THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAMNEW EDIT ION

PREPARED BY A N U M B E R OFLEADING ORIENTALISTS

EDITED BY

C.E. BOSWORTH, E. VAN D O N Z E LW.P. HE INRICHS AND the late CH. P E L L AT

ASSISTED BY F.TH. DIJKEMA (pp. 1-384), P.J. BEARMAN (pp. 385-1058) AND MME S. NURIT

UNDER THE PATRONAGE OFTHE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF ACADEMIES

VOLUME V I IMIF N A Z

/ 6 8 'S

LEIDEN — NEW Y O R KE. J. BRILL

1993

764 AL-MUTALAMMIS — M U ' TA M A R

(Tabakta fuhdl al-diucara), Ca i ro n.d. , 131-2). H i sworks, some fragments of which arc cited in a con-siderable number o f sources, were none the less o finterest a t a n ear ly date t o the most reputablephilologists, notably al-Asmaci, Abu cUbayda, Ibn al-Kalbi and ibn al-Sikkit. They were collected i n aDiumin that K . Vollers published and translated intoGerman in 1903 in Leipzig (a more recent edition waspublished b y H a s a n K a m i l a l-Sayraf i , C a i r o1390/1970). Modern historians o f Arabic literature,when they come to cite this poet, devote only a briefnotice to him, for he is outshone by his nephew, whoserenown i s certainly much greater. I n one o f hispoems, he calls f o r revenge fo r the latter's death(metre ktimil, rhyme -di) and naturally attacks cAmr b.Hind, the affair of the fahila having inspired him to agreat extent in his work. He is credited with a certainnumber of original maccint [See MAcNA. 31 and prover-bial sayings derived from his verses, including a hi a '[q. v. ] o f cAmr (metre kiwi!, rhyme -ma) provoked byaccusations relating to his belonging to the Dubaycaor Yashkur (his mother's tribe). R. Blachere (HLA,295-6) describes him as a "tribal poet" and judges theform o f his compositions as " n o t very mannered".The fact is that, for example, the language of a poemwhich has attracted the attention o f the anthologists(metre tawil, rhyme -A) is relatively simple; however,another siniyya (metre basirt, rhyme -Vasa) replying toa supposed prohibition on his returning to cIrak and"devouring the corn" o f the land, decreed by cAmrb. Hind, presents variants and inspires such divergentinterpretations that one has the impression that thetransmitters and commentators did not understand it.Probably a tribal, hence Bedouin, poet who, however,describes a male camel as a .mycariyya, term reservedfor female camels (metre Aiwa, rhyme -ml) and earnsthe taunts of his fellows who say of him instanwaka '1-djamal "He made the male camel into a female", butit is true that the verse in question is also attributedto al-Musayyab b. 'Alas (e.g., i n LA, root s-c-r).

Bibliography: The richest source is the Ag_htini(xxi, 185-8, 198-205; Beirut ed., xx i i i , 524-72),whose data was taken and greatly augmented by L.Cheikho (aucarci) al-Na,rrdniyya, 330-49, wi th a listof sources used). Apart from the references cited inthe art., one may give Djabi?, Baydn, i , 375, i i i , 38,60; idem, Hayawan, i i, 85, i i i , 47, 136, 391, iv, 263,v, 561; Ibn Kutayba, n ic r, 85-8, 91 = Ca i ro ed.131-6, 142; A b u Tammam, Ifamdsa, Cairo n.d. ,272-5; Ibn al-Kalbi-Caskel, Tab . 173 and i i , 258;Mascfidi, Murtiaj, index; Maydani,. Amthei/, Cairo1352, i, 412-14 (on the saying m(ifat al-Mutalammis);Ibn Nubata, Sarh al-cuyin, Cairo 1383/1964, 233,397-400; Baglidadi, Khizdna, M a k ed., i , 446, i i i ,73, iv, 214-16; R. Basset, Millet et un conks, Welts alegendes arabes, Paris 1926, i i 326-7 (wi th detailedbibl.); 0 . Rescher, Abriss, i , 59; Brockelmann, S I,46-7; Sczgin, GAS, i i , 173-5. ( C H . PELLAT)M U c TA M A D K H A N , MUHAMMAD SEARiF,

KHWAPJA TA K I (?-1049/?-1639), M u g h a l I n d i a ncommander and i m p e r i a l h i s to r i an .

He was born into an obscure family in Persia, butcoming to India, he attained h igh honours i n thereigns of Djahangir and Shah Mahan. He received inthe third year of Qjahangir a mil itary command andthe title of Muctamad Khan. Subsequently, he joinedprince ahah Djahan in his campaign in the Deccan asa bakhshi (paymaster). O n his return to court, i n the17th year o f Jajahangir's reign (1031/1622), he wasentrusted w i t h the du t y o f wr i t ing the Emperor 'smemoirs. He attained a higher rank in the service ofahah Mahan and was appointed mir bakhshi (adjutant-

general) in the 10th year of the new reign. He died in1049/1639. He is the author of a history called IOW-ntima-yi ajaheingiri, in three volumes: 1. the history ofAkbar's ancestors; 2. Akbar's reign (numerous mss.).3. the reign o f j jahangi r (printed in the Bibliothecc;Indica, Calcutta 1865, Lucknow, 1286/1869-70, etc.).

Bibliography: Ma'ci&ir al-umard), iii, 431; Tuzuk-i Djahcingiri, 352; JRAS', N.S., i i i , 459; Elliot andDowson, History of India, vi , 400; Ibn Hasan, Thecentral structure of the Mughal empire, repr. Karachi1967, index s.v.; M . A tha r A l i , The apparatus ofempire, Delhi 1985, index at p . 355 s.v. KhwajaTaqi; Storey, i , 557, 560-2, 564-5, 1316.

(M. HIDAYET HOSAIN*)M U ' TA M A R (A.), conference or congress. In

the modern Islamic context, the term refers to theconvening of Muslims from throughout the world inorder to deliberate over common concerns. I n thecourse o f the 20 th century, M u s l i m conferencesemerged as the organised, modern expression of thedeeper sentiment o f Muslim solidarity.

The idea of convening Muslims in conferences firstgained currency in the late 19th century. The adventof easy and regular steamer transport accelerated theexchange of ideas among widely separated Muslims,and m a d e feasible t h e per iod ic assembling o frepresentatives. T h e idea also appealed to Muslimreformists, who sought a forum to promote and sanc-tion the internal reform of Islam. Such an assembly,they believed, w o u l d strengthen t h e abi l i ty o fMuslims to resist the encroachments of Western im-perialism.

A number o f émigré intellectuals i n Cairo firstpopularised the idea in the Muslim world. I n 1900,one of them, the Syrian cAbd al-Rahman[q. v. ], published an influential tract entitled Umm al-Kurd, which purported to be the secret protocol of aMuslim congress convened i n Mecca during thepilgrimage o f 1316/1899. The imaginary conferenceculminated in a call for a restored Arab caliphate, anidea then in vogue in reformist circles. Support forsuch a conference also became a staple of the reformistjournal al-Manor, published in Cairo by Rashid Rich[q. v.]. The Crimean Tatar reformist Isma.(11 Gasprali(Gasprinski) [see GASPRALI] made the very first con-crete ini t iat ive i n Cai ro, where he unsuccessfullyworked to convene a "general" Muslim congress in1907-8.

Al-Kawakibi's b o o k , R i c l a ' s appeals , a n dGaspralf's init iative all excited the suspicion of Ot-toman authorities. I n Istanbul i t was believed that awell-attended Muslim conference would fatally under-mine the religious authority claimed by the Ottomansultan-caliph. I n particular, the Ottomans feared thepossible transformation of any such conference into anelectoral college for choosing an Arab caliph. Stead-fast Ottoman opposition thwarted all of the early in-itiatives of the reformers.

In the void created by the final dismemberment ofthe Ottoman Empire, a number o f Muslim leadersand activists moved to convene general Muslim con-ferences. I n each instance, they sought to mark theircauses or their ambitions with the stamp of Islamicconsensus. I n 1919, Mustafa Kemal [Ataturk] con-vened a Musl im conference in Anatolia in order tomobilise foreign Muslim support for his military cam-paigns. Dur ing the pilgrimage season of 1342/1924,King Husayn b . ` A l i o f the Hidjaz summoned a"pilgrimage conference" i n Mecca to supporthisclaim to the caliphate — a manoeuvre which failed tostall t h e relentless advance o f cAbd al-cAziz IbnSacild. Following Ibn Sacild's occupation of Mecca,

M U ' TA M A R — AL-MU(TAMID (ALA ' L L A H 765

he convened his own "wor ld " conference during thepilgrimage season of 1344/1926. The leading clerics of. „Azhae in Cairo convened a caliphate congress" in

airo in 1926, to consider the effects of the Turkishabolition of the caliphate two years earlier. The con-ference was supported by K ing Fu'ad [q.v.], whoreputedly coveted the title of caliph, but no decisionissued from the gathering. In 1931, Amin al-Husayniig.r)in Suppl.], M u f f o f Jerusalem, convened a"general" conference o f Muslims in Jerusalem, tosecure foreign Muslim support for the Arab struggleagainst the British Mandate and Zionism. A n d i n1935, the pan-Islamic activist Shakib Arslan conven-ed a conference of Europe's Muslims at Geneva inorder to carry the protest against imperialism to theheart of Europe. Each of these conferences resolved tocreate a permanent organisation and to convene addi-tional conferences. But all such efforts were foiled byinternal rivalries and the intervention of the Europeanpowers.

With the spread of political independence after theSecond World War, several Muslim leaders floatednew plans for the creation of a permanent organisa-tion of Muslim states. Pakistan took a number of in-itiatives in the late 1940s and early 1950s, but soonencountered stiff opposition from Egypt, which gaveprimacy o f place t o pan-Arabism and the A rabLeague. When Djamal (Abd al-Nasir [q. v. in Suppl.]of Egypt transformed pan-Arabism in to a revolu-tionary doctrine, Saciicli Arabia sought to counter himby promoting a rival pan-Islamism, and assemblingconferences o f Muslim activists and culamd) f romabroad. In 1962, the Sa(acli government sponsoredthe establishment of the Mecca-based Muslim WorldLeague, which quickly bu i l t a w ide network o fMuslim clients. Beginning in 1964, Egypt respondedby organising large conferences o f Egyptian andforeign (u/arrui) under the auspices o f al-Azhar'sAcademy of Islamic Researches. These rival bodiesthen convened a succession of dueling conferences inMecca and Cairo, each claiming the sole prerogativeof defining Islam. I n 1965-6, K ing Faysal b. (Abdal-cAziz launched a campaign for an Islamic summitconference, which would have balanced the Arabsummits dominated by Egypt. However, (Abd al-N4ir had sufficient influence to thwart the initiative,which he denounced as a foreign-inspired "Islamicpact" designed to defend the interests of Western im-perialism.

Israel's 1967 defeat of Arab armies and occupationof Jerusalem eroded faith i n the brand o f Arabismchampioned by Egypt, and inspired a return to Islam.This set the scene for a renewed Sa(f.idI initiative. InSeptember 1969, fo l lowing a n arsonist's at tackagainst the Alga Mosque in Jerusalem, Muslim headsof state set aside their differences and met in Rabat inthe first Islamic summit conference. King Faysal tookthis opportunity to press for the creation of a perma-nent organisation o f Muslim states. The effort suc-ceeded, and in M a y 1971, the participating statesestablished the Organisation o f the Islamic Con-ference (O. I .C. ; Munazzamat al-midtamarThe new organisation, with headquarters in Djudda(pending the liberation o f Jerusalem), adopted i tscharter in March 1972.

The O. I .C. eventually earned a place o f someProminence i n reg ional d ip lomacy, pr inc ipal lythrough the organisation of triennial Islamic summitsand annual conferences o f the foreign ministers o fmember states. The O.I.C.'s activities fell into threebroad categories. First, it sought to promote solidaritywith Muslim states and peoples which were locked in

conflict with non-Muslims. Most o f its efforts weredevoted to the causes o f Palestine and Jerusalem,although i t supported Mus l im movements f r o mEritrea to the Philippines. Second, the organisationoffered mediation in disputes and wars between itsown members, although its effectiveness was greatlylimited by the lack of any force for peace-keeping ortruce supervision. Finally, the O.I.C. sponsored anarray of subsidiary and affiliated institutions to pro-mote political, economic and cultural co-operationamong its members. The most influential of these in-stitutions was the Islamic Development Bank, estab-lished i n December 1973 and formally opened i nOctober 1975. The bank, funded by the wealthierO.I.C. states, financed development projects whileadhering to Islamic banking practices.

The O.I.C. represented the culmination of govern-mental efforts to organise Muslim states. But it didnot end moves by individual states to summon inter-national conferences o f supportive cularasi', activistsand intellectuals. Sacticli Arabia and Egypt, realignedtogether on the conservative end of the Islamic spec-trum, increasingly co-operated i n mounting large-scale Muslim conferences. Their rivals, revolutionaryIran and Libya, did the same. Divisive events, suchas the war between Iran and ( I r a (1980-8) and thekilling of 400 Iranians in Mecca during the pilgrimageseason o f 1407/1987, produced conferences andcounter-conferences, each claiming to express the ver-dict o f united Islam. Leaders of Muslim oppositionmovements also met in periodic conferences, often onthe safe ground of Europe. Less than a century afteral-Kawakibi's fantasy, a crowded calendar o f con-ferences bound together the world of Islam as neverbefore. But it remains uncertain whether these oftencompeting institutions would bridge the differencesbetween Muslims or would serve to widen them.

Bibliography: Context : J.P. Piscatori, Islam ina world of nation-states, Cambridge 1986; J.M. Lan-dau, The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization,Oxford 1990 (with extensive bibliography). Ear lyin i t ia t ives and conferences: RMM and OM ofrelevant years; A. Sekaly, Le Congris du Khalifat et leCongris du Monde Musulman, Paris 1926; R. Hart-mann, Zum Gedenken des 'Kongresses. in den Rd.orm-bestrebungen des islamischen Orients, i n W I , xx i i i(1941), 122-32; M. Kramer, Islam assembled: the ad-vent of the Muslim congresses, New York 1986 (with ex-tensive bibliography). L a t e r i n i t i a t i ves a n dorganisations: OM and COC of relevant years;N. Levtzion, International Islamic solidarity and itslimitations, Jerusalem 1979; J. Jomier, Les congres de['Academie des Recherches Islamiques dependant del'Azhar, in MIDEO, xiv (1980) 95-148; H. Mattes,Die innere and dussere islamische Mission Libyans, Mainz1986; R. Schulze, Islamischer Internationalismus in 20.

Jahrhundert. Untersuchungen z u r Geschichte d e rIslamischen Weltliga (Mekka), Leiden 1990. 0 . I . C . :Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Djuddah [1982](includes basic documents a n d organisationalcharts); H. Moinuddin, The charter of the Islamic Con-ference, Oxford 1987 (with bibl.). The most recentactivities of the O.I.C., and many other conferenceorganisations, are surveyed in an annual essay inthe Middle East contemporary survey, commencing withvol. v (1980-1). ( M . KRAMER)AL-MUtTAMID `ALA ' L L A H , Abu 1 -(Abbas

Abmad b. D. jacfar, 'Abbasid caliph (256-79/870-92),son of al-Mutawakkil [q.v.] and a slave-girl from Kiffacalled Fityan.

He seems to have had no political experience beforebeing chosen as caliph in Radjab 256/June 870 on the