The Environmental World map was compiled from extensive research and reference to a wide variety of sources whose information and inspiration are gratefully acknowledged. The following descriptions provide additional information in support of the limited content that could be included on the map itself.
Man-made pollutionHuman impact on our planet cannot be underestimated. In the relentless exploitation of earth’s natural resources and the results of industrialisation, pollution is emerging as a major threat to the health of the world’s population and to the ecological balance of life on earth. Human activities have caused lasting damage to our fragile environment.
Nuclear test siteSince scientists tested the first nuclear weapon in 1945 at Trinity Site, USA, over 2000 tests have been conducted worldwide; above ground, underground, underwater and in the atmosphere. Production of nuclear weapons has polluted vast areas of the world - substances released in an explosion remain hazardous for thousands of years. Apart from the immediate devastation of the local area, long-term radioactive contamination can spread far beyond the original site.
Useful websites: www.atomicarchive.com - for the history, science and consequences of the nuclear agewww.iaea.org - International Atomic Energy Agency, an inter-governmental agency which works for the safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology www.oecd-nea.org - Nuclear Energy Agency, within the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Nuclear accidentAlthough nuclear power provides carbon-free energy, when accidents occur the impact on people and the environment is devastating. The first large nuclear power plant accident was at Windscale, now Sellafield, in UK in 1957 but the worst nuclear accident the world has seen occurred in 1986 at Chernobyl, Ukraine (formerly USSR) in 1986 when one of the reactors exploded. The contaminated area will remain uninhabitable for decades or centuries to come. Although the Fukushima accident in 2011 is classified at level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the the amount of radioactive material released to the atmosphere was just 10% of the Chernobyl accident.
International Nuclear Event Scale Level Description Impact on people and environment 7 Major accident Major release of radioactivity. Acute health and long-term environmental effects. 6 Serious accident Significant release of radioactivity. Full implementation of local counter measures. 5 Accident with off-site risks Release of radioactivity. Severe plant damage. Partial implementation of local counter measures. 4 Accident with local risks Minor release of radioactivity. Significant plant damage. Local protective measures on food controls. 3 Serious incident Serious incident. Very small release of radioactivity. Local protective measures on food controls. 2 Incident Incident with potential safety consequences on site. Insignificant release of radioactivity off site. 1 Anomaly Variation from permitted procedures.
Worst Nuclear Accidents Rank Location Country Date Cause INES* 1 Chernobyl Ukraine (USSR) 1986 explosions and fire 7 2 Fukushima Daichi Japan 2011 earthquake damage to cooling systems 7 3 Kyshtym USSR 1957 failed cooling system 6 4 Three Mile Island USA 1979 loss of coolant 5 5 Windscale UK 1957 uranium fuel fire 5 6 Chalk River Canada 1952 reactor core damage 5 7 Fleurus Belgium 2006 malfunction of hydraulic system 4 8 Tokaimura Japan 1999 error in uranium processing 4 9 Tomsk-7 USSR 1993 tank explosion 4 10 St Laurent des Eaux France 1980 partial core meltdown 4
* International Nuclear Event Scale
Useful websites: www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml - for the major nuclear power plant accidentswww.greenfacts.org/en/chernobyl/index.htm - for scientific facts on Chernobylwww.nuclearevents.info/ - for details on nuclear eventswww.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,756369,00.html - articles and features about atomic deserts
Mining and industryThe mining industry has enormous impact on the environment through physical damage in the removal of surface rocks and soil and creation of spoil heaps, but also in pollution from the waste materials which may contain toxic residues from the chemicals used in their processing. Opencast coal mining disturbs vast areas of natural habitat, and particularly when related to power generation, creates major problems through air and water pollution. Manufacturing industries, too, release gases and dust into the atmosphere which is linked to global warming and climate change.
Worst Polluting Powerplantsannual carbon emissions compared with electricity generated
Rank Location Country tons CO MWh Rank Location Country tons CO MWh 1 T’aichung Taiwan 39,700,000 39,200,000 9 Scherer USA 27,200,000 26,500,000 2 Belchatow Poland 34,600,000 32,800,000 10 Kendal South Africa 26,800,000 25,500,000 3 Zouxian China 33,400,000 34,500,000 11 Huaneng Yuhuan China 26,400,000 28,800,000 4 Niederaussen Germany 30,400,000 29,600,000 12 Suralaya Indonesia 25,800,000 24,500,000 5 Mailiao Taiwan 29,900,000 32,900,000 13 Tuoketuo China 24,700,000 23,700,000 6 Taean South Korea 29,500,000 32,400,000 14 Tangjin South Korea 24,700,000 26,700,000 7 Hekinan Japan 27,500,000 30,000,000 15 Majuba South Africa 24,400,000 23,300,000 8 Janschwalde Germany 27,400,000 25,800,000 source: www.carma.org
Useful websites: www.blacksmithinstitute.org - The Blacksmith Institute works to solve pollution problems in the developing worldwww.carma.org - Carbon Monitoring for Action reveals the carbon emissions of the world’s major power plantswww.infomine.com - Global InfoMine provides information on the mining industry and mineral exploitationwww.mining-technology.com - a website for mining and quarrying industrieswww.power-technology.com - a website for power industries
Hazardous accidentToxic pollution poses health risks to millions of people in poorer and developing countries. The worst offenders are heavy metals such as lead, chromium and mercury and long-lasting chemicals - the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). The largest incident involving toxic substances was the methyl isocyanate gas leak from a chemical factory in Bhopal, India which killed thousands and caused severe and long-term health problems for half a million people. To date there has been no clean up of the poisons left behind and the people who still live in the vicinity are exposed to toxic chemicals through groundwater and soil contamination.
Useful websites: archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/html/content/toxacc_oview.html - examples of accidents involving toxic chemicalswww.ipen.org/ipenweb/work/pops_hotspots.html - International POPs Elimination Network - toxic waste hotspotswww.worstpolluted.org/2011-report.html - The Blacksmith Institute & Green Cross Switzerland, toxic pollution problems
Hazardous wasteMining and mineral processing bring with them the issue of what to do with the unwanted byproducts. Inappropriate disposal of industrial waste can cause long-term damage to the environment when it leaks into the water supply, polluting large areas of land, and air borne pollution can be transported far from the original source. Abandoned mines and obsolete storage facilities for chemicals have an impact long after their use but processing of e-waste, lead battery recycling and ship-breaking are examples of ongoing present-day issues. As environmental laws become more stringent in industrialised
nations, another modern trend is to export the waste to developing countries where disposal facilities are cheaper to build and less well regulated.
Useful websites: www.eoearth.org/article/Transboundary_dumping_of_hazardous_waste - Encyclopedia of Earth articlewww.epa.gov/international/toxics/pop.html - US Environmental Protection Agency site for information about POPswww.ipen.org - International POPs Elimination Network, a group of non-governmental organisations working towards the elimination of persistent organic pollutantswww.unep.org/yearbook/2010/PDF/2_Harmful_substances_2010_low.pdf - United Nations Environment Programme article on harmful substances and hazardous waste
Oil spill on landAccidents involving oil wells, platforms and pipelines have caused many very large spills but the largest spill ever was the oil deliberately released by Iraqi forces during the Gulf War in 1991. As the construction and operation of oil tankers has improved since the 1970s, the number of tanker incidents has decreased but the number of non-tanker spills has grown.
Oil Spills 1970-2009
Useful websites: oils.gpa.unep.org/ - Global Marine Oil Pollution Gatewaywww.eoearth.org/article/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill?topic=50364 - Encyclopedia of Earth articlewww.pollutionissues.com/Na-Ph/Petroleum.html - information on pollution issues
Oil spill at seaOil tankers transport crude oil and oil products around the world by sea, most of the time without incident. When accidents do happen the size of the spill is not the only factor in determining environmental damage - a large spill in the open ocean may do less harm than a smaller spill close to shore. For example, the 11,000,000 gallon Exxon Valdez spill in the Prince William Sound, Alaska created a huge ecological disaster because of the length of shoreline it affected and the abundance of wildlife in the area. Despite extensive cleanup operations oil still persists in large quantities.
Largest Tanker Spills
Rank Tanker Date Location Gallons spilled 1 Atlantic Empress 1979 east of Barbados 84,200,000* 2 Castillo de Bellver 1983 off Table Bay, South Africa 78,500,000 3 Amoco Cadiz 1978 off Brittany, France 68,700,000 4 Odyssey 1988 NE of St John’s, Canada 43,100,000 5 Haven 1991 off Genoa, Italy 42,000,000 6 Torrey Canyon 1967 off Land’s End, UK 38,200,000 7 Sea Star 1972 Gulf of Oman 37,900,000 8 Irenes Serenade 1980 Navarino Bay, Greece 36,600,000 9 Texaco Denmark 1971 North Sea, Belgium 31,500,000 10 Hawaiian Patriot 1977 West of Kauai, Hawaii 31,200,000
* total of the original spill at the collision site and later spill while under tow from the scene
Useful websites: www.itopf.com/information-services/data-and-statistics/index.html - The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd maintains a worldwide database of accidental spills from oil tankers www.eoearth.org/article/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill?topic=58075 - Encyclopedia of Earth article
Most polluted citiesUrban air pollution is a major health problem in developing countries. Outdoor pollution comes from industrial activities and powerplants using fossil fuels together with emissions from vehicle traffic. The main pollutants are sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lead and particulates - which can be even more damaging in warmer weather. Emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides lead to the deposition of acid rain and other acidic compounds over long distances.
Useful websites: go.worldbank.org/3RDFO7T6M0 - World Bank data for Air Pollution in World Citieswww.esa.int/esaCP/SEM340NKPZD_index_1.html - European Space Agency article with global air pollution mapwww.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/112199/E79097.pdf - World Health Organisation article on health aspects of air pollution
Natural phenomenaThere is some evidence that climate change is contributing to increasing the frequency and intensity of natural hazards and extreme weather events. These occur through an interlinked combination of changes in physical, technological and human systems and it is projected that these effects could intensify in the future.
DeforestationEarth’s forests are being cleared at an alarming rate for agricultural use as well as logging for wood and paper products. Deforestation has many negative effects on the environment, not least in the destruction of the natural habitat for millions of species. But deforestation also drives climate change - trees help perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapour back to the atmosphere and they play a critical role in absorbing greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Although rates of deforestation have slowed in recent years, most of the loss still continues in tropical regions. Afforestation and natural expansion of forests in some areas has reduced the net loss of forest area at a global level.
Most Threatened Forests Rank Hotspot Remaining Predominant vegetation habitat 1 Indo-Burma 5% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 2 New Caledonia 5% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 3 Sundaland 7% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 4 Philippines 7% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 5 Atlantic Forest 8% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 6 Mountains of southwest China 8% temperate coniferous forests 7 California Floristic Province 10% tropical, subtropical dry broadleaf forests 8 Coastal forests of eastern Africa 10% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests 9 Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands 10% tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Useful websites: www.fao.org/forestry/fra/en/ - Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations: Global Forest Resources Assessmentwww.fao.org/docrep/013/i2000e/i2000e00.htm - Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations: State of the World’s Forests 2011 report
0 10 20 30 40 50%
0 10 20 30 40 50%Hyper-arid
Arid
Semi-arid
Dry sub-humid
Surface Area
Population
drylands as a percentage of global terrestrial area
DesertificationDrylands cover over forty percent of the Earth’s land area and persistent degradation of their ecosystems results from climate change and excessive pressure on scarce resources through human activities. Recurring droughts, overcultivation, overgrazing and a general shortage of water leads to soil erosion and an ecosystem that can no longer provide a sustainable environment for humans, livestock and vegetation. Desertification has environmental impacts that go beyond the areas directly affected - loss of vegetation can increase the formation of large dust clouds that can cause health problems in more densely populated areas far from their origin.
Present-day Drylands
Useful websites: www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/ - scientific facts on desertificationwww.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.355.aspx.pdf - ‘Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Desertification Synthesis’ reportwww.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/download/ew_heat_wave.en.pdf www.unccd.int/ - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
HeatwaveA heatwave is defined as an uncharacteristic and prolonged period of higher than average temperatures and such extreme weather events have become more frequent over the last fifty years. The impact of heatwaves is immense and can be catastrophic - each year they claim more lives than floods, tornadoes, and hurricanes combined. At least 35,000 people died as a result of the heatwave in Europe in 2003 with the hottest August on record in the northern hemisphere: an exceptional heatwave affected south-eastern Australia early in 2009 with many records set both for high day- and night-time temperatures as well as for the duration of extreme heat. As Earth’s climate changes, scientists predict that average summer temperatures and the frequency and intensity of hot days is likely to increase.
Useful websites: www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/96965/E82629.pdf - World Health Organisation: Health and Global Environmental Change: Heatwaveswww.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/download/ew_heat_wave.en.pdf - Impacts of Summer 2003 Heat Wave in Europewww.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/news/documents/1075_en.pdf - World Meteorological Organisation: Weather Extremes in a Changing Climate
WildfireWildfires can occur naturally following lightning strikes, for example, but most are started by human activity, deliberately or accidentally. Prolonged drought, high temperatures and low humidity create favourable conditions for wildfires and high winds make them spread quickly. Although fires can play an important role in the management of ecosystems and habitats, they can also result in land degradation and erosion and cause regional and global pollution. When they threaten people and their homes major efforts are required to extinguish or control them. As the climate warms in the coming decades, atmospheric scientists predict that the frequency of wildfires will increase in many regions.
Largest Wildfires
Rank Wildfire Date Location Duration Area Fatalities 1 Great Divide 2003 East Victoria, Australia 59 days 13,000 km2 0 2 Northern California 2008 California, USA 99 days 6,300 km2 23 3 Taylor Complex 2004 Alaska, USA 120 days 5,284 km2 0 4 Black Saturday 2009 Victoria, Australia 36 days 4,500 km2 173 5 Portugal 2003 Portugal 46 days 4,300 km2 21 6 Ash Wednesday 1983 Victoria and South Australia 3 days 4,180 km2 75 7 Yellowstone Park 1988 Wyoming-Montana, USA 150 days 3,213 km2 2 8 Portugal 2005 Portugal 42 days 3,030 km2 15 9 Black Christmas 2001-2 New South Wales, Australia 21 days 2,995 km2 0 10 Forest Fires 2007 Greece 68 days 2,711 km2 84
Useful websites: science.howstuffworks.com/nature/natural-disasters/wildfire.htm - How Wildfires Workwwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/?12947/WWF-Position-Paper-on-Forest-Fires - World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) paperwww.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/46.html - Environment Literary Council: Forest Fireswww.ucar.edu/news/features/wildfires/ - University Corporation for Atmospheric Research: New Approaches to Understanding Wildfireswww.weather.com/ready/fire/facts.html - The Weather Channel: Facts about Wind and Wildfires
FloodFloods are caused by an excess of water filling into rivers, lakes or drainage systems. They usually develop over several days but very heavy rainfall over a short period of time can lead to flash flooding and associated landslides. Floodwaters can destroy property, damage transport routes, ruin crops and agricultural land and disrupt normal drainage and sewage systems causing health hazards from pollution and water-borne diseases. Impoverished and densely populated areas are at particular risk from unusually heavy monsoon rains such as those which caused the widespread flooding in North West Pakistan in 2010 leading to one of the biggest humanitarian disasters of recent times with more than 20 million people affected. It is predicted that changes in our climate will increase the risk of flooding with potentially more frequent and more severe storms and rainfall events.
Largest Floods
Rank Country Date People affected Fatalities 1 China 1998 240,000,000 4,150 2 China 2010 230,000,000 3,189 3 India 2008 2,300,000 2,400 4 Pakistan 2010 23,000,000 1,781 5 Brazil 2011 14,000 700 6 China 2011 36,000,000 355 7 Colombia 2010 2,200,000 301 8 West Africa 2007 2,500,000 250 9 India 2009 500,000 250 10 West Africa 2009 1,000,000 193
Useful websites: pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1254/ - US Geological Survey: The World’s Largest Floods, Past and Present: Their Causes and Magnitudeswww.global-greenhouse-warming.com/extreme-flooding.html - Global Greenhouse Warming: Extreme Flooding
DroughtA drought occurs when human demand for water exceeds the available supply. It can be caused by a prolonged period of below average precipitation which creates a natural shortage of available water or when there isn’t enough moisture to support crops and grasslands. It can also result from overexploitation of available water resources. The impact of droughts can be exacerbated when they occur in an area with low water resources or where water resources are not being properly managed. If a heatwave occurs during a drought it can contribute to bushfires and wildfires. Climate change is likely to cause more frequent and intense heatwaves, as well as increased droughts. Oceanic and atmospheric weather cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are making drought a regular, recurring feature of the Americas along the Pacific coast and in Australia.
Useful websites: drought.unl.edu/ - National Drought Mitigation Center, helps develop and implement measures to reduce vulnerability to droughtdroughtmonitor.unl.edu/ - US Drought Monitor: an up-to-date situation report on drought conditions in USAec.europa.eu/environment/water/quantity/scarcity_en.htm - European Commission: Water Scarcity & Droughts in the European Union
Tropical stormTropical storms are known by various terms, depending on their location: hurricanes in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclones in South East Asia, willy willies in Australia and typhoons in the western Pacific. They start between latitudes 8° and 15° where surface sea temperatures reach 27°C. The air above the warm sea is heated and rises, creating low pressure which produces strong winds and heavy rain. At the centre of the rotating storm is the ‘eye’ - a relatively calm, clear area, where the lowest surface pressure and highest temperature are found.
Tropical storms are defined in categories according to the intensity of the sustained wind speeds. The current Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, adopted in 2010, excludes flood ranges, storm surges, rainfall and location. However, the category of a storm need not relate directly to the damage it will inflict - a lower category storm can cause substantial damage depending on where it strikes and how fast it is moving. Storms may be at their most intense at sea, dissipating as they move over cooler
Northeast Pacific Ocean
North Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea
waters, sometimes not reaching land at all or making landfall at a reduced intensity. In addition, since tropical storms require warm, moist air to survive, they loose strength once they reach land. All tropical storms are given names so they can be identified and tracked as they move over oceans - The World Meteorological Organization uses six alphabetic lists in rotation, alternating men’s and women’s names.
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
Category Wind speed Damage potential Example 1 74-95 mph minimal: unanchored mobile homes, vegetation and signs Dolly (Texas, USA) 2008 2 96-110 mph moderate: all mobile homes, roofs, small crafts, flooding Frances (Florida, USA) 2004 3 111-130 mph extensive: small buildings, low-lying roads cut off Ivan (Alabama, USA) 2004 4 131-155 mph extreme: roofs destroyed, trees down, roads cut off, mobile homes destroyed Charley (Florida, USA) 2004 5 over 155 mph catastrophic: most buildings destroyed, major roads cut off Dean (Yucatan, Mexico) 2007
Recent decades have seen an increase in the intensity of storms and a subsequent increase in economic damage and disruption. In 2005 Katrina was the most costly hurricane on record, causing an estimated $75 billion in damage in Louisiana and Mississippi, USA. A significant factor affecting tropical storm occurrence is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon which gives rise to higher ocean temperatures. Although a natural cycle may explain the variations in the intensity and frequency of storms, warmer oceans provide perfect conditions for greater and longer-lasting storms.
Tropical Cyclone Formation Areas
Useful websites: www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/tropicalcyclone/ www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.shtml - National Hurricane Center, NOAA, Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scalewww.stormpulse.com/ - Stormpulse tracking maps for active and previous hurricaneswww.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/tmrp/documents/iwtc_statement.pdf - World Meteorological Organisation, Statement on Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change
TornadoA tornado is a violent, rotating funnel of air descending from the base of thunderstorm clouds to the ground. They can occur anywhere in the world but are most frequent over the continental plains of USA - an area known as ‘Tornado Alley’. Most tornadoes only last a few minutes and travel a few miles but the most violent are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of 250 mph or more and damage paths in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long. Tropical storms can spawn tornadoes, adding to their destructive power.
Tornado intensities are classified on the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale, introduced in 2007, which has six categories from zero to five, with EF5 being the highest level of damage. Only once the damage has been inflicted can the category be ascertained.
Useful websites: www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_basics.html - The National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA, tornado basicswww.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/safety/tornado.pdf - The National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA, A Preparedness Guidewww.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ - Storm Prediction Center, National Weather Service, NOAA, The Enhanced Fujita Scalewww.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ - frequently asked questions about tornadoes
Environmental impactsDeterioration in environmental quality is predominantly caused by direct or indirect human activity resulting in pollution, depletion of resources, destruction of ecosystems and extinction of plant and animal species. By identifying the causes and effects of such degradation, humankind can work to reduce the impact of economic development on the environment.
Pollution black spotMillions of people around the world are at risk from environmental pollution - pollution of the air, the water and the land, caused by human activities. The main sources of this pollution are the large areas of urbanisation, industrialisation and transportation emissions. Mining and manufacturing industries, the burning of fossil fuels and the disposal of toxic waste products combine in some areas to form concentrated areas of extreme pollution which becomes dangerously harmful to human health. Apart from the direct poisoning from toxic elements, there is also the long-term and far-reaching ill effects on people, particularly in the developing world with its rapid and often unregulated growth in industrial production. Many polluted sites are a complex mixture of ongoing pollution and legacy issues which make remediation difficult.
Useful websites: www.worstpolluted.org/ - Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross Switzerlandwww.blacksmithinstitute.org/wwpp2007/finalReport2007.pdf - Blacksmith Institute: The World’s Worst Polluted Placeswww.worstpolluted.org/pollution-facts-2009.html - Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross Switzerland: pollution facts
Disappearing lakes and shrinking seasLakes and seas are disappearing around the world, partly as a result of climate change (higher temperatures, higher evaporation rates, lower rainfall, reduced snow melt, drought, etc) but mainly due to mismanagement of water resources. Hydro-engineering, dams for flood control and hydroelectricity, canals and reservoirs for agricultural production - all contribute to reducing the flow into lakes and wetlands. In central Asia, the Aral Sea, once the world’s fourth largest lake, has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were diverted by irrigation projects to support cotton production and it is now 10% of its original size; Lake Chad in central Africa has been shrinking for decades because of overuse and continuous droughts and is now 5% of its former size. Although lakes shrink and expand as part of a natural cycle, increasing human demand and inefficient use of water when superimposed upon changing climatic conditions create conflicts between states and among agricultural, industrial, municipal and environmental interests.
Useful websites: postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf - United Nations Environment Programme: History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basinwww.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2005/update47 - Earth Policy Institute: Disappearing Lakes, Shrinking Seas publicationwww.worldlakes.org/ - World Lakes Network: working for the conservation and sustainable management of lakes
Large, controversial hydropower schemeAlthough hydro schemes provide renewable energy and produce no direct waste, they can cause damage in other ways affecting local populations and ecosystems. The largest and most controversial scheme is the Three Gorges project in China. Apart from massive displacements of people and resettlement issues, the environmental impacts are immense and likely to get worse as time goes on. The submergence of hundreds of factories, mines and waste dumps, and the presence of massive industrial centres upstream will cause pollution of the reservoir. Erosion of the reservoir and downstream riverbanks is causing landslides, and the weight of the water in the reservoir may be linked to more frequent and more intense earthquakes.
Largest Hydroelectric Power Schemes
Rank Dam River Country Opening Surface Capacity Annual date area generation 1 Three Gorges Chang (Yangtze) China 2008 1,045 km2 22,500 MW 80,000,000 MWh 2 Itaipu Paraná Brazil/Paraguay 1984 1,350 km2 14,000 MW 91,600,000 MWh 3 Guri Caroni Venezuela 1978 4,250 km2 10,235 MW 47,000,000 MWh
4 Tucuruí Tocantins Brazil 1984 2,850 km2 8,370 MW 21,400,000 MWh 5 Robert-Bourassa* La Grande Canada 1981 2,485 km2 7,722 MW 37,400,000 MWh 6 Grand Coulee Columbia USA 1942 324 km2 7,079 MW 21,000,000 MWh 7 Longtan Hongshui China 2009 . . 6,426 MW 18,700,000 MWh 8 Sayano-Shushenskaya Yenisey Russia 1978 621 km2 6,400 MW** 23,500,000 MWh 9 Krasnoyarska Yenisey Russia 1972 2,000 km2 6,000 MW 20,400,000 MWh 10 Churchill Falls Churchill Canada 1974 5,698 km2 5,428 MW 35,000,000 MWh
* formerly called La Grande 2 ** following an accident in 2009 the plant was closed and with ongoing repairs its capacity is up to 2,560 at present
Useful websites: www.dams.org/ - United Nations Environment Programme: World Commission on Damswww.internationalrivers.org/ - International Rivers works to protect rivers from destructive dams www.unep.org/DAMS/WCD/ - United Nations Environment Programme report on dams and development
Coral bleachingCoral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world and have been referred to as the ‘rainforests of the ocean’. Because they are sensitive to such factors as water temperature, salinity and other chemical and physical factors, they can serve as indicators of environmental changes. The world’s coral reefs are threatened by human activities at a local level through overfishing and destructive fishing using explosives, pollution from rivers entering the ocean and marine-based pollution and damage. Global threats include warming sea temperatures which causes bleaching and acidification from rising CO2 which reduces growth rates. Threat levels have increased dramatically over the past decade due to increased pressure from a growing coastal population depending on the reefs’ resources, especially in small island nations. If this situation continues all the world’s reefs will be under threat with the loss of thousand of animal species.
Useful websites: pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf - World Resources Institute: Reefs at Risk Revisited, report on projectreefgis.reefbase.org/ - ReefGIS: interactive map of coral reefswww.reefbase.org/ - ReefBase: A Global Information System for Coral Reefswww.wri.org/project/reefs-at-risk - World Resources Institute: raising awareness of threats to coral reefs and providing information and tools to manage coastal habitats more effectively
Coastline most at risk from sea level riseThe main contributors to current sea level rise are thermal expansion of the oceans as a result of warming temperatures and the addition of melted land ice from glaciers and ice sheets. Over geological time scales, land movements can affect coastlines too. As global temperatures rise, the sea will absorb heat from the atmosphere causing the water to expand and raise sea levels. Higher land temperatures are causing mountain glaciers and ice caps to lose mass - ie the amount of ice melting each year is greater than the amount replaced through precipitation. When melted ice is added to sea water the salinity is lowered and hence the density; lower density results in larger volume. Although there has been a net gain in ice in the East Antarctica ice sheet the amount is much lower than the loss in West Antarctica resulting in an overall negative balance for Antarctica. Apart from the actual ice sheet loss, another concern is the speed of melt; records show that the movement of some of Greenland’s ice streams towards the sea is accelerating.
Rising sea levels have wide-ranging impacts upon the natural environment through coastal erosion, wetland and floodplain inundation, salinisation of soils and loss of habitats not to mention the displaced populations. It is predicted that the risk of sea level rise will accelerate as global temperatures rise. At greatest risk will be developing countries with scant resources to adapt to the changes and densely-populated, low-lying islands with insufficient high ground to accommodate the displaced people. But with over 70% of the world’s population living on coastal plains and eleven of the world’s fifteen largest cities situated on coastal estuaries the problem is not restricted to small island nations.
Useful websites: geology.com/sea-level-rise/ - interactive Global Sea Level Rise Mapwww.climate.org/topics/sea-level/index.html - Climate Institute: Consequences of Climate Change on the Oceanswww.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter6.pdf - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on Mid-Atlantic Region
Area affected by acid rainAcid rain is the term used to describe precipitation that is more acidic than normal, caused by atmospheric pollutants from vehicle exhausts and the burning of fossil fuels. Areas affected by acid rain are found mainly in Europe, the United States of America and in China. Affected regions are generally close to highly urbanised and industrialised areas but long range transport of air pollutants can result in acid rain damage far away from the pollution sources.
Useful websites: ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/acidrain.html - United States Geological Survey: Water Science for Schoolsgreenliving.nationalgeographic.com/effects-air-pollution-acid-rain-2255.html - National Geographic articlewww.epa.gov/acidrain/what/ - United States Environmental Protection Agency article
Area suffering extreme environmental damageParts of the world are showing signs of extreme environmental stress resulting from an accumulation of factors related to human activity. Pollution, resource depletion, overexploitation, ecological degradation and climate change all contribute to lasting environmental damage. Many countries have neither the resources nor the procedures to combat these threats.
Useful websites: na.unep.net/atlas/# - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Atlas of our Changing Environment, Google Map and Google Earth interactive resources www.nrdc.org/reference/maps.asp - Natural Resources Defense Council: dynamic Google Earth maps of environmental information by regionwww.oecd.org/document/49/0,3746,en_2649_34283_39011377_1_1_1_1,00.html - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): Environmental Data Compendium - information linking pollution and natural resources with economic activity
Arctic Environmental ChangeThe Arctic is experiencing some of the most severe climate changes on earth. As sea ice melts, access to the polar regions will improve, enabling exploitation of natural resources - but at the risk of damaging the environment. As global temperatures rise, thawing permafrost will disrupt transport and infrastructure. In addition, Arctic sea ice plays a crucial role in northern hemisphere climate and ocean circulation. Arctic warming and its consequences will have worldwide implications.
Impacts of Arctic Climate Change
Arctic Climate Trends Impacts on Natural Systems Impacts on Society Rising temperatures Wetland changes Loss of hunting culture Increasing river flows Vegetation shifts Declining food security Declining snow cover Increasing fires and insects Human health concerns Increasing precipitation Northward species shifts Wildlife heard impacts Thawing permafrost Marine species at risk Expanding marine shipping Diminishing lake and river ice Land species at risk Increased access to resources Melting glaciers UV impacts Enhanced marine fisheries Melting Greenland ice sheet Old-growth forest loss Disrupted transport on land Retreating summer sea ice Carbon cycle changes Decline in northern freshwater fisheries Rising sea level Enhanced agriculture and forestry Ocean salinity change source Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
Useful websites: maps.grida.no/go/graphic/towns-and-industrial-activities-in-the-arctic#metainfo - UNEP GRID Arendal articlewww.acia.uaf.edu/ - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment: Impacts of a Warming Arcticwww.eea.europa.eu/publications/MON3/page002.html - European Environment Agency: The State of the Arctic Environment
DeforestationTropical rainforests are rich ecosystems that play a fundamental role in the basic functioning of the planet. They are home to 50% of the world’s species with an immense variety of biological and genetic resources. In addition, rainforests help maintain the climate by regulating atmospheric gases and stabilizing rainfall, protect against desertification, and provide numerous other ecological functions. Clearing of primary forest to make way for agricultural crops and livestock and reclamation for human habitation are the main issues in the destruction and degradation of the world’s forests although severe drought and forest fires have contributed to the large loss of forest in Australia since 2000.
The rate of deforestation worldwide is showing signs of decreasing but is still alarmingly high. Large scale planting of trees in some countries is significantly reducing the net loss globally. For example, afforestation in China, ie planting of areas not forested in recent times, accounted for nearly three million hectares between 2000 and 2010.
Annual Change in Forest Area 2000-2010
Useful websites: www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2000e/i2000e00.htm - Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations: State of the World’s Forests 2011www.fao.org/forestry/fra/fra2010/en/ - Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010www.globalforestwatch.org/english/index.htm - World Resources Institute: information and interactive maps
UrbanisationMuch urban growth is due to natural increase (more births than deaths) but migration is also a major factor. People are moving from depressed rural areas to the cities in search of work and a better life. But often the anticipated social and economic opportunites are not to be found and the people become part of the urban poor, living in make-shift shelters without basic services such as clean water and sanitation. Slum dwellers are not only at risk from disease through their living conditions but also environmental hazards - deteriorating air quality, traffic congestion and fumes and industrial pollution - as the infrastructure struggles to cope with the influx of people. In 2010 about 7% of the world’s population lived in urban areas of over 10 million people but most of the new growth will occur in smaller towns and cities, which have fewer resources to respond to the magnitude of the change.
Distribution of Urban and Rural Population 2010
Largest Urban Agglomerations Urban Population Growth Rates
Rank Country Country Population Rank Country Urban Growth 1 Tōkyō Japan 34,400,000 1 Burundi 6.8% 2 Guangzhou China 25,400,000 2 Laos 5.6% 3 Sŏul South Korea 25,200,000 2 Liberia 5.6% 4 Shanghai China 24,900,000 4 Afghanistan 5.4% 5 Delhi India 23,500,000 4 Eritrea 5.4% 6 Mumbai India 23,200,000 6 Maldives 5.3% 7 Mexico City Mexico 23,000,000 7 Malawi 5.2% 8 New York USA 22,000,000 8 Congo (Dem. Rep.) 5.1% 9 São Paulo Brazil 21,000,000 9 Burkina Faso 5.0% 10 Manila Philippines 20,400,000 9 East Timor 5.0% source: www.citypopulation.de
Useful websites: data.worldbank.org/topic/urban-development - World Bank, Urban Developmentwww.ourfutureplanet.org/newsletters/resources/IIED-Environment%20and%20Urbanisation%20Brief.pdf - International Institute for Environment and Development: Environment and Urbanization Briefwww.unfpa.org/pds/urbanization.htm - United Nations Population Fund, Urbanization: A Majority in Citieswww.unfpa.org/swp/ - United Nations Population Fund: State of World Population 2011
Land DegradationLand degradation as a result of human actions is becoming more severe in many parts of the world with reduced productivity and loss of biodiversity leading to food insecurities, socio-economic problems, migration and ecosystem damage. Negative impacts are most severe in countries whose economies depend on agriculture. Climate change will add to the problem - for example, seawater inundation as a result of sea-level rise will cause levels of salinity to rise and agriculture to become impossible, especially in river deltas and low-lying areas.
Main Factors Affecting Land Degradation Land cover Temperature and thermal regime Urban development Rainfall regime Livestock pressure Dominant soils and terrain slope Irrigation Population density Crops Poverty
Useful websites: www.fao.org/nr/lada/ - LADA: Land Degradation Assessment in Drylandswww.un.org/earthwatch/desertification/landdegradation.html - UN System-Wide Earthwatch: Land Degradationwww.undp.org/climatechange/adapt/maps/land.html - United Nations Development Programme: Impact of Climate Change on Land Degradationwww.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/desert/en/index.html - World Health Organization: Land Degradation and Desertification
CO emissions 2007
>5,000 million tonnes
1,001 - 5,000 million tonnes
251 - 1,000 million tonnes
50 - 250 million tonnes
< 50 million tonnes
source: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
N O R T HAT L A N T I C
O C E A N
N O R T HP A C I F I CO C E A N
S O U T HAT L A N T I C
O C E A N
ARCTIC OCEAN
S O U T H E R N O C E A N
S O U T H P A C I F I CO C E A N
I N D I A NO C E A N
N O R T HP A C I F I CO C E A N
ARCTIC OCEAN
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Cancer
C H I N AU S A
INDIA
JAPAN
R U S S I A N F E D E R AT I O N
CO emissions per capita 2007
>25 tonnes
11-25 tonnes
6 - 10 tonnes
2 - 5 tonnes
< 2 tonnes
B Bahrain BE Belgium BR Brunei C Cyprus F Finland FI Falkland Isls G Germany GR Greece IRE Ireland K Kuwait L Luxembourg N Netherlands NC New Caledonia Q Qatar S Slovakia SK South Korea TT Trinidad & Tobago
Climate InfluencesClimate change is one of the greatest environmental issues affecting our planet, evidenced in global temperature rise, warming oceans, sea level rise, shrinking ice sheets, declining Arctic sea-ice, glacial retreat, extreme weather events, ocean acidification and changing wildlife behaviour. Although climate change can be part of a natural cycle, it is the human activities such as burning of fossil fuels that create increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, causing the Earth to warm to abnormal levels. In addition, changes in land use from the cutting down of forests for agriculture or urbanisation leaves the land with considerably less capacity to store CO2.
A significant part of CO2 emissions comes from energy production, industrial processing and transport. Rich countries have historically emitted most of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases since the start of the industrial revolution in the 18th Century. As developing countries strive to improve their standard of living, their production of greenhouse gases increases. As the climate continues to warm, coupled with the effects of El Niño and La Niña, and disruption of thermohaline circulation, more changes are expected to occur and many effects will become more pronounced over time.
CO2 Emissions 2007
Useful websites: www.environbusiness.com/CChange/cchuman.html - Environmental Business and Information Service: Human Contributions to Climate Change and Global Warmingwww.epa.gov/climatechange/downloads/Climate_Change_Science_Facts.pdf - United States Environmental Protection Agency: Climate Change Science Factswww.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/news/documents/1075_en.pdf - World Meteorological Organization: Weather Extremes in a Changing Climate
The Environmental World map is published by Global Mapping and is available from all good map shops or from www.mapstop.co.uk ISBN: 9781905755547
