The Essentials of Greek Grammar - A Reference for Intermediate Readers of Attic Greek

7/25/2019 The Essentials of Greek Grammar - A Reference for Intermediate Readers of Attic Greek

1/149

A R E F E R E N C E F O R

I N T E R M E D I A T E R E A D E R S

O F AT T I C G R E E K

L O U I S E P R A T T

THE ESSENTIALS OF

GREEK GRAMMAR


2/149

THEESSENTIALSOFGREEKGRAMMAR

Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture


3/149

Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture

SERIES EDIOR

Ellen Greene, University o Oklahoma

ADVISORY BOARD

Susan Guettel Cole, State University o New York, BuffaloCarolyn J. Dewald, Bard CollegeTomas M. Falkner, Te College o Wooster

Elaine Fantham, Princeton UniversityNancy Felson, University o GeorgiaHelene P. Foley, Barnard CollegeSara Mack, University o North Carolina, Chapel HillTomas R. Martin, College o the Holy CrossJohn F. Miller, University o VirginiaJon Solomon, University o ArizonaRichard F. Tomas, Harvard University


4/149

The Essentials of Greek Grammar

A Reerence or Intermediate Readers o Attic Greek

Louise Pratt

University o Oklahoma Press : Norman


5/149

Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pratt, Louise H., 1960

Te essentials o Greek grammar : a reerence or intermediate readers o Attic Greek /Louise Pratt. p. cm. (Oklahoma series in classical culture ; 39) ISBN 978-0-8061-4143-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Greek languageGrammar. I. itle.

PA258.P77 2010 485dc22 2010020147

Te Essentials o Greek Grammar: A Reerence or Intermediate Readers o Attic Greekis Volume

39 in the Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture.

Te paper in this book meets the guidelines or permanence and durability o the Committeeon Production Guidelines or Book Longevity o the Council on Library Resources, Inc.

Copyright 2010 by the University o Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division o theUniversity. Manuactured in the U.S.A.

All rights reserved. No part o this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted, in any orm or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,

or otherwiseexcept as permitted under Section 107 or 108 o the United States CopyrightActwithout the prior written permission o the University o Oklahoma Press.


6/149

v

CONTENTS

Detailed Contents viiPreface and Acknowledgments xvii

Abbreviations and Typographic Conventions xix

Part 1. Forms 1

Article and Pronouns 31. Denite article 323. Personal pronouns 345. Relative pronouns 4

Adjectives 5610. First/second declension adjectives 5

1113. Demonstrative adjectives 61417. Tird declension adjectives 71821. Mixed-declension adjectives 82224. Comparative and superlative adjectives 9

Participles 1125. Present participle o 112633. Active participles 113440. Middle-passive participles 15

Nouns 1841. Summary o noun endings 1842. First declension 1943. Second declension 194447. Tird declension 20

Verbs 224851. Summary o verb endings 225255. Regular verbs 2856. Second (strong) aorist 33

5759. Contract verbs 346063. Athematic (-) verbs 3764. Root aorist 446566. Irregular verbs 45


7/149

vi

6769. Dual Forms 477071. Numerals 49

Part 2. Essentials of Greek Syntax 51

Nouns and Pronouns 537275. Common uses o the nominative 537688. Common uses o the accusative 5489105. Common uses o the genitive 57106118. Common uses o the dative 62119. Common uses o the vocative 64120121. Uses shared by all cases (comparison, apposition) 65

Adjectives 66122124. Basic uses o the adjective 66125128. Verbal adjectives 68129135. Relative clauses 69

Verbs: Finite 74136. Person and number 74137. Voice: active, middle, passive 75138. Deponent verbs 75139. Semideponent verbs 75140159. Mood 76

140145. Indicative mood 76146. Imperative mood 77147154. Subjunctive mood 78155159. Optative mood 80

160162. Common uses o 82163165. Conditional sentences 85

Verbs: Nonnite (Participle and Innitive) 87

166178. Participles 87179185. Uses o the innitive 92

186191. Denite Article 97Miscellanea 101

192199. Uses o 101200205. Uses o 102206. Anastrophe 104207. Crasis 104

208. Prolepsis (anticipation) 104Appendix: 247 Common Attic Verbs and Their Principal Parts 107Index of English Terms 119Index of Greek Terms 125


8/149

vi i

Detailed Contents

Part 1. Forms 1

Article and Pronouns 31. : denite article 32. , , , , , : personal pronouns 33. -- 44. : relative pronoun 45. /: indenite relative pronoun 4Adjectives 56. First/second declension adjective (nominative endings: ---) 57. First/second declension adjective (nominative endings: ---) 5

8. wo-termination second declension adjective (nominative endings:--) 5

9. : irregular rst/second declension adjective 610. : irregular rst/second declension adjective 611. : demonstrative adjective 612. : demonstrative adjective 713. : demonstrative adjective 714. Regular third declension adjective (nominative endings: --) 7

15. (-): interrogative pronoun/adjective (third declension) 816. (-): indenite pronoun/adjective (third declension) 817. Contracted third declension adjective (nominative endings: --) 818. (-): mixed-declension adjective 819. (-): mixed-declension adjective 920. Mixed-declension adjective (nominative endings: ---) 921. Mixed-declension adjective (nominative endings: ---) 922. Regular comparative and superlative adjectives 923. Irregular comparative and superlative adjectives 10

24. Irregular comparative adjective (declension) 10Participles 1125. : present participle o 1126. --: present active participle o regular verb () 11


9/149

vi ii

27. Present active participles o contract verbs (, , ) 1228. Present active participles o -verbs 1229. Future active participles 1230. --: rst (weak) aorist active participle 1331. --: second (strong) aorist active participle 1332. Aorist active participle o -verbs and root aorists 1433. --: perect active participle 1434. --: present middle-passive participle o regular verb 1535. Present middle-passive participles o contract and -verbs 1536. Future middle and passive participles 1537. Aorist middle participles 16

38. --: aorist passive participle 1639. Summary o middle-passive participles o a regular verb () 1740. Summary o middle-passive participles o a verb with variant

principal parts () 17Nouns 1841. Summary o noun endings 1842. First declension (examples) 19 - 19 -

19 - 19

- 19

- 1943. Second declension (examples) 19

- 19

- 19

- 1944. Tird declension: consonant stem (examples) 20

20 20

20

2045. Tird declension: sigma stem (examples) 20

- 20 - 20 - 20

-

2046. Tird declension: other stems (examples) 21 - 21 - 21


10/149

ix

- 21

- 21

- 2147. Tird declension: irregular nouns 21

21

21Verbs 2248. Summary o verb endings (regular verbs): present/imperect system 22 Present active 22 Present middle-passive 22 Imperect 22

49. Summary o verb endings: uture system 23 Future active 23 Future middle 23 Future passive 2350. Summary o verb endings: aorist system 24 First (weak) aorist active 24 First (weak) aorist middle 24 Aorist passive 24

Second (strong) aorist active 25 Second (strong) aorist middle 25 Root aorist 2551. Summary o verb endings: perect system 26 Perect active 26 Perect middle-passive 26 Pluperect active 26 Pluperect middle-passive 26 Future perect 27

52. Regular verb (): present/imperect system 2853. Regular verb (): uture system 2954. Regular verb (): aorist system (or verbs with rst/weak aorist) 3055. Regular verb (): perect system 3156. Verb with second (strong) aorist (): aorist system 3357. Alpha-contract verb (): present/imperect system 3458. Epsilon-contract verb (): present/imperect system 3559. Omicron-contract verb (): present/imperect system 36

60. Athematic (-) verbs: present/imperect system 3761. Athematic (-) verbs: uture system 4062. Athematic (-) verbs: aorist system 4163. Athematic (-) verbs: perect system 43


11/149

x

64. Verbs with root aorist (, ,): aorist system 4465. Irregular verbs: present/imperect system 4566. Irregular verbs: uture system 46Dual Forms 4767. Dual endings or nouns, adjectives, and participles 4768. Dual orms o denite article, , and rst-person and

second-person pronoun 4769. Basic dual endings or verbs 47 Present, uture, perect active 48 Imperect and pluperect active indicative, aorist active and passive 48 Present, uture, perect middle and passive 48

Imperect and pluperect middle-passive indicative, aorist middle 48Numerals 4970. Greek number system 4971. Numerals with irregular declensions 50

Part 2. Essentials of Greek Syntax 51

Nouns and Pronouns 53Common uses o the nominative

72. Nominative subject o a nite verb 5373. Predicate nominative 5374. Nominative in apposition, renaming the subject 5475. Nominative in comparison to the subject, afer a comparative + 54

Common uses o the accusative

76. Accusative as direct object o a transitive verb 5477. Cognate accusative 5478. Predicate accusative 5479. Double accusative 55

80. Accusative time phrase, to express duration 5581. Adverbial accusative 5582. Accusative o respect 5583. Accusative subject o innitive 5684. Accusative subject o indirect statement with innitive or participle 5685. Accusative in many impersonal constructions 5686. Accusative with + supplementary participle 5687. Accusative object o prepositions 57

88. Accusative in oaths 57Common uses o the genitiveGenitives used to modify nouns

89. Genitive o possession 5790. Genitive o description 58


12/149

xi

91. Subjective genitive 58 92. Objective genitive 58

Genitives that do not modify nouns

93. Partitive genitive (genitive o the whole) 58 94. Genitive o comparison 59 95. Genitive o time within which 59 96. Subject o a genitive absolute 59 97. Genitive o value or price 59 98. Genitive o cause 60 99. Genitive o source 60100. Genitive object o many verbs 60

101. Genitive o separation 61102. Genitive with certain adjectives 61103. Genitive object o prepositions 61104. Predicate genitive o characteristic 61105. Genitive o exclamation 62

Common uses o the dative

106. Dative as indirect object 62107. Dative o the possessor (dative o possession) 62

108. Dative o means 62109. Dative o manner 62110. Dative o respect 63111. Dative o degree o difference 63112. Dative o time when 63113. Ethical dative 63114. Dative o personal agent 63115. Dative in impersonal constructions 64116. Dative with certain adjectives 64

117. Dative object o certain verbs 64118. Dative object o certain prepositions 64

Common uses o the vocative

119. Vocative o direct address 64Uses shared by all cases

120. Apposition 65121. Case use in comparisons 65Adjectives 66

Tree basic uses o the adjective122. Attributive use o the adjective: the beautiulship, a wiseman 66123. Predicate use o the adjective: the ship is beautiul, the woman

was wise 66124. Substantive use o the adjective: I seek thegood. Te wiseprevail. 67


13/149

xi i

Verbal adjectives

125. Verbal adjectives in - 68

126. Personal (passive) construction o verbal adjectives in-

68127. Impersonal neuter (active) construction o verbal adjectives in - 68128. Verbal adjectives in - 69

Relative clauses

129. Relative clause and antecedent: basic denitions 69

130. Normal agreement o relative pronouns or adjectives in relative clauses 69

131. Suppressed antecedent/substantival relative clauses 70

132. Attraction o relative pronoun 71

133. Combination o suppressed antecedent and attraction 71

134. Moods in relative clauses 71135. Relative adjectives and their correlative demonstrative adjectives

in relative clauses 72

Verbs: Finite 74

136. Person and number 74

137. Voice: active, middle, passive 75

138. Deponent verbs 75

139. Semideponent verbs 75

Mood: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optativeIndicative mood

140. Indicative mood: normal uses o the tenses in statements, questions,

and many dependent clauses 76

141. Imperect and aorist indicative in contrary-to-act conditions 76

142.+ uture indicative: see to it that 77143. + uture indicative: emphatic denial or urgent prohibition 77144. Ingressive aorist 77

145. Gnomic aorist 77Imperative mood

146. Imperative mood to issue direct commands 77

Subjunctive mood

Subjunctive mood: three common independent uses

147. Hortatory subjunctive 78

148. Deliberative subjunctive 78

149. Prohibitive subjunctive 78

Subjunctive mood: two additional independent uses

150. Subjunctive with in cautious assertion; in cautious denial 79151. Subjunctive with in urgent prohibition or emphatic denial 79


14/149

xiii

Subjunctive mood: three common dependent uses

152. Subjunctive with in a conditional, relative, or temporal clause 79153. Subjunctive afer, , , or in a purpose clause or in

an effort clauses when purpose implied 80154. Subjunctive afer in a ear clause or uture 80

Optative mood

Optative mood: two common independent uses

155. Optative o wish or uture 80156. Potential optative 80

Optative mood: three common dependent uses

157. Optative in uture-less-vivid condition 81

158. Optative in indirect statements or questions 81159. Optative replacing subjunctive in dependent clauses afer a main

verb in secondary (past) tense 81 a. past general 81 b. optative to replace subjunctive in purpose clauses (afer , ,

,) in secondary sequence 82 c. optative to replace subjunctive in ear clauses (afer verb o

earing +) in secondary sequence 82

Common uses o 160. + subjunctive 82161. + optative 83162. + indicative 84

Conditional sentences

163. Conditions without 85164. Summary o important conditions 85165. Examples o important conditions 86Verbs: Nonnite (Participle and Innitive) 87

Participles166. Participle: denition and general principles 87167. ense/aspect o participle 88

Four basic uses of the participle

168. Attributive use o the participle 88169. Substantive use o the participle 89170. Supplementary use o the participle 89171. Circumstantial use o the participle 90

Special uses of the circumstantial and supplementary participle172. Future participle (circumstantial), with or without, indicatespurpose 90


15/149

xiv

173. + participle (circumstantial) usually has conditional (i ) orce 90174. + participle (circumstantial) has causal (because, since) orce 90175. + participle (circumstantial) has concessive (although) orce 91176. Participle (circumstantial) in a genitive absolute 91177. Participle (circumstantial) in an accusative absolute 91178. Participle (supplementary) serving as the verb in indirect discourse 92

Uses o the innitive

179. Complementary innitive 92180. Objective innitive 93181. Explanatory or epexegetical innitive 93182. Innitive acting as a noun in a sentence 93

183. Innitive in impersonal constructions 94184. Innitive serving as the verb in indirect statement 94185. Innitive serving as the verb in a natural result clause (afer )

or a -clause 95Denite Article 97186. Denite article with a noun or an adjective + noun 97187. Denite article to create attributive phrases 97188. Denite article omitted on predicate 98

189. Denite article without a noun to create a substantive 98190. Denite article with no noun or adjective expressed, accompanying. . . 99

191. Denite article beore -- 99Miscellanea 101

Uses o192.+ indicative (or participle) 101193.in exclamations 101194.in indirect statements 102

195.in indirect questions 102196.+ uture participle 102197.+ subjunctive or optative 102198.+ superlative adjective or adverb 102199.+ accusative o person 102

Uses o 200. in nominative to emphasize the subject 102201. alone, not in the nominative, as third-person pronoun 103

202. in predicate position to emphasize nouns and pronouns 103203. (denite article) + = the same 103204. Denite article + in crasis 103205. With a rough breathing (), is contracted rom reexive

104


16/149


17/149


18/149

xvii

Preface and Acknowledgments

Te primary purpose o this volume is to give, in a reasonably compact and acces-sible ormat, the most essential grammar needed to read texts in Attic Greek,

material taught in most rst-year courses in ancient Greek. Tis text is to serveas a reminder o that material in a ormat intended to help intermediate readersmaster it. First-year students who used an inductive reading-based textbook par-ticularly will appreciate and prot rom the outline ormat provided here.

Tis reerence does not cover every grammatical point o Attic Greek, only itsmost common eatures. Students wanting a uller account will have to turn to oneo the standard Greek grammars, such as H. W. Smyths Greek Grammar(2nd ed.rev. by G. M. Messing; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). Tis bookalso does not seek to teach grammar to beginners; or more detailed inormationat a beginning level, students will need to go back to their rst-year textbooks.

Tis book originated in handouts distributed to students to serve as check-lists or review o material taught in rst year. Tis nal version is specicallydesigned to support my textbook or second-year Greek: Eros at the Banquet:Reviewing Greek with Platos Symposium(Norman: University o Oklahoma Press,2011)hence, the large number o examples drawn rom the SymposiumbutI hope that people teaching other courses will nd the book useul as a reer-ence as well, either as a review at the end o rst-year Greek or as a reerence or

intermediate students. I have now used versions o this material with groups ostudents who learned Greek rom the Joint Association o Classical eachersReading Greek(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), Anne H. GrotonsFrom Alpha to Omega(Newburyport, Mass.: Focus, 2000), and Hardy Hansenand Gerald M. Quinns Greek: An Intensive Approach(New York: Fordham Uni-versity Press, 1992), as well as with individual students taught using variousother textbooks and approaches, including Maurice Balme and Gilbert Lawalls

Athenaze(Oxord: Oxord University Press, 2003) and Donald J. Mastronardes

Introduction to Attic Greek(Berkeley: University o Caliornia Press, 1993).Students who have learned Greek using theJAC Reading Greektexts or anotherGreek text published outside North America should be advised that all declensionsin this textbook are given in the standard American order: nominative, genitive,


19/149

xviii

dative, accusative. I they are not ready to make the transition to standard Americanpractice, they will need to use their rst-year text as a reerence or declensions.

I am enormously grateul to my students or the many comments and helpulsuggestions or improvements they have provided over the years, as well as to theauthors o all the rst-year textbooks mentioned here rom whose lucid explanations,examples, and strategies I have learned much. I have also proted rom consultingC. A. E. LushnigsAn Introduction to Ancient Greek(New York: Scribner, 1975) andAlston Hurd Chase and Henry Phillips Jr.sA New Introduction to Greek (rev. ed.;Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958). Peter Bing and Mike Lippman (whoused versions o the original outline in their intermediate classes), Garth issol, andDebbie Fetter (who entered an early version o this volume into Braille or her son)

provided helpul eedback and support, as did the wonderul readers and editorso the University o Oklahoma Press. For their hard work and patience in the nalstages o the books production, I am particularly grateul to my copyeditor, DavidAiken, and my ormer student, Benjamin Cook. All have done a great deal to rein inmy natural tendency toward inconsistency; I hope that I have managed to incorporatethe majority o the useul suggestions given to me and apologize or any weaknessesthat remain.

Finally, I thank the Emory College o Arts and Sciences and the Laney School

o Graduate Studies o Emory University or the nancial support they gave tothe publication o this project and the Emory College Center or eaching andCurriculum or assistance in the early stages o its development.


20/149

xix

Abbreviations and Typographic Conventions

*- Asterisk + hyphen immediately preceding a verb orm (e.g., *-)indicates that a verb occurs in that orm only with a prex. Te

breathing mark is included to indicate the presence or absence othe hsound, which affects the orm the prex takes (e.g., rom - + *-).

boldace Boldace type is used in the charts to highlight inormation oparticular signicance in that chart. Endings in boldace should bememorized, as these endings are ound on many words. An entireword in boldace indicates an exceptional orm in a declensionor conjugation that is otherwise predictable. Note, however, thatindividual orms in irregular conjugations and declensions are nothighlighted; the assumption is that the entire chart needs the samedegree o attention.

[ ] Square brackets in charts enclose uncontracted versions o endingsthat undergo contraction in Attic. Some o these uncontractedversions are ound in other dialects and can help students see therelationship between contracted and regular orms o the endings,aiding memory.

1aor. rst aorist (also called weak aorist)1per. rst perect1st rst person2aor. second aorist (also called strong aorist)2nd second person2per. second perect3rd third personabs. absolute

acc. accusativeact. activeadj. adjectiveadv. adverb


21/149

xx

aor. aoristartic. articularaug. augmentcompar. comparativecompl. complementconj. conjunctioncontr. contractedcorrel. correlativedat. dativedecl. declensionde. art. denite article

demonst. demonstrativedir. directem. eminineut. uturegen. genitiveimpera. imperativeimper. imperectimpers. impersonal, impersonally

indecl. indeclinableinde. indeniteindic. indicativeindir. indirectin. innitiveinterrog. interrogativeintrans. intransitiveirreg. irregularmasc. masculine

mid. middleneut. neuternom. nominativeobj. object, objectiveopt. optativepart. participlepass. passiveper. perect

pers. personpl. pluralpluper. pluperectpred. predicate


22/149


23/149


24/149

Part 1

Forms


25/149


26/149

3

Article and Pronouns

1 Denite article

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing. nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. acc. pl.

2 Personal pronouns

1st sing. (I, me) 2nd sing. (you) 3rd sing. (him, her, it)*

nom. sing. gen. sing. / / dat. sing. / / acc. sing. / /

1st pl. (we, us) 2nd pl. (you) 3rd pl. (they, them)*

nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. ()acc. pl.

*Rare in Attic prose, where demonstratives(, , ) or oblique (non-nominative) cases oare used instead.


27/149

4

3 - - (singular him, her, it, sel; plural them, selves)(200205)

masc. fem. neut.


4 (who, which, that, etc.): relative pronoun (129135)

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing.

nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. acc. pl.

5 / (who[ever], someone/anyone who, which[ever],something/anything which, etc.): indenite relative pronoun (129135)

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing. /(in Plato) gen. sing. / / dat. sing. / / acc. sing. /(in Plato) nom. pl. / gen. pl. / / dat. pl. ()/ () ()/ acc. pl. /


28/149


29/149

6

9 (singularmuch;pluralmany): irregular rst/seconddeclension adjective (c. 3, 13)

masc. fem. neut.


10 (great, big): irregular rst/second declensionadjective

masc. fem. neut.


11 (singularthis;pluralthese): demonstrative adjective(c. 3, 9, 13)

masc. fem. neut.



30/149

7

12 (singularthat;pluralthose): demonstrative adjec-tive (c. 3, 9, 11, 13)

masc. fem. neut.


13 (singularthis [here], this [ollowing];pluralthese [here],these [ollowing]): demonstrative adjective

masc. fem. neut.


14 Regular third declension adjective (nominative endings: --)

masc./fem. neut.

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing. nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. () () acc. pl.


31/149


32/149


33/149


34/149


35/149

12

27 Present active participles o contract verbs (e.g., , , ): ing

Decline essentially like present active participle o regular verbs (26), butnominative singular orms and stems are slightly different.

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: (alpha-contract) stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: (epsilon-contract) stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: (omicron-contract) stem: - stem: - stem: -

28 Present active participles o -verbs: ing Decline essentially like present active participle o regular verbs (26), but

nominative singular orms can look very different.

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.:

stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: -

29 Future active participles: about to , in order to

Decline like present active participle (26), but uses the uture stem (secondprincipal part minus ending).

Many verbs consistently use the middle voice in the uture; such verbs will, ocourse, have a uture participle that uses middle endings (34).

Some verbs are epsilon-contract in the uture and will use epsilon-contractorms and stems (27).


36/149


37/149

14

32 Aorist active participle o - verbs and root aorists: ing, uponing, having ed

Follows the basic active participle declension (26, 31), although nominativesingular orms and stems vary.

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: - nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: -

(root aor.) nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: -(root aor.) nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: -(root aor.) nom. sing.: nom. sing.: nom. sing.: stem: - stem: - stem: -

33 Perect active participle: having ed

perect active stem (ourth principal part minus ending) + ---

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing. nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. () () acc. pl.


38/149


39/149

16

37 Aorist middle participles: upon ing, having ed, ing

[onesel, or onesel], etc.

decline like present middle-passive participle (34) but use different stems rst/weak aorist middle participle: aorist stem (third principal part minus

temporal augment and ending) + --- second/strong aorist middle participle: aorist stem (third principal part minus

temporal augment and ending) + --- or stems o athematic (-) verbs, see chart below

masc. nom. sing. fem. nom. sing. neut. nom. sing.

* *- *- *-

*has a regular rst (weak) aorist.

38 Aorist passive participle: upon being ed, having been ed,

ed, etc.

ollows the basic declension pattern o active participles (26, 30, 31, 33)

aorist passive stem (sixth principal part minus temporal augment and ending)+ - --

masc. fem. neut.

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing. nom. pl.

gen. pl. dat. pl. () () acc. pl.


40/149


41/149

18

41 Summary o noun endings

Te letters that ollow the number o the declension (e.g., 1a, 2b) are used to dis-

tinguish variant types within the same basic declension. Tey are nearly identi-cal to those used by the Joint Association o Classical eachers in the ReadingGreek series (but 3c and 3d are reversed and 1e is an innovation).

3rd decl.

1st decl. 2nd decl. (consonant stem)

fem. masc. masc./fem. neut. masc./fem. neut.

1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 2a 2b 3a 3b

nom. sing. - - - - - - - gen. sing. - - - - - - - - -dat. sing. - - - - - - - - -acc. sing. - - - - - - - - nom. pl. - - - - - - - - -gen. pl. - - - - - - - - -dat. pl. - - - - - - - -()* -()*acc. pl. - - - - - - - - -

*Dative plural of third declension: in the third declension, when the consonant of the stem meets the

-of the dative plural ending, these forms result (with some exceptions): , , + -= - + -= - + -= - , , + -= - + -= - + -= - , , + -= -

Nouns


42/149


43/149

20

44 Tird declension: consonant stem (examples)

3a (masc.) 3a (fem.) 3a (masc.) 3b (neut.)

nom. sing. gen. sing. dat. sing. acc. sing. nom. pl. gen. pl. dat. pl. ()* () () ()

acc. pl.

*Te absence o rho here is exceptional.

45 Tird declension: sigma stem (examples)

An original sigma in the stem has allen out between two vowels, with aresulting contraction o two vowels.

3c (fem.) 3c (masc.) 3d (neut.) 3d (neut.)

- - - -

nom. sing. [-] gen. sing. [-] [-] [-]dat. sing. acc. sing. [-] nom. pl. [-] [-] [-]gen. pl. [-] [-] [-]dat. pl. () () ()acc. pl.

[-

]

[-

]


44/149


45/149


46/149

23

49 Summary o verb endings: uture system

Future active

uture stem (second principal part minus ending) + endings in chart below indic. opt. nonnite

1st sing. - - part. nom. sing. (29) 2nd sing. - - masc.-(--) 3rd sing. - - em.- 1st pl. - - neut.-(--) 2nd pl. - - inf. 3rd pl. -() - -

Future middle

uture stem (second principal part minus ending) + endings in chart below

indic. opt. nonnite

1st sing. - - part. nom. sing. (36) 2nd sing. -/- - masc.- 3rd sing. - - em.- 1st pl. - - neut.- 2nd pl. - - inf. 3rd pl. - - -

Future passive

aorist passive stem (sixth principal part minus temporal augment and ending)+ endings in chart below

indic. opt. nonnite

1st sing. - - part. nom. sing. (36) 2nd sing. -/- - masc.- 3rd sing. - - em.- 1st pl. - - neut.- 2nd pl. - - inf. 3rd pl. - - -


47/149


48/149

25

Second (strong) aorist active

or verbs with third principal part ending in - aorist stem (third principal part minus temporal augment and ending) +

endings in chart below temporal augment on indicative only

indic. (aug.) impera. subju. opt. nonnite

1st sing. - - - part. nom. sing. (31)2nd sing. - - - - masc.-(--)3rd sing. -() - - - em.-1st pl. - - - neut.-(--)2nd pl. - - - - inf.

3rd pl. - - -() - -

Second (strong) aorist middle

or verbs with third principal part ending in -or - aorist stem (third principal part minus temporal augment and ending) +

endings in chart below temporal augment on indicative only


1st sing. - - - part. nom. sing. (34)2nd sing. - - - - masc.-3rd sing. - - - - em.-1st pl. - - - neut.-2nd pl. - - - - inf.3rd pl. - - - - -

Root aorist

or verbs with third principal part ending in -

aorist stem (third principal part minus temporal augment and ending) +endings in chart below

temporal augment on indicative only


1st sing. - - - part. nom. sing. (30)2nd sing. - - - - masc.-(--)3rd sing. - - - em.-1st pl. - - - neut.-(--)

2nd pl. - - - - inf.3rd pl. - - -() - -


49/149

26

51 Summary o verb endings: perect system

Perfect active

perect active stem (ourth principal part minus ending) + endings in chartbelow

indic. impera.* subju.* opt.* nonnite

1st sing. - - - part. nom. sing. (33)2nd sing. - - - - masc.-(--)3rd sing. -() - - - em.-1st pl. - - - neut.-(--)2nd pl. - - - - inf.3rd pl. -() - -() - -*

*Or perect active participle + appropriate orm o .

Perfect middle-passive

perect middle-passive stem (fh principal part minus ending) + endings inchart below

indic. impera. subju.* opt.* nonnite

1st sing. - part.+ part.+ part. nom. sing. (34)

2nd sing. - - part.+ part.+ masc.-3rd sing. - - part.+ part.+ em.-1st pl. - part.+ part.+ neut.-2nd pl. - - part.+ part.+ inf.3rd pl. - - part.+ part.+ -

*Perect middle-passive participle + appropriate orm o.

Pluperfect active

temporal augment + perect active stem (ourth principal part minus ending)

+ endings in chart below

Pluperfect middle-passive

temporal augment + perect middle-passive stem (fh principal part minusending) + endings in chart below

act. indic. mid.-pass. indic.

1st sing. -/- - 2nd sing. -/- -

3rd sing. - - 1st pl. - - 2nd pl. - - 3rd pl. - -


50/149

27

Future perfect

occurs only in middle-passive: uture perect middle-passive stem (usuallyourth principal part minus -) + endings in chart below

indic. opt. nonnite

1st sing. - - part. nom. sing. (34) 2nd sing. - - masc.- 3rd sing. - - em.- 1st pl. - - neut.- 2nd pl. - - inf. 3rd pl. - - -


51/149


52/149

29

53 Regular verb (): uture system uture active and middle: uture stem (second principal part minus ending) +

regular endings (49) uture passive: aorist passive stem (sixth principal part minus temporal

augment and ending) + regular endings (49)

act. mid. pass.

fut. indic. 1st sing. 2nd sing. / 3rd sing. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. () fut. opt. 1st sing. 2nd sing. 3rd sing. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. fut. part. nom. sing. -- -- --fut. inf.


53/149


54/149

31

55 Regular verb (): perect system perect active: perect active stem (ourth principal part minus ending) +

perect endings (51) perect middle and passive: perect middle-passive stem (fh principal part

minus ending) + perect endings (51) or (ofen) perect middle-passiveparticiple + appropriate orm o

temporal augment on pluperect only rare uture perect middle-passive built on reduplicated stem + --

act. mid.-pass.

perf. indic. 1st sing. 2nd sing. 3rd sing. () 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. () perf. impera. 2nd sing. 3rd sing. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. perf. subju. 1st sing.

2nd sing. 3rd sing. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. () ()perf. opt. 1st sing. 2nd sing. 3rd sing. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. perf. part. nom. sing. -- --perf. inf.


55/149


56/149


57/149

34

57 Alpha-contract verb (): present/imperect system

act. mid.-pass.

pres. indic. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-/-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. ()[-] [-]pres. impera. 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-]

3rd pl. [-] [-]pres. subju. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-/-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. ()[-] [-]pres. opt. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-]

1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. [-] [-]pres. part. nom. sing. -- -- [---] [---]pres. inf. [-]* [-]imperf. indic. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. [-] [-]

*Te innitive ending -was originally-.


58/149

35

58 Epsilon-contract verb (): present/imperect system

act. mid.-pass.

pres. indic. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] /[-/-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. ()[-] [-]pres. impera. 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-]

3rd pl. [-] [-]pres. subju. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. ()[-] [-]pres. opt. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-]

1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. [-] [-]pres. part. nom. sing. -- -- [---] [---]pres. inf. [-] [-]imperf. indic. 1st sing. [-] [-] 2nd sing. [-] [-] 3rd sing. [-] [-] 1st pl. [-] [-] 2nd pl. [-] [-] 3rd pl. [-] [-]


59/149


60/149

60Ath

ematic(-)verbs:presen

t/imperfectsystem

(give)

(

put)

(show)

(set)

(send)

pres.

act.i

ndic.

1stsing.

2ndsing.

3rdsing.

()

()

()

()

()

1stpl.

2ndpl.

3rdpl.

()

()

()

()

()

pres.

act.impera.

2ndsing.

[-]

[-

]

[-]

[-]

[-]

3rdsing.

2ndpl.

3rdpl.

pres.

act.s

ubju.

1stsing.

2ndsing.

3rdsing.

1stpl.

2ndpl.

3rdpl.

()

()

()

()

()

pres.

act.o

pt.

1stsing.

2ndsing.

3rdsing.

1stpl.

2ndpl.

3rdpl.

pres.

act.p

art.

masc.

nom.

sing.

(

-)

(-

)

(-

)

(-

)

(-

)

(28,

26)

fem.

neut.

pres.

act.i

nf.

37


61/149


62/149


63/149


64/149


65/149


66/149


67/149


68/149


69/149


70/149


71/149


72/149

49

70 Greek number system

Words in bold and suffi xes should be memorized; the larger patterns should be

noted. Missing numbers should be recognizable rom studying the patternsbut may be challenging to produce. For the spelling o missing numbers,many o which use the adverbial rather than the ordinal stem, see H. W.Smyth, Greek Crammer, 2nd ed., rev. by G. M. Messing (Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press, 1956), sect. 347 (347).

Asterisked words (including adverbs) do not decline.

cardinal ordinal (6) adv.

1 () (one) --(rst) * (once)2 () -- *3 () -- *4 () -- * 5 () * -- *6 () [stigma] * -- *7 () * -- *8 () * -- *9 () * -- *10 (

)

*

-

-

*

11 () * -- *12 () * -- *13 () * * or1419 () *20 () ()* -- *30 () * -- *4090 () -* --- -*100 () * -- *

200 () -- -- *300 () -- -- *400900 () --- --- -*1,000 () -- -- *

Numerals


73/149

50

70 Greek number system (continued)

cardinal ordinal (6) adv.

2,000 () -- -- *3,000 () -- -- *4,0009,000 --- --- -*10,000 () -- -- *20,000 () -- -- *30,000 () -- -- *40,00090,000 --- --- -*

71 Numerals with irregular declensions

one () two ()

masc. fem. neut. masc./fem./neut.

nom. gen. dat. acc.

three () four ()

masc./fem. neut. masc./fem. neut.

nom. gen. dat. () () () ()acc.


74/149


75/149


76/149

53

Nouns and Pronouns

Common uses o the nominative (7275)

72 Nominative subject o a nite verb

in a main or dependent clause

.= This goddessdeceives everyone.;= Whowishes to learn such things?.= Tell me when this gathering

occurred.

73 Predicate nominative with a linking verb (e.g., , , ) expressed or understood renaming or labeling the subject normally distinguished rom the subject by the absence o the denite article

.= After this, Alcibiadesbecame general.

.= I am not a good poet..= He himself was chosen general. [note absence

of denite article: the general himself = ].= That man seems to me [to be] a god. [noteabsence of denite article: that god = ]

Forms o the verb may be omitted in Greek, and the reader must supplythe appropriate orm o the verb be or good English sense.

, . = Eros [is] an awesome divinity, asI think.

.= At that time Pericles [was] general.


77/149


78/149


79/149


80/149


81/149

58

= Alcestis [wife] of Admetus= Homersthing [i.e., Homers maxim or Homers line]= to Agathons [house]= at Agathons [house]= to Hades [house]= in Hades [house]

90 Genitive o description

giving material, contents, quality, or size o an object

.= Alcibiades had acrown of ivy and violets.

. = The lover [whois] of a character that is good remains throughout life. or The lover

characterized by a characterthat is good remains throughout life.

91 Subjective genitive

With nouns that denote actions, the genitive can denote the subject o the action.

= the judgment of Paris(i.e., Parisjudged.)

= the goddesss deception (i.e., The goddessdeceived.)

92 Objective genitive

With nouns that denote actions, the genitive can denote the object o the action.

= the deception of Zeus(i.e., Hera deceived Zeus.) = the desire for wealth (i.e., People desire

wealth.)

= the love of beauty(i.e., People love beauty.)

= love of Aphroditeholds [has a grip on] Ares.(i.e., Ares loves Aphrodite.) = a student of the musical art (i.e., He studies the

musical art.)

= his acts of endurance of winter orhistoughness in winter(i.e., He endures winter.)

Genitives that do not modiy nouns (93105)

93 Partitive genitive (genitive o the whole) common with a superlative, /, /, and enumerative words (,, numbers)


82/149


83/149


84/149


85/149


86/149


87/149

64

115 Dative in impersonal constructions

with, e.g., or (c. 85)

.= It is not possiblefor themto do everything.

116 Dative with certain adjectives

particularly those expressing similarity, riendliness, hostility; e.g., ,, ,

.= Odysseus tells manylies resembling [similar to] the truth.

117 Dative object o certain verbs Common verbs that use a dative object are (trust in, obey);

(ollow); (lead); (use, employ); (all upon, attack);(meet with).

translate closely with the verb

, , .= I will not obey him, since he is a bad leader, but I will followthe better leaders.

118 Dative object o certain prepositions

Usually when no movement to or away rom is implied, the dative xesthetime and place.

.= The people in the city weremost unfortunate.

Common uses o the vocative (119)

119 Vocative o direct address

used only to address people, gods, or (occasionally) things usually accompanied by never accompanied by denite article many o the orms (all plural, in act) identical to the nominative

, , ; = Why did you do these things,Socrates?

,.= Hear me, greatest [ones]., .= Hand, strike the evil woman!


88/149

65

Uses shared by all cases (120121)

120 Apposition

A noun or pronoun in any casemay be accompanied by another noun orpronoun in the same caseexplaining, describing, or renaming the rst; thesecond noun or pronoun is said to be in apposition to the rst.

.= Socrates, the great philosopher,knew nothing.

.= Hear us [who are your] miserablesuppliants.

, , .= Tell these things to our father,

the king. . = I myself am annoyed,

and I pity you, my companions.

, , .= Hear me, Zeus, fatherofmen and gods.

121 Case use in comparisons

Tere are two ways to make comparisons in Greek: (1) with a genitive o

comparison (94) or (2) with

(than). When

is used, the two things beingcompared are in the same case.

.= The manis wiser than the boy..= This old manis more foolish

than his son.

.= I hate the old manwhois more foolish than his son. or I hate the old man, since he is more

foolish than his son.


89/149

66

Tree basic uses o the adjective (122124)

122 Attributive use o the adjective; e.g., the beautifulship, a wiseman

modiying a noun with which it agrees in case, number, and gender

distinguished rom predicate use (123) by its position immediately ollowing

the denite article

the three attributive positions:

between the denite article and the noun with which it agrees (like English)

.= We are sailing on the beautifulsea..= The badsailors

are eeing from the goodmen.

afer the denite article repeated afer the noun, with the adjective appended

almost as an aferthought

= on the beautifulsea [literally, on the sea, thebeautifulone]

= the badsailors [literally, the sailors, the badones]

occasionally with the rst denite article omitted

= on the beautifulsea= from the goodmen

123 Predicate use o the adjective; e.g., the ship is beautiful, the woman

was wise

with a linking verb (e.g., , , , ) expressed orunderstood

.= The goddess became more beautiful.

.= I am not wise..= You seem clever.

Adjectives


90/149

67

Predicate position: since the linking verb can be omitted in Greek, the position

o the adjective may be important in helping to distinguish predicate use rom

attributive use (122); in predicate use the adjective does not directly ollow thedenite article.

.= The sea [is] beautiful..= The sea [is] beautiful.

Predicate adjectives can occur in cases other than the nominative; again, the posi-

tion o the adjective (not ollowing the denite article) shows that it is predicate.

.= I consider the sea beautiful.

.= The god made the citizensblessed.

An adjective in the predicate position may be used where English uses an adverb.

.= The captain, peaceful, sleeps. orThecaptain sleeps peacefully.

Demonstrative adjectives (, , ) are an exception; when used

attributively they are placed in the predicate position.

.= Thissailor is speaking..= I hate thiscity..= Go onto thatship.

124 Substantive use o the adjective; e.g., I seek thegood. Te wiseprevail.

perorms the unction o a noun

Te adjective is used with a denite article or by itsel, but without a noun.

Te gender and number o the adjective permit inerenceo the missing noun.

(Remember that Greek uses many more substantives than English, so that it

is ofen necessary to supply the missing noun or good sense in English.)

, .= Weknow many thingsabout the Athenians, fewabout the Spartans.

.= That manranswiftly through the agora into the harbor.

, .= These women

always tease the young, saying foolish things..= No oneknows anything.


91/149


92/149

69

translate: it is necessary or accusative or dativetoperorm action o the verb

[with the adjective in -given active orce] oraccusative or dativemust

perorm action o the verb.= It is necessaryfor you to ght. orYou must ght.[].= It is necessaryfor us to dothese things. or

We must dothese things.

128 Verbal adjectives in - adjective ormed rom verbal stems but distinct rom participle

carry two senses: capacity and achievement

capacity achievement

--rom capable o being heard, audible heard--rom capable o being loved, loved, desired lovable, desirable

--rom capable o being seen, visible seen

Like verbal adjectives in -, verbal adjectives in -may be accompaniedby a dative o agent.

= envied by thoseat home= loved by many

Relative clauses (129135)

129 Relative clause and antecedent: basic denitions

Relative clause acts as an adjective to describe a noun or pronoun in the main

clause o the sentence.

Te grammatical term or a noun or pronoun modied by a relative clause is

antecedent.

Te antecedent may be expressed or simply inerred rom the gender and

number o the relative pronoun or adjective (131).

Relative clause can be introduced by a relative pronoun (), an indeniterelative pronoun (), an intensied relative pronoun (), or a relative adjective (--or --).

130 Normal agreement o relative pronouns or adjectives in relative clauses

Relative pronouns and adjectives agree in gender and number with theirantecedent; the case tells the unction o the relative pronoun or adjective

within the relative clause (ollowing rules o case use; 72121).


93/149


94/149

71

132 Attraction o relative pronoun

Attraction o the relative pronoun to the case o its antecedent is also common,

thus violating the rules o normal agreement; this happens especially whenthe antecedent is a genitive or dative plural.

[instead of ] .= No oneelse of these here whomI see will speak against [the proposal].

1[instead of ].= Mygrandfather is the most handsome of allthe manyMedes whomI have

seen. orOf the Medes asmanyas I have seen my grandfather is the

most handsome.

133 Combination o suppressed antecedent (131) and attraction (132)

[instead of ].= I seem to myself to be not unpracticed concerning those things about

whichyou ask. [cf. English: concerning whatyou ask]

[instead of ].= Ialready asked Socrates, at any rate, about some of those thingswhich/that I

heard from that man. [cf. English: about some of whatI heard]

134 Moods in relative clauses

Relative clauses may use moods other than the indicative, ollowing the prin-

ciples o conditional clauses (164); particularly common are subjunctive + (generalizing primary sequence) and optative (no ) (generalizing secondarysequence); or more examples, see 160, 152, and 159a.

. = Ihave made it my practice each day to know whatever he says and does.

[subjunctive + in a relative clause: generalizing-primary sequence] . = They destroyed all those many

whomthey captured. [optative in a relative clause: generalizing-secondary

sequence]

, .= Whomever he cut, he ordered Apollo to turn around hisface toward the cut. orHe ordered Apollo to turn the face of whomever

he cut toward the cut. [optative in a relative clause: generalizing-

secondary sequence]

1. For relative adjectives, see 135.


95/149


96/149

73

, ,.= All people do everything for the sake of immortalexcellence, by which degree they are better, by that degree they

[do this] more. or idiomatically = All people do everything for the

sake of immortal excellence; the better they are, the more they

[do this]. [dative neuter singular relative adjective agrees withdative singular antecedent and serves as dative of degree ofdifference in relative clause]

.= The orderly part of the body desires the sorts ofnoises such as[orof the kind that] sneezing is in fact. [nominative neuter singular relative

adjectiveserves as the subject complement of relative clause; singular is surprising with the plural antecedent but iscaused by sneezing being a single example of that kind of noise]


97/149


98/149

: 75

137 Voice: active, middle, passive

voice action translation of(stop)

active subject perorms the action o the verb I stop [I act on someone orsomething else]

passive subject receives the action o the verb I am stopped [I am acted upon by

someone orsomething else]

middle subject acts upon his/her/its/their sel, I stop mysel [I act on mysel]

acts in own interest or on behal o [reexive meaning]

sel, or on something or someone

belonging to sel

Since the exact translation o a middle verb is not always easy to predict, dic-tionaries commonly list a distinct meaning or the middle, or example: (persuade), middle: believe, obey, trustwhich yields:

active = I persuade [someone else]

passive = I am persuaded [by someone else]

middle = I believe, I obey

138 Deponent verbs

A deponent verb always appears in middle or passive orms, but is translated

actively. A middle deponent uses middle orms in the aorist; a passive deponentuses passive orms in the aorist. Deponents can be recognized by their diction-ary entries: our (or ewer) principal parts, all o which have middle or passiveendings. Middle deponents list the aorist in the third position, beore the perect;passive deponents list the aorist in the last position (i.e., in the aorist passive posi-tion), or example:

middle deponent: : arrive (at)passive deponent: : wish;

thus, = I wished [active translation despite the passive form]

139 Semideponent verbs

Semideponent or partially deponent verbs use middle or passive orms withactive translations in some (but not all) tenses; this can be inerred rom theverbs principal parts.

/: go, come5

It is particularly common or verbs to be deponent only in the uture.

: hear

5.is deponent only in the present and in the uture when is not used.


99/149


100/149


101/149


102/149

: 79

Subjunctive mood: two additional independent uses (relatively rare(150151)

150 Subjunctive within cautious assertion;in cautious denial (rare)

. = He isthat sort of man (I suspect).. = He is notthat sort of man (I dont think)., , . = ut this

eeing deathis not diffi cult (I dont think), men. [Socrates,Apology]

.= It would not be possible (I dont think)for a drunk man to

compete on an even level against the words of sober people.

151 Subjunctive within urgent prohibition or emphatic denial (rare)

. = Dont you dare ee! or You wouldnt ee. (Im con-dent of that!)

. = He is certainly notthat sort of man.. = I certainly wont stopphilosophizing.

[Socrates,Apology]

.= Although drinking somuch, he most emphatically does notever become anymore drunk!

Subjunctive mood: three common dependent uses (i.e., in dependentclauses) (152154)

152 Subjunctive with in a conditional, relative, or temporal clause (seealso 160)

used to generalize or to express an indenite time rame in the present oruture

translate: i [ever], whenever, whoever, until, etc. + present indicative

negative

[=] .= I am amazed whenever I seethe city.

.= Go wherever you wish..= I

have made it my practice each day to know whatever he says or does..= I will not stop searching until

I ndit [whenever that might be].


103/149

80

153 Subjunctive afer , , , or in a purpose clause or in aneffort clause when purpose implied

negative

. = The Spartansare coming in order that they may take the city. orThe Spartans are

coming to takethe city.

. = I will go to Athens inorder that I may be taught by Socrates. or I will go to Athens to be

taughtby Socrates.

.= The prytaneis are summoning thecitizens to the assembly in order that the Spartans may speakto themabout peace.

154 Subjunctive afer in a ear clause or uture

.= I am afraid that the city maybe taken[orwill be taken] by the enemy.

A ear clause indicating a ear that something may not happen uses + .

.= I fear that the city may not be saved[orwill not be saved].

Optative mood (155159)

Optative mood: two common independent uses (155156)

155 Optative o wish or uture

by itsel or accompanied by or

.= Maythe god savethe city..= Maythe gods protectthe city.

156 Potential optative (161)

accompanied by translate: might, could, would, should

.= The god might/could savethe city.

;= Would you saveour city?


104/149


105/149


106/149

: 83

ypes o condition

Present general: offers a generalization in present time.

, . = If ever the younghonor the gods, I always praise [them] greatly.

,.= Whenever you speak, the young men listen., .= Wherever I go, the young

men listen to me speaking.

Future-more-vivid: so-called to distinguish it rom the more hypothetical

uture condition with the optative (uture-less-vivid); this categorization, how-

ever, obscures that uture-more-vivid conditions are very requently generali-

zations set in uture time and might just as well be called uture general.

, .= If you are a lover of learning, you willbe very learned. [Isocrates]

, .= Wherever I go, the youngmen will listen to me speaking.

Other: the main clause (apodosis) sometimes contains neither a present

indicative nor a uture indicative, but is replaced by other moods reerring to

present or uture time (e.g., imperative, hortatory, or prohibitive subjunctive).

, .= If ever you learn the truth, tell me., .= However I speak, let us obey..= Follow wherever that man leads., .= Whatever he says, dont listen.

161 + optative = potential optative (156) or in apodosis o uture-less-vivid condition

(157) Basic signicance: to express a potential or hypothetical situation (uture

time); the sense is best captured by English modals: might/could/would/

should/may.

Context: main or dependent clause.

Unlike + subjunctive (160), + optative is typically ound in themain clause.

.= My wisdom might besomething worthless. . = Perhaps I mayspeaktruthfully about getting drunk.

, ;= What would you say, Socrates?


107/149

84

But it can be in a dependent clause with no change o meaning or unction.

.= I myself also wonder where he could be.

.= So consider in whatway we might drinkas easily [unproblematically] as possible.

ype o condition: uture-less-vivid (also called uture improbable, uture remote,

should-would): though + optative is very likely to occur independently

(potential optative), it may also be accompanied by a conditional clause con-

taining another optative (without ); both contexts express a hypothetical or

potential situation (note the translation o the optative in the i clause).

, . = If you should become drunk, wewould laugh [at you]. or If you were to become drunk, we would

laugh[at you].

.= The dead woman, for her part,would speak, if she could obtaina voice. [Sophocles, Electra]

162 + indicative Basic signicance: to express an idea that is contrary-to-act (counteractual,

unreal).

imperect indicative: contrary-to-act (present): would be ing, would

aorist indicative: contrary-to-act (past): would have ed

Context: main clause; unlike + subjunctive (160), but like + optative

(161), + indicative is not ound within dependent clauses, but is typically

ound in the main clause o a sentence and particularly in the apodosis o a

conditional sentence; even when it occurs without an i-clause, some condi-tional idea is usually implied.

. = For you would not have come away rst.[implied: if you had not discovered something]

ype o condition: contrary-to-act (present, past, or mixed) (unreal, unullled).

present contrary-to-act

, , .= If thatman weregood, I would honorhim, but now he is not good.

, .= Ifthe politicians werebetter, this city would not beso weak.


108/149

: 85

, .= If the worthless man did not [habitually] drinkso much wine, hewould not getso disgracefully drunk.

past contrary-to-act

, .= If we had listenedto theprophetic woman, the city would have been saved.

, .= If you had toldus thesethings long ago, we wouldnot have listened.

mixed tenses

, .= If you hadnot come,we would be marchingagainst the king., .= If you werewiser,

you wouldnot have donesuch things.

Conditional sentences (163165; see also 160162)

163 Conditions without Simple conditions: most conditions withoutare simple conditions that use

the indicative; generally, it is sae to translate the verbs as in other contexts. Past general conditions (159a): the only other type o condition without

is the past general condition; this is signaled by an optative in a conditional,relative, or temporal clause; the main clause contains a past tense, usually animperect indicative.

164 Summary o important conditions

condition if-clause (protasis) main clause (apodosis)

present contrary-to-act + imperect indicative: imperect indicative(present unreal, unullled) i x were ing +: y would be ing

past contrary-to-act + aorist indicative: aorist indicative +:(past unreal, unullled) i x had ed y would have ed

uture-less-vivid (uture + optative: i x should optative + : y would remote, improbable, or i x were to

should-would)

present general + subjunctive: i present indicative: y s [ever] x s

past general + optative: i x [ever] past indicative: y ed ed

uture-more-vivid + subjunctive: i uture indicative: y will [ever] x s


109/149


110/149


111/149


112/149


113/149

90

171 Circumstantial use o the participle

most common use participle in predicate position (not ollowing denite article; 123) describes circumstances under which the action o the main verb takes place

(adverbial) range o ways to translate, including nite clauses beginning with when,

since, although, i

, . = So one of my acquaintances, upon seeing me from behindfrom a distance called [me], and he spoke,joking.

, . = Upon arriving at the

dinner party, I experienced something ridiculous., .= Having run into

the agora, the herald announced the victory. orThe herald raninto the

agora andannounced the victory., .

= Being Socrates companion, you are the best one to publicize his

words. orSince you areSocrates companion, you are the best one to

publicize his words.

Special uses o the circumstantial and supplementary participle(172178)

172 Future participle (circumstantial), with or without, indicates purpose

[].= The Spartanscame to Athens with the intention of takingthe city. orThe Spartans

came to Athens in order to takethe city.

173 + participle (circumstantial) usually has conditional (i) orce, .= If not having givenmoney, I would

not have been released. orIf I hadnt givenmoney, I would not have

been released.

Context may also suggest conditional orce when not accompanied by negative.

.= If I knewthose things, I would have told you.

174 + participle (circumstantial) has causal (because, since) orce

, .= Because ofnot beingable to leave his wife, he remained in the city. orBecause he

wasnot able to leave his wife, he remained in the city.


114/149

: 91

175 + participle (circumstantial) has concessive (although) orce

, . = Although

being the best of the Greeks, Ajax was not honored suffi ciently. orAlthough he wasthe best of the Greeks, Ajax was not honored suffi ciently.

176 Participle (circumstantial) in a genitive absolute

genitive participle agreeing with noun or pronoun in genitive, not part o

main clause

genitive noun or pronoun acting as subject o genitive absolute

best translated as a nite clause introduced by when, since, although, while, i Te tense o the participle is relative to that o the main verb, so that, or

example, a present participle describes an ongoing action in the past i the

main verb is a past tense.

,.= This gatheringhappened long ago, with us still being children. or This gathering

happened long ago, when we were still children.

. = With mewaiting, Socrates urged [me] to go ahead without him. orAlthough I

was waiting, Socrates urged [me] to go ahead without him. orWhile I

was waiting, Socrates urged [me] to go ahead without him.

, , .= After these things, with Socrates having reclined anddined, we made libations. orAfter this, when Socrates had reclined

and dined, we made libations.

177 Participle (circumstantial) in an accusative absolute

similar to genitive absolute but used with impersonal constructions only

uses neuter singular accusative participle typically o impersonal verb (e.g.,rom ; rom ) [+ accusative or dative] + innitive

best translated as a nite clause introduced by when, since, although, while, i

, .= It not being possible to live inpeace, let us ght well. orSince it is not possible to live in peace, let

us ght well.

, .= You force me to become a guardian of your speech, it

being possible for you to speak in peace. orYou force me to becomea guardian of your speech, when it is possible for you to speak in

peace. orYou force me to become a guardian of your speech, although

it is possible for you to speak in peace.


115/149

92

, .= None of these thingsis now happening, it being necessary for all of them to happen. or

None of these things is now happening, although they all ought to

be happening.

178 Participle (supplementary) serving as the verb in indirect discourse

Tis orm o indirect statement typically ollows a verb o knowing (e.g., ,, ), showing (e.g., , , , ),perceiving (e.g., , , , , ), orlearning (e.g., , ).

I the subject o the indirect statement is different rom the subject o the

main verb, it is put in the accusative case; the participle matches the case,number, and gender o the accusative.

.= I learned that you ateeverything. orIlearned that you had eateneverything. [aorist participle active]

. = I hear that they have beenharmedwith respect to their hands. [perfect participle passive]

.= I know that they willnever dothis. [future active participle]

I the subject o the indirect statement is the same asthe subject o the main

verb, no new subject is expressed; the participle is nominative agreeing in

case, number, and gender with the subject.

.= I know [that] I amnot wise.

Uses o the innitive (179185)

179 Complementary innitive

with verbs and expressions that denote wishing or wanting (e.g., ,); hoping, expecting, or intending (e.g., , ); seeming (e.g.,, ); capability (e.g., , ,, ); attempting(e.g., ); or daring (e.g., )

.= I wish to learn..= He was not able to sayanything

clear.

.= I will try to describeeverythingclearly.

. = He appears to befoolish. orHe seems tobefoolish. (Compare translation o + part., 170)


116/149


117/149

94

Sometimes an innitive being used this way will not have the denite article.

As ofen, the denite article is omitted on a predicate (see 188), as in the next

two examples.

(1) (2) (3) . = (1) Holding an opinion correctly even without(2) being able to offer a reasoned explanationis neither (3) knowing

nor ignorance. [(1) nominative articular innitive = subject; (2) genitive

articular innitive = object of the preposition; (3) nominative innitive= predicate]

. = Sacricing is giving gifts to thegods. [nominative articular innitive = subject; nominative innitive

= predicate]

183 Innitive in impersonal constructions

with , , , , /

.= It is necessary for me to drinkthis wine.

184 Innitive serving as the verb in indirect statement

afer a verb o asserting or believing (e.g., , , , ,

/) Te tense o the innitive preserves the tense o the original statement.

.= And he says that you also knowthe story. [present innitive]

.= Apollodorussays that he was not present at the gathering. [aorist innitive] [= I deny that, I say that . . . not; I dont say]

.= He says thathe will be presentat the dinner on the following day. [future innitive]

;= Do you think that thisgathering happenedrecently? [perfect innitive]

A present innitive normally represents an original imperect indicative

(since there is no imperect innitive); context determines that the speaker is

describing the past.

.= I think this man

wasthe most moderate of people at that time. [here signals thatthe speaker is talking about the past]


118/149

: 95

Afer main verbs in the past, the translation o the verb in indirect statementneeds to be adjusted to reect English practice (which normally shifs the tense).

.= And he said you also knew. [present innitive].= They said that they

would be presentat the dinner the next day. [future innitive representing

an original statement in the future after main verb in past tense]

I the subject o the indirect statement is different rom the subject o themain verb, it is put in the accusativecase.

.= We deny that theywill run more swiftly than the horses. [future innitive] [ = Ideny that, I say that . . . not; I dont say]

.= We said that they hadalready drunkenough wine. [perfect innitive after verb in past tense]

I the subject o the indirect statement is the same asthe subject o the mainverb, no new subject is expressed.

.= I think that I knowa few things. . = Socrates denied that he knew

anything. [= I deny that, I say that . . . not; I dont say].= I will not admit that I have comeuninvited.

185 Innitive serving as the verb in a natural result clause (afer ) ora -clause Natural result clause: [+ accusative] + innitive describes the possible or

expected consequence o the circumstances described in the main clause; it doesnot tell whether that result actually is happening, has happened, or will happen.

+ indicative emphasizes that the result actually took place (actual resultclause).

Latinists should distinguish rom Latin usage, which consistently uses sub-junctive or result clauses.

;= Do you think this gathering happened so recently that I too was present?

[implying: so recently that I too could have been present]

.= I am willing tofuse you together so that although you are two you becomeone.

An actual result clause does not use the innitive but the indicative.


119/149


120/149

97

186 Denite article with a noun or an adjective + noun

translate: the

= the man= the beautiful island

Greek sometimes uses a denite article with a noun where English does not.It is not translated in these contexts.

beore proper nouns

= Socrates

accompanying possessive adjectives= your word= my wife

accompanying demonstrative adjectives

= this child/slave= that suffering [note correct position of demonstrative +

denite article]

accompanying abstract nouns

= virtue, excellence= wisdom

187 Denite article to create attributive phrases

It is common to insert a phrase (e.g., in the genitive) between the denitearticle and the noun agreeing with it in case, number, and gender, when thatphrase describes the noun.

.= The suppliants took holdof the kings feet. [the position of between andshows that it describes ]

Definite Article


121/149


122/149


123/149

100

.= We spoke the samelanguage..= The same menwere present

at this gathering.


124/149


125/149

102

194 in indirect statements with main verb o speaking, thinking, knowing (= ) translate: that

.= He said thathe did not know anything.

195 in indirect questions with main verb o asking or similar (= , ) translate: how

.= He asked howSocrates had beenconvicted.

196 + uture participle translate: with the intention o ing orin order to orto

.= They went there to drinkthe water.

197 + subjunctive or optative9

to create a purpose clause translate: in order that orso that orin order to (= ,)

,.= If only I couldbecome the sky, so that I could lookat you with many eyes.

198 + superlative adjective or adverb translate: as as possible

.= Let us go as quickly as possible.

199 + accusative o person translate: to accusativeshouse

.= These men ran to Socrates house.

Uses o (200205)

200 in nominative to emphasize the subject In the nominative, always intensies the subject o the verb, whatever

it might be, yielding many different translations: I mysel, you yoursel, he

himsel, etc.

9. Optative is normally used to replace a subjunctive afer a main verb in the past (159b).


126/149

103

.= He himselfwas sacricingas were hischorus members.

.= I myselfalso wonder.

.= Ienjoy making certain speeches about philosophy myselforlistening to others [make them]. [Greek word order allows the meaning

to emerge more naturally than this English translation]

201 alone, not in the nominative, as third-person pronoun Alone in the oblique cases (all but nominative), serves as a third

personal pronoun.

translate: him, her, it, them, etc.

, .=Being Socrates companion, you are the best person to publicize hiswords.

.= Leave himbe.

202 in predicate position to emphasize nouns and pronouns Accompanying another noun or pronoun in any case in the predicate posi-

tion (123), intensies that noun or pronoun.

= the god himself= you yourselves= Socrates himself= this very thing

203 (denite article) + = the same= the same god= the same man

= the same women= on the same day= in the same [place].= Socrates always

seems to be saying the same things through the same things [i.e.,

examples, images, or similar].

204 Denite article + in crasis (207)

= = the same woman [the combination of rough breathingand acute on ultima distinguishes from (from ) and from(from )]

()= = the same thing


127/149

104 104

205 With a rough breathing (), is contracted rom reexive(himsel)

.= I willhonor our art, just as Eryximachus [did] his.

Other

206 Anastrophe

Anastrophe results when a preposition that is normally accented on the nalsyllable (e.g., , , , , ) is accented instead on the rst syl-lable. Tis signals that the object o the preposition precedes the preposition

rather than ollowing it, as it normally does..= They think that

there will be a lasting memorial of them for virtue.

207 Crasis

Te blending o two words, crasis can occur when one word ends in a vowel andthe word immediately ollowing begins with a vowel. Although more common inpoetry than prose, common words may be joined through crasis in A

Date post:	27-Feb-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	antonis-mylonopoulos
View:	239 times
Download:	0 times

The Essentials of Greek Grammar - A Reference for Intermediate Readers of Attic Greek

Documents