is implied that this distinction provides, at the very least, a useful

starting point for the comparative analysis of how emotions are ÔperformedÕ both in the theatre

and in everyday life. Finally, although the focus of this chapter is on operatic performance,

performers from other genres may find much that is relevant here. Indeed, all musicians must

learn to inhabit the emotional world of the music they are creating as fully as possible while

maintaining a clear and present connection to the technical (physical and psychological)

requirements necessary to enact that musical world in the first placeÐÐSchererÕs approach stands

to be greatly extended through research with performers working in other musical environments.

Chapter 6 takes up the issue of Òthe resistance of the instrument.Ó Here philosopher Tom

Cochrane moves from a discussion of the nature of artistic expression to how the resistance of the

instrument contributes to the creative act of the performer. Although some very interesting points

are raised on the latter subject, a very generalizing romantic view of Ôthe artistÕ and ÔexpressionÕ is

put forward in the opening pages of the chapter. Cochrane relies heavily on the thought of

Collingwood (1938). And as a result, he seems to expect readers to simply accept certain

assumptions, such as the notion that artistic expression begins with a vague and oppressive

impulse from which Ôthe artistÕ extricates herself through the clarifying act of creative

expressionÐÐÒthe business of art ÔproperÕ is to express the emotional state of the artistÓ (p. 75).

Indeed, while the act of communication with the wider community is central to CollingwoodÕs

theory, It has been argued that this approach overly identifies the artwork with the inner

experience of the artist himselfÐÐa view Cochrane seems to have no qualms with when he argues

that if the audience Òcannot re-create the artistÕs emotional state by engagement with the work,

then the artist cannot be sure that he or she has had a genuine aesthetic experienceÓ (p. 76). By

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this light, the idea that the audience should have any role to play in interpreting the work is

effectively rendered nonsensicalÐÐtheir role is reduced to reconstituting the intentions of the

artist; a view that has received considerable criticism over the last century.

Furthermore, the Collingwood-Cochrane position also demands a clear separation between

the contrivances and conventions associated with some notion of Òmere craftÓ and the rarified, putatively original and wholly uncontrived activity of the artist. Keeping in mind here that Ôthe

artistÕ Cochrane is discussing is the musical performer, we may reasonably question if all

performances worthy of the status of art should (or could) adhere to the ideal criteria Cochrane

lays out. Are we to exclude from ÔartÕ any music where the musician comes to the performance

prepared with certain emotional and technical objectives in mind? It seems possible that most

performers would (as a point of necessity) arrive with at least a tentative intellectual and

Ôemotional trajectory.Õ Are listeners indeed simply passive re-creators of the artistsÕ emotional

states? Are there some musical performers who are clearly not artists and are some performance

genres and contexts not artistic? Where exactly do we draw that line? In brief, a somewhat

outmoded and long-criticized idealist-expressionist conception of music and emotion is

uncritically assumed; and readers, especially those who are performing artists and critical-

aesthetic philosophers, may find much that is problematic here. Unfortunately, Cochrane does

little to address potential objections or the question of who such ideal Collingwoodian performers

might be. However, he does comment that:

If the performer is engaging in a Collingwoodian act of creative self-expression ÐÐthe kind

of immediate creative articulation found not just in improvisation but any creative

interpretation of a scoreÐÐthe physical interaction with the instrument will also shape that

mental state expressed by the performer in the musical event. In these circumstances, then,

we should recognize that the instrument is not merely a means to the end of realizing some

pre-existing expressive sentiment, but a vital part of shaping expressive content from the

beginning.

This is a compelling statement (Collingwodian concerns aside) as it draws attention to the

essential psycho-physical engagement with the musical instrumentÐÐboth directly for the

performer and indirectly or empathically for the listener. Cochrane expands on this in interesting

ways, notably drawing on Toru TakemitsuÕs discussion of the Japanese biwaÐÐa notoriously

difficult one string instrument intentionally made to embrace imperfections and ÔnoiseÕ. In brief,

it is argued that exploring and negotiating the Ôresistance of the instrumentÕ is a central to musical

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creativity; and that a sense of such physical engagements with instruments is crucial for

emotional affect to be convincingly expressed and perceived in musical performances. Cochrane

highlights this by considering how computer musicians deliberately simulate such interactions

(ÔimperfectionsÕ: variations, or irregularities in timing, dynamics, tunings and attack) in order to

make their music more expressive. Following this, Cochrane discusses a recent trend in musicinstrument technology that aims to reduce instrumental resistanceÐÐincluding his own Ômood

organ,Õ which employs physiological sensors to collect signals that are then used to Òmanipulate

musical variables.Ó

Cochrane also makes some interesting comparisons with the historical move towards

standardization in instrument technology, and discusses how this may enable musical meanings to

be conveyed more consistently. Some readers may find referencing to relevant literature to be

somewhat limited. For example, the important recent work of Marc Leman (2008) is not

discussed, which is surprising given CochraneÕs strong interest in interfacing or mediating

technologies. In all, however, the chapter is very interesting and informative, although some

readers will find the initial discussion of Collingwoodian aesthetics problematic and unnecessary.

The last two chapters in Section 1 offer interesting historical perspectives on how

performance and emotion were understood in the early baroque and Renaissance periods

respectively. In Chapter 7, Christine Jeanneret discusses the gender ambiguity inherent in

performance practice and musical texts in 17th century Italy (i.e. the idea of the female performer

and the role of castrati). And in Chapter 8, Claude Victor Palisca explores the ethos of musical

modes that emerged and disappeared in the second half of the 16 th century, offering comparisons

and contrasts with Ancient Greek perspectives. Because these chapters deal with concerns more

closely associated with historical musicology I do not discuss them at length here.

Section 2 Ð Emotion elicitation

Section 2 turns the focus towards the question of emotion elicitation. This topic is one of the most

interesting and contentious in the field, largely because the nature of musical emotions remains so

frustratingly vague. For example, although studies have suggested that musical experiences may

elicit psycho-physiological responses that are similar to those produced by ÔbasicÕ or Ôgarden

varietyÕ emotionsÐÐand that often appear to correlate with certain structural aspects of music

(rapid changes in dynamics, unexpected cadences, changes in tempo and so on)ÐÐit has also been

shown that emotional-physiological changes associated with music do not always Òclearly map

onto those found in studies of non-musical emotionsÓ (Krumhansl, 1997: 351). Indeed, there

exists a large amount of evidence to suggest that specific emotions may be consistently attributed

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to given musical passages by appropriately encultured listeners, but it has nevertheless proven

difficult to demonstrate convincingly that music actually produces such emotions in listeners

(Scherer & Zentner, 2001; Gabrielsson, 2001-2002). This, along with philosophical problems

associated with musical intentionality (i.e. the ÔobjectÕ of musical emotions), has contributed to

the problematic suspicion that affective musical experiences may be emotionally ÔcueimpoverishedÕ; that they are merely representative of, diminished versions of, or somehow

different from, other types of emotions.

Such ambiguities have prompted many researchers and theorists to develop more complex

approaches based on richer conceptions of what the word ÔmusicÕ implies as well as more

nuanced multi-factorial, embodied-ecological, developmental and action-based conceptions of

what emotional-affective response entails. Thus, as Scherer points out in his introduction (Ch.9),

underlying concerns in this section involve developing new perspectives on the nature of musical

emotions, how they are created and represented, and what the meaning of such processes might

be for human bio-cognitive development at ontogenetic and evolutionary levels.

In Chapter 10, Scherer and Eduardo Coutinho draw out a Òmulti-factorialÓ approach that

takes into consideration a wide range of interacting elements including structural, performance,

listener, and contextual features. Five possible ÔmechanismsÕ or ÔroutesÕ that afford Òthe

production of emotions in listenersÓ are discussedÐÐappraisal, memory, entrainment, emotional

contagion, and empathyÐÐand the complex inner workings of each are considered at cognitive

and pre-cognitive levels. Again, these routes are thought to function interactively and useful

diagrams are provided to help clarify how this might be understood.

While Scherer and Coutinho acknowledge that musical experiences involve many different

types of affective states, their analysis is restricted to what they refer to as Òproperly emotional

reactions to music as based on convergent definitions in the current literature and using SchererÕs

[Component Processing Model] of emotion as a guideÓ (p.139). The CPM offers a way of

discussing the emotional appraisal of an event though a set of criteriaÐÐphysiological symptoms,

motor expression, action tendencies, and cognitive appraisal. These components are understood to

be integrated multi-modally and continuously updated through largely non-conscious processing.

This results in representations, Òparts of which may then become conscious and subject to

assignment to fuzzy emotion categories which may then lead to labelling with emotion words,

expressions, or metaphorsÓ (p.123). The CPM thus allows the authors to differentiate affective

phenomena into a number of classes that are not separated by sharp boundaries and where Òthe

meaning of emotion words for the respective classes may be difficult to define and are multiply

interrelatedÓ (p. 128).

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Put simply, Scherer and CoutinhoÕs approach offers a more nuanced view of musical

emotions, as well as a richer base of criteria and components for empirical research, than is

afforded by attempts to align musical psycho-physiological responses with so called ÔbasicÕ or

Ôgarden variety emotionsÕ (e.g. Juslin & VŠstfjŠll, 2008). This said, some readers may take issue

with a number of assumptions. Of the eight affective classes suggested, the authors single outthree as properly emotional and thus relevant to music: the utilitarian, aesthetic, and epistemic. It

is argued that immediate personal relevance is necessary for the production of utilitarian

emotions. Thus special emphasis is given to so-called aesthetic or epistemic emotions because, as

the authors claim, they correspond to the lack of personal relevance associated with most musical

experiencesÐÐwhich, they argue, explains the ambiguity found in traditional attempts to align

musical and non-musical physiological-emotional responses.

In brief, the authors assume an essentially Kantian (aesthetic) stance with regard to musical

emotions that, for many critics, tends to reduce music to a kind of detached perceptual process

(Clarke, 2005; Johnson, 2007). Indeed the whole chapter, explores how Òmusic creates emotion

in listeners.Ó And despite references to context and culture, the overriding assumption here is that

musical emotions are caused by ÔexternalÕ structural antecedents ÔintrinsicÕ to the music acting on

specific ÔinternalÕ processing mechanisms. Some will object that this plays down the fact that

listeners are not passive receivers, but rather come to musical experiences primed for action,

ready to enact the musical worlds they participate inÐÐi.e. that musical experiences are personally

relevant. Along these lines, readers may find it useful to contrast Scherer and CoutinoÕs

orientation with empirical research and theory associated with dynamic systems and enactive

models of emotion and the mind (Freeman, 2000; Colombetti, 2014; Lewis, 2005; OÕRegan &

Noe, 2001; Noe, 2004; Varela et al. 1993; Johnson, 2007). These perspectives offers a compelling

alternative to the traditional reliance on 18th century aesthetic axioms (see Johnson, 2007; Elliott,

1995) and the cognitivist/information-processing approach to cognition.

In Chapter 11, Luca Zoppelli looks at Òfear-arousing mechanisms in VerdiÕs Messa

Requiem.Ó Zoppelli distinguishes three main ÒmechanismsÓ of musical communicationÐÐA)

emotional coding, B) intrinsic meaning, and C) extrinsic symbolization. In doing so he extends

the traditional focus on the formal and referential elements of musical works by bringing

biological and developmental concerns to bear on the production of musical meaning. This allows

him to pose some interesting questions and to make some tentative suggestions with regard to the

various ways by which the constituent characteristics of A, B, and C might interact in differing

works, contexts and with different listeners. Zoppelli then applies his approach to Messa

Requiem ÐÐthe juxtaposition of primordial embodied responses with symbolic imagery, traditional

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structural harmonic and melodic analysis, as well as a consideration of historical context, makes

for a rich analysis that demonstrates how the musical experience of fear in the piece occurs

through a complex and ÒmultilayeredÓ process. In all, ZoppelliÕs approach is refreshing and, like

SpitzerÕs (Ch.2), it offers a welcome extension to traditional musicological methods.

In Chapter 12 Jenefer Robinson offers a review of three well-known theories of emotionthat often underpin discussions of musical arousalÐÐi.e. cognitive appraisal theories, and the

thought of Frijda and James respectively. The author claims that while all three approaches offer

important insights, each is incomplete on its own. Following the pluralistic view of musical

emotions developed throughout the book, and especially in the preceding two chapters, Robinson

argues persuasively that each approach may be understood as attending to a different mechanism

in a multi-stage process that involves, among other things, appraisal, action readiness, and

feeling. Thus she suggests that these perspectives might inform each other, thereby allowing more

comprehensive views on musical emotion than is possible through strict adherence to any one of

them. There is little here that will be new to experienced readers in music psychology and

musical aesthetics. Nevertheless, Robinson does a good job of outlining the complex concerns

associated with the theories at hand. As a result, the chapter serves as a useful introduction to

some important themes and figures in the field.

In Chapter 13 philosopher Stephen Davies introduces his theory of Ôemotional contagionÕ,

which he has been developing since the early eighties in order to deal with a central problem

related to how music induces emotions in listenersÐÐnamely, the question of intentionality, or

how best to understand the emotional object of musical experience. Initially (and traditionally) it

seems the obvious place to turn to is the music itself, to its formal expressive characteristics and

the listenerÕs appraisals of it. As Davies points out, however, the music itself cannot be the

emotional object of the response Òbecause the listener does not believe of the music what would

make it the intentional object of a sad response, namely, that the music is unfortunate, suffering or

regrettableÓ (p.170). He then discusses contagion theory as a possible explanation.

Davies argues for what he refers to as an Òattentional mirroringÓ response, which does not

rely on beliefs about the music itself, but rather on the idea that we experience music as

Òpresenting the kind of carriage, gait or demeanour that can be symptomatic of states such as

happiness, sadness, sassy sexuality, and so onÓ (p.171). This, Davies suggests, allows for the

communication of emotion from music to listener as emotional ÔcontagionÕ or ÔinfectionÕ, through

physiological mimicking behaviour in the listener. The approach is interesting in that it draws less

on representational syntactic-linguistic aspects of musical communication and more on movement

and body related characteristics. However, the support offered for the theoryÐÐat least in this

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documentÐÐis sparse and speculative. Indeed, the chapter seems somewhat abbreviated and some

readers may wonder why Davies does not draw on the growing body of research and theory in

ecological-embodied music cognition, embodied aesthetics, cross-modal perception and

developmental studies (but perhaps this is because such issues are taken up in subsequent

chapters). Such an extended view might allow Davies the freedom to orient his work in a broaderand more supportive theoretical context; at present he sees contagion theory as an ÒexceptionÓ to

more orthodox cognitive appraisal theories and he contrasts it with ÔpersonaÕ models.

In Chapter 14 Joel Kruger offers, as Scherer points out in the section introduction, Òa much

appreciated developmental perspective.Ó As I discussed in the introduction, research and theory in

music and emotion has traditionally focused on examining the verbal and physiological

responses, the brains and behaviours, of adult Westerners within the rather codified and

prescriptive cultural environment of academic Classical music listeningÐÐgenerally assuming a

disembodied information-processing conception of mind, where cognition occurs through

representational recovery of an objective Ôworld out thereÕ (i.e. the mind as the mirror of nature;

Rorty,; Varela, Thompson & Rosch, 1993). Therefore, it is not surprising that music and emotion

research has traditionally emphasized more explicitly componential and iterative cognitive

processes such as representation, appraisal and production rules. However, as Kreuger points out,

the uncritical acceptance of these views has led to what Sloboda (2005) refers to as the

Òpharmaceutical model,Ó where musical listening is understood to be an essentially passive

experience. Given this prevalence of this view, it is also not surprising that many have argued that

music has little or no biological relevance for human well being, that it is merely ÔparasiticÕ on

cognitive processing (modules) that evolved to support proper adaptations (i.e. language, see

Pinker, 2009; Patel, 2010). In response to all of this, Kreuger offers an excellent review of

research and theory that focuses on infant musical development and neonatal therapeutic contexts

(see DeNora, 2000). Here he explores themes of empathy and intimacy through a discussion of

ÔmusickingÕ (Small, 1999) as form joint-sense making. This allows him to demonstrate the

primordial necessity of musicality for embodied and pre-linguistic emotional-aesthetic forms of

understanding and communicationÐÐincluding the Òprimary intersubjectivityÓ (Trevarthen, 2002)

so necessary for developing social bonds. These embodied forms of knowing are understood as

central to our ability to enact the physical and socio-cultural environments we inhabit as infants;

and, as Kreuger argues, we continue to draw on them even as we grow up and begin to develop

language and propositional ways of thinking (see also Benson, 2001; Johnson, 2007).

In all, this developmental view offers a much broader conception of what ÔmusicÕ entails; it

demonstrates the deep biological significance of Òcommunicative musicalityÓ for human

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faculties by representing music as motor commands: depending on the listener, movement is

ÔextractedÕ at different levels of the motor system; emotional intentions are thought to be inferred

directly from this motor-activity, whether actual or simulated.

Colling and Thompson attempt to refine this view by arguing that the Òaction plans

generated by mirror neurons function for perceptual predictionÓ (p.205). The authors then placethis in the context of musical expectancy theory, as discussed by Huron (2006), in order to

develop a Òfeedback-controlled synchronization modelÓ that they claim unifies action-based

models of emotions with anticipation-based models of musical emotions. This model further is

supported by the work of Carver and Scheier (2009), which sees emotions as the Ònatural

outcomes of the attainment of or failure to attain goalsÓ (p. 207)ÐÐwhere feedback from this is

then sent to a behaviour control system that regulates or modifies future action responses. As the

authors explain in detail, this occurs though a complex process that operates over multiple

timescales and across bodily, environmental and abstract contextsÐÐÒthe results of more

immediate expectancies may interact with higher-order expectancies in order to create a

multilayered emotional experienceÓ (p.209).

To summarize, Colling and Thompson comment that by their model Òwe infer emotions

from the motor activations that result from the actions we take to be responsible for producing the

musicÓ; that ÒoneÕs emotional valence is due to oneÕs success or failure at predicting the musical

actionÓ; and that thus ÒIt is possible then for one to have a positive emotional experience in

response to predicting musical action that is perceived as emotionally negativeÓ (p. 209-210). The

authors rely heavily on the relationship between expectation and emotion elicitation; other

possibilities are not discussed in detail. Within this context, however, the chapter offers an

excellent enhancement to established anticipation theories (e.g. Meyer, 1956; Huron, 2006)ÐÐone

that is very well researched and richly referenced and that will no doubt be of great interest to

newcomers and established musicologists alike. As with Scherer (Ch. 10), readers may find it

interesting to contrast this approach with more explicitly dynamic and enactive sensorimotor

approaches to emotion and aesthetics (for an overview see Colombetti, 2014; see also Johnson,

2007).

Chapter 16, by Wiebke Trost and Patrik Vuilleumier, takes up the topic of ÒRhythmic

entrainment as a mechanism for emotion induction by music.Ó As the authors remark, ÒBy nature,

emotions are regarded as transient processes emerging and transforming themselves in time. In

this respect music shares an important characteristic, as they both fluctuate in timeÓ (p.213). With

this in mind, the authors consider how musical experiences influence the perception of time and

how such temporal properties are associated with emotional experiences; this is developed from a

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neurological and physiological point of view. After brief discussions of selected literature

concerning Òmusic perception and emotions,Ó the Òmechanisms of emotion induction,Ó and the

Òphysiological reactions to musicÓ (i.e. respiration and cardiac activity), the authors go on to

discuss various forms of musical entrainmentÐÐperceptual, motor, physiological, social; and their

relevance for emotion induction. They suggest that a distinction should be made between familiarand non-familiar music; and they briefly discuss why this is so, pointing to how: on one hand,

entrainment with familiar music may rely on established pathways through various Òinduction

mechanismsÓ like Ôevaluative conditioningÕ, Ôemotional contagionÕ, or Ôepisodic memoryÕ; while,

on the other hand, unfamiliar music must be analyzed Òalong multi-step auditory pathways

according to general acoustic features [É]Ó (p.221). Along these lines, Trost and Vuilleumier

consider interesting possibilities for future research, especially with regard to how familiarity

might heighten entrainment responses and how entrainment might be understood in terms of a

cyclic or feedback processÐÐi.e. entrainment induces emotion, which in turn strengthens

entrainment. The chapter offers a useful introduction to the subject, although reference to relevant

literature in social cognition and developmental studies is strangely absent.

Chapter 17 concludes Section Three with Stefan KoelschÕs fascinating examination of the

Òneurophysiological correlates of music-evoked positive emotions.Ó Koelsh argues against those

who assert that music does not elicit ÔrealÕ emotions; that musical emotions have little material

(i.e. biological) effect on the listeners; that music does not involve goal-oriented responses; and

that thus music is not directly relevant to human well-being. He begins by outlining the deep

social significance of musical activity, drawing out seven interrelated functions that assert the

central role of musicality for empathy (or co-pathy), communication, group cohesion and social

cognition. Drawing on a range of relevant literature, Koelsh presents a convincing argument that

music is in fact goal directed as it helps fulfill social needsÐÐÒmusic-evoked emotions are related

to survival functions and to functions that are of vital importance to the individualÓ (p. 232;

contrast with Scherer and Couthino above). Koelsh also takes a somewhat cautious stance

towards the standard ÔmechanisticÕ and ÔinductiveÕ approach to musical emotions. Although he

does sometimes use this vocabulary, he wants to avoid the assumption that musical emotions are

necessarily determined by specific musical antecedents (see Kreuger, above). Thus he goes on to

discuss some underlying principles of how emotions may be evoked by musicÐÐas opposed to

focusing on pre-given mechanisms and formal induction processes. These include appraisal,

contagion, memory, expectancy, imagination understanding; but special attention is given to how

these relate to the interactive social functions of musical activity. Koelsch concludes with a

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detailed look at the neural substrates of how ÒpositiveÓ emotions are evoked in musical

experience leading to attachment and forms of social bonding.

Section Three Ð The powers of music

Like chapters 6 and 7, Section Three deals largely with historically related material. As a result, Ioffer only a brief overview of each chapter. This has nothing to do with the quality of the research

presented, which is excellent, but rather reflects the focus of this review on current trends in

philosophical and psychological musicology. This said, it should be noted that such historical

perspectives are crucial for understanding the ways we have come to think and talk about

musicÐÐthe metaphors we use and the personal and cultural significance we ascribe to it. As

Fantini points out in the section introduction,

Historical analyses provide a sense of how musical activities have been socially embedded,

particularly as such activities reflect alternative conceptions of the nature and power of

music, but also interpret the [current] models based on the concepts, beliefs, and metaphors

present in a given culture.

The importance of such research is echoed by Ian Cross in scientific-philosophical context when

he writes, Òwhat we know of music in neurobiological and neuroscientific terms is constrained by

a conception of music that is narrowly shaped by historical and cultural notions of what

constitutes ÔmusicÕ Ó (Cross, 2010: 2). Thus it is hoped that these chapters will receive the

attention they deserve from reviewers better versed in historical musicology.

In Chapter 19, Fantini offers a look at Òforms of thought between music and science.Ó This

is taken up in a largely biological context to consider how two important Òmodels of lifeÓ played

a fundamental role in the development of music theory in the 17 th and 18th centuries respectively.

To begin, Fantini introduces the Ôtheory of fibersÕ developed in the Baroque period. In doing so,

he demonstrates how the Ôpower of musicÕÐÐpreviously associated with abstract Pythagorean

mathematical relationshipsÐÐcame to be understood in terms of vibration, movement and bodily

resonances. This is followed by a discussion of the 18th century interest in elementary organisms,

or ÔcellsÕÐÐagain, Fantini argues for an aesthetic parallel with how music was understood and

constructed in the classical period (e.g. the focus on Ôsonata formÕ). In brief, it is shown how the

appositional, interchangeable and sinuous approach of the Baroque biological-musical view is

replaced with a cellular, hierarchical and autonomous (i.e. formal) perspective in the Classical

period. The chapter convincingly demonstrates close ties between how we have historically

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understood musical and biological processes; and this may well inspire further cross-disciplinary

work in uncovering new connections, such as those between music and more recent ÔautopoieticÕ

and dynamic approaches to biological systems (Varela et al., 1993; Thompson, 2007).

Moving backward in time, Chapter 20 looks at how the power of music was understood in

the medieval and Renaissance periods respectively. Here Laurence Wuidar begins by consideringthe profound influence of Ancient Greek thought (Plato and Aristotle) as well as that of early

Christian thinkers, with a special focus on St. Augustine. He then goes on to offer a wonderfully

rich account that weaves together a wide array of figures, highlighting the various moral,

religious, therapeutic, and socio-political dimensions of musical thought in these periods.

Brenno Boccadoro remains in the Renaissance in Chapter 21, offering a look at Òthe

psychotropic power of musicÓ in this era. Again, Greek antecedents are consideredÐÐwith special

attention given to the ancient Hellenic connection between oenology, music and medicine; as well

as the Pythagorean relationship between music, mathematical ratios, and psycho-physiological/

spiritual states of being. It is then shown how Pythagorean concerns were reintroduced and

developed in the RenaissanceÐÐvia the thought of Plato, Aristotle and their followers. Here

Boccadoro provides a detailed introduction to the writings of Ficino and, in doing so, gives an

excellent overview of the deep transformative, therapeutic, and bio-spiritual significance of music

in the Renaissance.

Chapter 22 moves the discussion into modernity. Focusing on the early Enlightenment

period, Penelope Gouk discusses practice and theory related to Òmusic as a means of social

control.Ó She begins with late 16th-century France, demonstrating how musical practice (psalm

singing) played an important role in galvanizing the emerging protestant (Huguenot-Calvinist)

religious identity. Such musical practice was encouraged by leaders of the new order; and was

countered in turn by the Catholics through punitive anti-protestant musical legislation. Gouk then

explains how the Catholic king, Charles the IX, attempted to establish a music education system,

BaifÕs academy, based on a Platonic ideal that would lead to the production of musical works

capable of regulating the social body. From here she moves forward some 200 years to the

Scottish Enlightenment to consider the thought of Dr. John Gregory. Gregory also believed in the

power of music to influence behaviour for better and for worse. Like Baif, he drew on the thought

of the Ancients, albeit with a more medical-biological orientation; and he argued that a strictly

controlled musical curriculum should be developed, not by musicians and poets, but rather by

philosophers and medical doctors so that music could be employed to its full extent as a vehicle

for Òself improvement and social integration.Ó In summary, the chapter draws out and contrasts

two interesting perspectives on music and social control that, despite their differences, both attest

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to the power accorded to music over human development and socialization in the early modern

period.

Chapter 23, by Jackie Pigeaud, draws on a wide range of documents to explore how music

was used to soothe ailments of the body and soul in the 18th centuryÐÐwith a special focus on the

influence of the ancient tradition of music therapy found in Greek and Biblical texts. In Chapter24, Jean Starobinski discusses the theme of ÔnostalgiaÕ. He begins by pointing out that the naming

of affective states may actually produce new emotions and new conceptions of the forces that

influence how we live our lives, both individually and culturally. The word ÔnostalgiaÕ is

interesting in this respect because its entrance Òinto the vocabulary of multiple languagesÓ can be

traced to a specific time, place and documentÐÐnamely the work of the Swiss doctor, Johannes

Hofer, who, in 1688, wrote a dissertation concerning what has also come to be termed

ÔhomesicknessÕ. The development of ÔnostalgiaÕ is then discussed as a Ôsickness of memoryÕ

through various historical documents; and a commentary on the ability of music to both relieve

and exacerbate the symptoms of nostalgia is explored across the modern period.

The final chapter of the volume turns from historical concerns to consider contemporary

problems associated with copyright control. Here Ulrik Volgsten argues that the laws that govern

the distribution and use of music are based on principles that run contrary to what music actually

means for the Òdevelopment of human identity, both on an individual and a collective level.Ó

Following Kreuger (Ch. 14), he draws on recent research that asserts the pivotal role musicality

plays in human ontogenesis, socialization and the construction of culture; he argues that listeners

are not simply as passive consumers; and that likewise, performers-composers should not be

understood as detached ÔownersÕ of intellectual-aesthetic property. Rather both are seen as agentic

interacting collaborators in the construction of musical cultures and meanings. In brief, Volgsten

argues (like Leech-Wilkinson, Ch. 4) that our traditional ontologies of music are wrong-headed

and in the end simply serve corporate interestsÐÐwhich over the years have come to narrowly

dictate the aesthetic-emotional and economic parameters of the music that gets distributed. While

this chapter, and the volume itself for that matter, is almost completely biased towards Western

music, this last chapter hints at the somewhat ominous consequences of the global corporate

culture that now touches the lives of everyone on the planet. Indeed, although this critical

perspective is bound to generate controversy, it will be welcomed by many who fear that we may

be risking losing an important part of who we are as our musical activities become more about the

private consumption of musical commodities that are mass produced, possessing only superficial

connections to actual cultures, locations, and individual expressions of life and meaning.

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Conclusion

The volume closes with a very brief ÔCodaÕ that draws together key recurrent themes, reasserts

the importance of multidisciplinary projects, and points the way to future research in historical,

social and cross-cultural contexts. In all, The Emotional Power of Music offers an impressive

array of perspectives on music and emotion and can be highly recommend to anyone interested inthe subject. Like its predecessors, it opens up much needed discourse between diverse areas in

musicologyÐÐand between music, science and philosophyÐÐthus affording more nuanced,

embodied, and open-ended perspectives on the meaning of music for the human animal. While it

is hoped that future efforts might offer broader cultural and critical perspectives, the authors and

editors of The Emotional Power of Music are nevertheless to be congratulated for an excellent

contributionÐÐone that will remain valuable and relevant for many years to come.

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