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8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
1/20
DraftPleasedonotciteorreproduceanythingfromthispaperwithoutpermissionfromtheauthor.TheEvolutionofanEmblem:theArm&Hammer
ByKimMunson,presentedattheSWTXPCA/ACAconference2010.
Thearm&hammer,adynamicsymbolcomprisedofamuscularmalearmgraspingahammer,implying
theactionofstrikingananvil,hasbeenarecognizedemblemoflabor,skillandthebenefitsthatcome
fromhonesthardworkforcenturies. Itwassuchaubiquitousemblemoflaborthatitwasincorporated
intotheWisconsinstateflagin1848.In1904,itbecametheofficialemblemoftheSocialistPartyof
America,andforthisandotherreasons,itsubsequentlyfelloutofgeneraluseinUSunionlabels.Itis
nowbestknownasChurch&DwightscommercialtrademarkforArm&Hammerbakingsoda.
Manyculturesaroundtheworldhadmythsandcustomsrelatedto
fire,hammersorhammergods. Asweareinvestigatingasymbol
predominatelyusedinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,Iwillconfinethis
mythologicalexploration
to
Western
legends
and
symbolism,
beginningwiththehammeritself,whichhasmanysymbolic
meanings.Traditionally,itrepresentsstrengthandmalecreative
destructivepower. Oneofthebestknownwieldersofthispowerwas
theNorsegodThorwithhisgreatstonehammer,whowasnotonly
equatedwiththedestructiveforceoflightningandthunder,buthe
wasalsoconsideredtheguardianofMidgard(Earth)andagodof
fertility. IntheGrecoRomanworldthehammergodwascalled
Hephaestus(Greek,meaningfire)orVulcan(Roman,meaning
volcano),thegodoffire,theforgeandskilledcrafts. Becauseofthis,
Vulcan,unlike
Thor,
was
often
portrayed
in
the
visual
arts
as
a
blacksmithstrikingananvilwithahammer.i Vulcanandhiscreations
haveplayedanimportantroleinmanyclassicalepictales,likethis
scenefromTheIliadillustratedbytheItalianpainterandarchitect
GiulioRomano(figure2),whichfeaturesVulcanforgingthearmorof
theGreekheroAchilles,asAchillesmotherThetislookson(noticethe
positionofVulcansarm). AsimilarscenefromTheAeneid,depicting
VulcanforgingthearmoroftheTrojan/RomanheroAeneasasthe
herosmotherVenuslooksonwasalsoapopularartistictheme,as
wellasotherscenessetinVulcansforgeandworkshop.Figures1&2Engravingofthearm&
hammer
emblem
from
amid
1800'stypefoundersspecimen
book,asreproducedinHornung's
HandbookofEarlyAmerican
AdvertisingArt(top).VulcanForging
ArmourforAchillesbyGiulioRomano
(14921546/Italian),PalazzoDucale,
Mantua.
Firealsohasasymbolictraditionofitsown. Likethehammer,itis
consideredamalecreativedestructiveforce. Oftenthoughtofasa
godlikelivingelementinitsownright,firecansignifyrenewal(the
Phoenix),theHolySpirit(thefireofGod)orpurification(trialbyfire).
Firecanbeaprotectiveelement,forexamplefireisoneofthe
attributesoftheArchangelMichael,thegreatwarriorwhodefeated
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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Satanandisalsobelievedtobeaprotectiveguardianagainstevil. TheRomansbelievedthatsacrificing
smallanimalstoVulcanwouldhelpprotectthemfromvolcaniceruptions. Aswewillexploreinthenext
section,thediscoveryandnurturingoffirewasoneofearlyhumankindsmostimportant
breakthroughs,andthedivineskillofVulcan,asthepersonificationoffire,iscreditedwithinstigating
manyoftheinnovationsthatdevelopedfromthatevent.
ThegraphicsignthatgraduallycametosymbolizethebeneficentconnotationsoftheVulcanmythand
theattributesoffire,thearm&hammer,hasalongandcomplexhistory.Beginningwithitsrootsin
Greek/Romanmythology,theVulcanmythwasfurtherdefinedbytheartandliteratureofRenaissance
Italy,referencedintheheraldryofthetradeguildsofLondon,andlaterservedasaninspirationforthe
emblemsofthelabororganizationsthatsprangupinthenewlyindependentUnitedStates. Thestoryof
thisemblemincludestheMasons,theSocialistLaborParty,andtheuseweseemostcommonlytoday,
theArm&Hammerbakingsodatrademark. ThisisthetrailIwillfollow,asIattempttotracethe
meaningsandoriginofthissymbol,andthesocialandpoliticalconnotationsthatultimatelyhavelimited
itsuseasasymboloflaborunity.
LaborBuildsCivilizationtheVulcanMyth
SingofHephaistos,famedforhisskill,clearvoicedmuse,ofhimwhowithbrighteyedAthene
taughtgloriouscraftstomenonearth,whoaforetimelivedincaveslikewildbeasts.
Homer(Panovsky193738,18)
Asdiscussedearlier,thestoryofthearm&
hammeremblembeginswiththeGrecoRoman
mythofHephaestus(Greek,meaningfire)or
Vulcan(Roman,
meaning
volcano),
the
god
of
fire,theforgeandskilledcrafts. Vulcan,an
unwantedchild,iscastoutofOlympusbyhis
mother,Hera.Hefallsthroughtheskyand
breakshislegashecrashesontheislandof
Lemnos. Thedazedchildisfoundbythe
nymphs,whoadopthim,treathimwithgreat
kindness,andraisehimastheirown.ii Ashe
matures,hiscreativevigorhelpshumansto
tamefire(muchliketheGreektitan
Prometheus),teaches
them
skilled
crafts
like
smithingandcarpentry,todomesticateanimals,
andtodeveloplanguage.Asistrueofmostof
thesemyths,therearemanyvariationstothe
story,butthegistofitisfairlyconsistent.No
Figure2 PierodiCosimo(14561522),VulcanandAeolus
c.1490,oilandtemperaoncanvas,155.5x166.5cm
NationalGalleryofCanada,Ottawa.
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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munsonpage3
matterthedetails,heisalwaysexiledfromOlympus,raisedwellinthemortalworld,andbecomesa
zealousworkerdivinelyinspiredtomakethingsthathelphumanity. Essentially,thismythdescribesthe
dawnofcivilization,builtonthefoundationofskilledlaborandhardwork.
ArthistorianEdwinPanofsky(18921968),inhis1937/8articleTheEarlyHistoryofManinaSeriesof
Paintingsby
Piero
di
Cosimo
explores
the
meaning
and
dissemination
of
the
this
myth
as
the
basis
for
his
interpretationofdiCosimospaintingVulcanandAeolusorVulcanasTeacherofMankind (c.1490,
figure3). Inthispainting,Vulcanisshownworkingattheanvilintherightcorner,inventinghorseshoes
(noticethepositionofhisarm). VulcanisoftenassistedbyAeolus,godofthe4winds,depictedinthis
paintingasthemanwiththebellowssittingnexttoVulcan,creatingabreezetokeepthefirehot.
WewillsoonreturntoalltheotherallegoricalfiguresindiCosimospainting,butfirstitshelpfulto
understandthecontexttheartistmighthavebeenworkingwith. Inanefforttoidentifywhichversions
ofthemythwereavailabletotheartistasareference,Panofsky,ascholarwhohadwrittenextensively
onthemesofclassicalmythologyinmedievalart,pointsoutthatmanyRenaissancescholarsbasedtheir
writingsnotonprimarysourcetextsbyGreekandRomanauthors,butonmorecontemporary
encyclopedias,inwhichthemythswereoftenreinterpretedwithamoreChristianslant. Inthiscontext,
theVulcanmyth,whichdeviatesfromtheBiblicalstoryofAdamsaccomplishmentsintheGardenof
Eden(namingallthings,etc),wassomewhatcontroversial. Panofskydiscussesmanydifferent
accountsoftheVulcanstorybeforesettlingontheversionincludedinGiovanniBoccaccios(1313
1375)GenealogiaDeorum(OntheGenealogyoftheGodsoftheGentiles,firstpublishedinVenicein
1472)thathefeltreallyexpressedthemeaningbehinddiCosimospainting,andIbelieve,theversion
thathelpedestablishthedeeperconnotationsofthelaterarmandhammersymbol. Attemptingto
explaintherealitybehindthemyth,BoccaccioequatesthebringingupofVulcan,thegodoffireandhis
subsequentaccomplishmentswiththediscoveryandnurturingoffireandeverythingthatdeveloped
from
it.
To
help
build
his
case,
Boccaccio
further
breaks
away
from
his
contemporaries
by
including
a
longpassagefromVitruvius:
Intheoldendaysmenwerebornlikewildbeastsinwoodsandcavesandgroves,andkeptalive
byeatingrawfood. Somewhere,meanwhile,theclosegrowntrees,tossedbystormsand
winds,andrubbingtheirbranchestogether,caughtfire. Terrifiedbytheflames,thosewho
werenearthespotfled. Whenthestormsubsided,theydrewnear,and,sincetheynoticedhow
pleasanttotheirbodieswasthewarmthofthefire,theylaidonwood;andthuskeepingitalive,
theybroughtupsomeoftheirfellows,and,indicatingthefirewithgestures,theyshowedthem
theusewhichtheymightmakeofit. Wheninthismeetingofmensoundswerebreathedforth
withdifferingintensity,theymadecustomarybydailyusethesechancesyllables. Then,giving
namestothingsmorefrequentlyused,theybegantospeakbecauseofthisfortuitousevent,
andsotheyheldconversationamongthemselves. Since,thereforefromthediscoveryoffirea
beginningofhumanassociationwasmade,andofunionandintercourse,andsincemanynow
cametogetherinoneplace,beingendowedbynaturewithagiftbeyondthatoftheother
animals,sothattheywalked,notlookingdown,buterect,andsawthemagnificenceofthe
universeandthestars,and,moreover,dideasilywiththeirfingerswhatevertheywished,some
inthatsocietybegantomakeroofsofleaves,othertodigoutcavesunderthehills;some,
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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imitatingthenestsandconstructionsoftheswallows,madeplacesintowhichtheymightgoout
ofmudandtwigs. Findingthen,othersheltersandinventingnewthingsbytheirpowerof
thought,theybuiltintimebetterdwellings.(Panovsky193738,16) iii
ByincludingthisvisualizationofearlylifefromoneofRomesgreatarchitects,BoccaccioandPanofsky
tietogether
the
imagined
but
logical
innovations
that
arose
in
the
real
world
from
the
discovery
of
fire
withthemyththatsurroundedthepersonificationoffire(Vulcan)andhiscreations. Inbothstories,the
useoffire/divineskillofVulcanbringaboutinventionswethinkofaskeystonesofcivilization;language,
theformationofsocialunits,andskilledlabor(constructionofbuildings,metalworking).
Withthisconceptinmind,letsreturntothepainting. Compositionally,theviewerseyeis
drawndiagonallyacrossthepaintingfromVulcansarmwiththehammerinthelowerlefthandcorner,
pasttheyouthonhorsebackcuriousaboutthehorseshoes(domesticationofanimals)toabuilderwitha
hammerintheupperright,whosegestureechoesthatofVulcans. Thisestablishesadirect,if
unconscious,linkbetweenVulcan,themaster,andthebuilderinthebackground,afollower. Inthe
myth,Vulcanisdescribedasaobsessiveworker,beginninghislaborbeforedawnandfinishinglatein
theevening. Thesleepingmanintheforegroundofthepaintingcouldbeareferencetothis;Vulcanis
alreadyatworkwhileotherssleep,aswellasthefamilygroupwhoarealreadyawakeandinteracting.
Thegroupcouldsymbolizesocializationandthefamilyingeneral,asthefamilywasthemostimportant
socialunitinRenaissancesociety. Theyaredressedincontemporaryfabrics,andtheyarerepeatedin
frontofasmallhouseinthemidgroundofthepainting,signofpeaceandsafetyinthehome.The
inclusionofalltheanimalsandbirds,bothuntamedanddomesticated,couldbemeanttoshowthatthis
isanearly,Edenlikeera,whentheanimalshavenotyetlearnedtofearhumans.iv
AccordingtotheNationalGalleryofCanadaswebsite(thepresentownersofthepainting),the
profileofVulcanmayhavebeenaportraitofthepatron,FrancescodelPugliese,awealthywool
merchant.vAside
from
the
obvious
interpretation
that
the
fruits
of
Vulcans
labor
brought
about
the
manybenefitsofcivilization,themorepersonalmeaningmayhavebeenthatPuglieseshardwork
buildinghisbusinesswouldnurtureandsupporthisownfamilyforgenerationstocome.
TheVulcanmyth,asexplainedbyBoccaccioandtheotherwrittenresourcesavailableinthisperiod
werewidelyreadanddisseminatedthroughoutEurope. ItismybeliefthatwhilemuchoftheVulcan
storymayhavebeenforgotteninthepresentday,theunderlyingthemeofthebenefitsofskillandhard
workbecameembeddedinthearmandhammersymbolandonsomelevelpeoplestillsubconsciously
understandthisconnotation.
The
Blacksmiths
and
the
Farriers
ArtisansocietiesbegantoforminEnglandasearlyastheeleventhcentury. Thesewerereligious
fraternitiesthatrevolvedaroundworshipofthecraftspatronsaint,providingdeathbenefitsandother
servicestotheirconstituents. Formsofheraldrythatwereoriginallyreservedforfamiliesoftheruling
classbegantobegrantedtotradeguildsinthe1400s,thefirstofwhichwastheDrapersCompany,
whosepatentwasgrantedin1438/9.Theearliestcoatsofarmscontainedmanysymbolsthatreflected
theguildsoriginalreligiousorientation,butbythe1600ssymbolsliketheVirginandtheLambofGod
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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hadbeenreplacedbymoresecularemblemscelebratingtheguildsproducts,toolsandgoals. Inthe
artisanmaster/journeyman/apprenticeguildsystem,therewasgreatprideinthetradeandthegroups
selfimageisoftenreflectedinthetoolsandsymbolschosentorepresentthem. Bythistimetheguilds,
especiallythosecenteredinLondon,hadagreatdealofpower. Throughroyalincorporationand
municipalordinance,theywereabletocontrolwagesandpriceswithintheircraftandtoenforce
productstandards.
They
worked
not
only
for
the
benefit
of
their
trade
and
membership,
but
they
also
builtelaboratemeetinghallsandlibraries,andcontributedtocharitableorganizations.
Thearmsusedbytwoguildshelptoshedlightontheevolutionofthearmandhammersymbol:The
WorshipfulCompanyofBlacksmithsandTheWorshipfulCompanyofFarriers.vi Theterminologyofthe
periodissomewhatconfusing,astheFarrierswerethecraftsmenwewouldconsiderblacksmiths,
forginghorseshoesandfunctioningashorsedoctors,andthemembersoftheBlacksmithsGuildwere
artisansthatworkedwithiron,suchasgunsmithsandclockmakers.
Figures3&4 Heraldryofthe
Britishtradeguilds. Thearmsof
TheWorshipful
Company
of
Blacksmiths,1610(left)andThe
WorshipfulCompanyofFarriers,
1591.(Bromley1960,14,19)
Thearmrisingfromthemiddleofthecrestholdingatool,asseenaboveintheFarriersarmswasa
commonmotif;ofthefiftysixcoatsofarmsreproducedinBromley&ChildsTheArmorialBearingsof
theGuildsofLondon,twentytwouseasimilardevicetoshowoffthetoolsoftheirtrade. Although
Bromelyfoundsomeevidenceofearlieruse,thefirstestablisheduseoftheFarriersarmswiththe
descriptiononawreathofthecoloursanarmembowedissuingfromcloudsonthesinistersideall
proper,holdinginthehandahammerazurehandledandcrownedorwasfoundinadocumentfrom
1591intheBritishMuseum.(Bromley1960,867)
TheBlacksmithshadbeenanactiveguildsince1299andwereofficiallyincorporatedin1571. They
were
first
granted
arms
in
1490,
but
the
patent
is
no
longer
extant;
Heather
Childs
illustration
(above)
oftheBlacksmithsarms,featuring threhamoryscrounedorandaphoenixabouttoexplodeinto
flames,isbasedontheirrenewedpatentfrom1610.(Bromley1960,224)TheBlacksmithsmottoBy
HammerandHandAllArtsDoStand,doesseemlikealiteralallusiontotheVulcanmyth,andto
incorporatetheessenceofitsmessageofskilledlaborasafoundationofcivilization.
Thereisnoconfirmedoriginforthismotto. Anecdotally,Ivereadorbeentoldthatthisphraseisa
quotefromtheoldtestamentoraproverbalthoughIvefoundnoevidenceofthis. Onthewebsiteof
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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theChokeCherryForge,anactiveartisanblacksmithsshopinCanada,Ifoundafolktaletellingofaking
(unspecified)whonoticesvariouscraftsmenthroughouthisdayandasksthemwheretheygottheir
tools. Oh,wejustgetthemfromtheblacksmith,theyallsaid. FinallytheKingvisitstheblacksmith
andaskshimwhomakeshistools.Theblacksmith,surprisedbythequestionsays,Imadethemall
myself,sire. TheKingobservesthatallartsaredependentontheblacksmithshammer,calling
blacksmithsThe
Kings
of
Craftsmen,
hence
the
motto.
WhiletheideathatthearmandhammerintheFarriersarmsaremeanttoembodythemythofVulcan
creatingcivilizationwithhislaborhasasatisfyingemotionalresonance,butitsprobablethatthiswasa
commonconventionandwassimplytheeasiestwayfortheguildtoidentifytheircraft. Ontheother
hand,wecantignorethevisualsimilarity. Theseguilds,recognizedbythecrown,didfeelthattheir
tradeswerethelifebloodofLondonandthebackboneofcivilsociety.
MechanicsSocietiesintheUnitedStates
Figures5,6&7 TheemblemoftheGeneralSocietyofMechanics&Tradesmen,whichisstillinuse(left). Thesculpted
arm&hammersign,center,thathungoverthedooroftheMechanicsBankonWallStreet,whichopenedin1810,itis
nowondisplayattheGeneralSocietyslibraryat20West44th
Street(photobyStephenAmiaga). Ontheleftisthesealof
theMassachusettsCharitableMechanicAssociation,1865.
ThemechanicssocietiesthatappearedintheUnitedStatesimmediatelyfollowingtherevolutionarywar
carriedontheindependentspiritoftheyoungdemocracy.TheGeneralSocietyofMechanics&
TradesmenoftheCityofNewYorkwasformedin1785,asaresponsetothedisastrousbusinessclimate
causedbyacatastrophicfireandtheendoftheBritishoccupationtwoyearsearlier. MarthaJ.Lamb,
writingon
the
occasion
of
the
Societys
104th
anniversary
in
1889,
described
the
first
meeting
of
the
originalcommitteeoftwentytwotradesmen,whorepresentedawiderangeofskillsincludingasail
maker,ablacksmith,apotter,ashoecrimper,asilversmith,andabellhanger.
Theobjectinviewwasasocietyformutualaidandencouragement,itspecialmission
beingtoassistmembersincaseofsicknessoraccident,andtocareforthewidowsand
orphansofthosewhoshoulddiewithoutproperty. Aconstitutionwasconsidered,
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
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adopted,andsigned,andTheGereralSocietyofMechanicsandTradesmenoftheCity
of NewYorkstarted inlife.Thiswasacontinuationinamodifiedformofthekindof
institutionthatgrewupwiththedevelopmentofthemechanicartsinthevarious
countriesofEurope,knownbythegeneralnameofguild.(Lamb,1889.90)
Fortheir
emblem,
they
chose
arepresentation
of
the
arm
&
hammer,
similar
to
the
British
Farriers,
but
morerealisticandmuscular,whichtheypairedwiththeBritishBlacksmithsmottoByHammerand
Hand,AllArtsDoStand.Brimmingwithstrengthandvigor,andsurroundedbythelaurelwreath
(victory,achievement),theemblemcombinedthemembersfeelingsofunity,prideandambitionwith
theconnotationsoftheVulcanmyth;skilledlaborandhardworkbuildingcivilization. Quicklygrowing
inmembershipandinfluence,andtheSocietyreceivedacharterofincorporationfromthecityofNew
Yorkin1792.By1803,theGeneralSociety,nowanelitefraternityofwealthymerchantartisans,had
enoughcapitaltoerecttheirownbuildingatBroadwayandParkPlace. In1819,accordingtothe
GeneralSocietyswebsite,theSocietysleadershipsawanimportantsocialneed,andembarkedona
newventure:
InNewYorkatthattimetherewasnopublicschoolsystem. Onlytwofreeschoolsweretobe
foundinthewholecityoneinthealmshouse,andotheropenonlytothechildrenoffreed
slaves. ThustheSocietysawaneedforaschoolforthechildrenofitsmembers,andestablished
theMechanicsInstituteSchool. Itopenedwith70students.Childrenofmemberswere
admittedfreeofcharge,andasmallfeewasrequiredfromallothers. Laterthatsameyearthe
Societyaddedaseparateschoolforgirls,andtheApprenticeslibrary(GeneralSocietywebsite.
aboutus/history).
ThisexperimentputtheSocietywellaheadofthecurve,aspubliceducationwasnotyetanissuethat
attractedacommitmentandresourcesfromthecity. TheSocietyslibrary,intendedtoprovide
meaningfulreading
material
for
young
workers
that
had
no
access
to
books,
was
one
of
the
first
public
librariesinNewYork. TheSocietycontinuedtoinnovate,addinglecturesandothertypesoftraining.
Between1898and1903,SteelbaronAndrewCarnegie(18351919),amemberoftheSociety,financed
anexpansionandotherprojects. Presently,theSocietystillmaintainstheirlibrary,aschoolandan
activeculturalseriesat20West44thStreet,whichhasbeentheirheadquarterssince1899. Thearm&
hammeremblemwasproudlydisplayedattheentrancetotheircemeteryandinalltheSocietys
buildings,andthe44thStreetheadquartersstillhasthesculptedarm(figure6),aflagwiththeemblem
andmottofromtheformationoftheSocietyin1785,andalargearm&hammeronthewalloverthe
mainreadingroomofthelibrary. TheGeneralSocietyepitomizestheessenceoftheVulcanmyth,
helpingpeopletobetterthemselvesthroughtheircraftandeducation,andlayingastrongfoundation
fortheculturalgrowthofthecity.
In1795,shortlyafterintheincorporationoftheGeneralSocietyinNewYork,theMassachusetts
CharitableMechanicsAssociationformedinBoston,withPaulRevereastheirfirstpresident. Theyalso
chosethearm&hammerastheiremblem. Theirversion,whichappearsinthecenterofasunburst
withthemottoBeJustandFearNot,seemssomewhatstylizedcomparedtheGeneralSocietysarm&
hammer.TheaimsoftheMechanicsAssociationweresimilartothoseoftheGeneralSocietys:they
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functionedasabenevolentsocietyandpromotedtrade,theyopenedanApprenticesLibraryin1820
andaschoolformechanicalartsin1829. Althoughthelibraryandschoolclosedin1892and1917,The
MechanicsAssociationmovedtoQuincy,Massachusettsin1988andstillexistsasaculturalinstitution.vii
Other
Mechanics
organizations
sprung
up
around
the
country,
until
the
movement
made
its
way
across
theUStoSanFranciscowiththeestablishmentoftheMechanicsInstitutein1854. Theyalsochosethe
arm&hammerastheiremblem,althoughtheylaterchangedtoalogofeaturingabookopenona
bookstandtoemphasizetheirlibrary,whichisstillvibrantlyactiveinSanFrancisco. Icantsayfor
certainthatallthemechanicsorganizationsthatflourishedintheUSbeforetheCivilWarusedthearm
&hammerastheiremblem,althoughIsuspectmostofthemdid.
Commentingonthistransitoryera,HarryRubinsteinoftheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory
writes:Muchofthesymbolismusedbytheseearlyorganizationsisrelativelyconservative,reflecting
theirgeneraloutlook. Forthemostpartthesocietiesdidnotmeantochangetheexistingsystem,but
topreserveitagainstthechallengesofadevelopingcapitalisteconomywhichpromisedtotransform
mastersandjourneymenintoemployersandemployees.Insteadofcallingfordramaticchanges,the
graphicsemphasizethetraditionsandcontributionsofartisans.Thesocietiesadoptedsymbolsof
nationalism,industryandcommercetosuggesttheirgoalsandprinciples. Theraisedarmholdinga
hammer,animagewhichconveysthepowerandimportanceofproductivelabor,becamethemost
identifiablesinglesymboltorepresenttheartisanclass,andeventuallytheentireworkingclass.
(Rubenstien.1989.42)viii
TheIconofLabor
Figure8Thetophalfofpage182
ofHorningsHandbookofEarly
Advertising,featuring
5different
versionsofthearm&hammerfor
generalusebyprinters,#14and
7. #3bearsaresemblancetothe
emblemoftheMassachusetts
CharitableMechanicsAssociation
(fig.7)andversion#4hasmany
similaritiestotheoneusedbythe
GeneralSocietyofMechanics&
Tradesmen. Atthebottomofthis
pageweremorecommonlyknown
emblemrepresentingtheElks,
Masons,KnightsofColumbusand
others.
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Inthepostcivilwarperiod,workerswerereelingfromthechangeswroughtbyimmigration,
industrializationandurbanization. Theshiftfromtheartisanworkshoptothefactoryfloorwasnearly
complete,withmostAmericansearningwagesfromamoredistantemployer.TheUSlabormovement,
hopingto
gain
fair
pay,
dignity
and
an
equal
place
at
the
table,
gained
momentum
as
craft
unionism
florished,whiletheinfluentialwritingsofauthorslikeJohnRuskin,WilliamMorrisandGustavStickley,
fathersoftheartsandcraftsmovement,extolledthenoblecraftsmanideal.Alreadywellknownasa
symbolofskilledcraftsmanshipandthebenefitsoflaborthoughitsubiquitoususebytheMechanics
Societies,thearm&hammerquicklybecameasymbolthatcametorepresentthewholeworkingclass.
Thequickadoptionofthesymbolwasaidedbytheinclusionofmyriaddifferentversionsofthearm&
hammerincludedintypefoundersspecimenbookscommonlyusedbyprintersthroughoutthecountry.
ReproducedinClarenceP.HorningsHandbookofEarlyAdvertising (firstpublishedin1947)arefive
differentversionsofthearm&hammer(figure8)whichwerecollectedtogetherwiththeemblemsof
otherorganizationsliketheElks,MasonsandtheKnightsofColumbus.(Hornung1956,182)The
specimenbookswereessentiallytheclipartofthe19thcentury;catalogsoftypefaces,decorative
bordersandwoodengravingsoneverythemeimaginable. Thesewoodcutswouldbeprocessedbya
stereotypewhowouldcastthemintypemetalsotheycouldbereproducedinquantity. Thesewere
soldtoprintersforeverydayuseincitydirectories,advertisingandprivateorders. Idontknowexactly
whenthearm&hammermadeitsfirstappearanceinthespecimenbooks,butusingtheplatesordered
throughthesebookswasacommonpracticeby1820. Itislikelythatthiswidespreaduseoftheseor
similarstockplatesbyprinterscontributedtotheprevalentuseofthearm&hammerasiconoflaborin
general,andtoavisualstandardizationofthedifferentversionsoftheemblem.
Wecansee,forexample,thattheemblemofDistrictAssembly49oftheKnightsofLaborsversionof
thearm
&
hammer
looks
is
very
similar
to
the
one
surrounded
by
the
wreath
commonly
used
by
Socialistorganizations(figure8)reproducedinHorning. AlsoreproducedinHorningisanemblemthat
placesthearmandhammerinthecenterofthesquareandcompasses(figure10). Thisconfigurationof
thesquareandcompasses,usuallyidentifiedwithFreemasonry,belongedtoagroupunaffiliatedwith
theMasons,theJuniorOrderUnitedAmericanMechanics,whoadoptedtheiremblemin1868.ix
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Figures9,10&11TheemblemofDistrictAssembly49,KnightsofLabor(n.d.,left),theemblemoftheJuniorOrderUnited
AmericanMechanics,adopted1868(center),andcentralsealoftheWisconsinstateflag,adopted1848(right).
Perhapsoneoftheclearestsignsanemblemhasachievediconicstatusiswhenitbeginstobe
commonlyused
to
represent
aconstituency
or
class
by
state
and
federal
government.
The
Wisconsin
stateflag(seal,figure11),includedthearm&hammerasasymbolofmanufacturingwhenitwas
adoptedin1848.TheMarchexworldflagdatabaseinterpretstheflagsiconographyasfollows:
Startingatthetopofashieldonadarkbluefieldisthestatemotto"Forward".Belowit
isabadgerthestateanimal.Asailorandminershowthatthepeopleworkonwaterand
land.TheshieldinthecentershowsWisconsin'ssupportfortheUnitedStates.Infour
sectionssurroundingtheshieldarerepresentationsofthestatesmainindustries:
Agriculture,mining,manufacturing(arm&hammer)andnavigation.Thecornucopiaand
pileofleadrepresentfarmproductsandminerals.Theflaglawwasamendedin1979to
includethe
name
of
the
state
and
the
date
of
statehood.
TheWisconsinarm&hammerdoesstronglyresembletheemblemsreproducedinHornung(figure8). I
thinkitsinterestingthatinthiscasethearm&hammerseemstospecificallyrepresentindustrial
production,differentiatedfromotherformsoflabor,suchasmaritimeworkandmining.
Figure12 NationalEight
HourLawproclamation,1869,
fromtheLibraryofCongress,
AmericanMemorycollection.
Anotherprominentuseofthearm&hammerasasymboloftheUSworkingclasswastheEightHour
DayProclamation,issuedbythefederalgovernmentin1869(figure12).Withtheratificationofthisact,
federalemployeeswontheeighthourdaywithoutareductioninpay,signedintolawbythe18th
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President,UlyssesS.Grant(18081885)andHamiltonFish(18081893),SecretaryofState. Thetextof
theproclamation,withinthecentralstarreads:
I,U.S.Grant,PresidentoftheUnitedStates,doherebydirectthatfromthisdateno
reductionshallbemadeinthewagespaidbythegovernmentbytheday,tosuch
laborers,workers,
&
mechanics
on
account
of
such
reduction
of
the
hours
of
labor.
In
testimonywhereof,&c.,doneattheCityofWashington,this19thDayofMay,theyear
ofourLord,1869&oftheIndependenceoftheUnitedStates.
Thisdocumentisrichwithallegoricalfiguresandiconographydepictedintheeffusive,almostbaroque
styleoftheperiod. Thisversionofthearm&hammerisvisuallyverysimilartotheexampleprovidedby
Horning(figure8). Thearm&hammericonisprominentlypositionedatthebottomcenter
incorporatedintothebaseofawideframe,whereitseemstosupportandbalancetheweightofthe
entirecomposition. Itisbelow,yetonanequalplanewiththeeagleclutchingashieldandlaurel
branchesperchedatthetopcenteroftheproclamation,representingthefederalgovernment.
Containedintheframeimmediatelyabovethearm&hammerisanidealized,almostArcadian
agriculturalscenewiththesea(shipping)andacity(industry)inthedistance. Aroundthearm&
hammer,theframeisinscribedEast;Maryland;California;West,presumablymeaningthatthislabor
utopiaisspreadfromcoasttocoast. Continuingupthecenterofthedocument,theromannumerals
VIIIareshownbetweenaplumbsquare(goodfaith,balance)andabeehive(industry,diligence). Above
thisisthekeytextofthedocument,inthecenterofastar,surroundedbyawreathofolivebranches
(victory,plentyandpeace)and12starsonacircularbackground. Countingthestarinthecenter,there
are13onthecircularfield;reminiscentoftherevolutionaryflagofthe13colonies.
Fillingoutthesidesaretwoallegoricalfigures. ThepersonificationofLabor,themalefigureonthe
right,sitsatrestonananvilwiththehammerathisside,athisfeetarethenamesofallthecontinents
ofthe
world
(the
helmeted
female
figure
on
the
shield
could
be
Minerva),
behind
him
is
an
industrial
scene. TheanchorandthegearnearhimarereminiscentofothergraphicsusedbytheMechanics
SocietiesandthesymbolsusedontheWisconsinstateflag.Betweenthisfigureandthecentralgrouping
arenumeroussymbolsoftheartsandsciences. Thefemalefigureontheleftsideisanallegoryof
Americanabundanceandjustice. Sheweighsthecontributionoflaborandfindshimdeservingof
reward(the8hourday). Behindherisanidealizedlandscape,andbetweenherandthecentral
groupingarepatrioticsymbolsofAmericandemocracy,suchasthelibertybell.
Onthewhole,IthinkthisengravingwasmeanttoexpresstheideathatAmerica,asademocraticlandof
fairnessandbounty,couldaffordtorecognizeLaborsearnedrighttorest. Unfortunately,aperiodof
violencefollowed
as
organized
labor
attempted
to
get
other
US
employers
to
recognize
this
ideal.x
Church&Dwightandthebakingsodaking
Anotheruseofthearm&hammeremblem,whichstartedinthepostcivilwareraandcontinuestothe
present,istheuseoftheemblemasacommercialtrademark. Thistrendcanbeseenonitemssuchas
thisundatedHonestLaborCutPlugtobaccotinusedbytheR.A.PattersonTobaccoCompanyof
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munsonpage12
Richmond,Virginia(figure13),andoneofthemostfamousandenduringtrademarksofthiskind,Arm&
HammerBakingSoda,whichhasbeenfeaturedonChurch&Dwightspackagessince1867(figure14).
Figures13,14&15HonestLaborCutPlugtobaccotin(left,collectionoftheLaborArchivesandResearchCenter,SFSU).The
texton
the
side
reads
you
know
its
good
because
its
manufactured
by
R.A.
Patterson
Tobacco
Company
Richmond,
VA.
Church&CosSoda,1878(center)andJohnDwight&CosCowBrandSoda,1876(right). Thecowimagemayhavealsobeen
anallusiontothecommoncombinationofmilkandsodausedinbaking.(HalMorgan,SymbolsofAmerica,1986.)
Inabrochurepublishedin1996celebratingthe150thanniversaryoftheChurchandDwightCompany,
ChairmanoftheBoardDwightChurchMintontellsthestoryoftheestablishingofthecompanybyhis
familyandtheoriginoftheArm&Hammertrademark:
Dr.AustinChurchwasmygreatgreatgrandfatherwho,in1846,abandonedtwo
decades
of
successful
medical
practice
in
Rochester,
New
York,
to
pursue
a
risky
businesscareerintheroaringhubofNewYorkCity. TherehebuiltthefirstAmerican
factoryforthemanufactureofsodiumbicarbonate,usingaprocesshehadperfectedin
hishobbyofexperimentalchemistry. Untilthen,bakingsoda,alsoknownassaleratus,
wasimportedfromEuropeandwasalreadyagrocerystapleinhighdemand. Joining
himashismarketingpartnerwashisbrotherinlaw,JohnDwight,aMassachusetts
farmer20yearshisjunior.
TheenterprisewasnamedJohnDwight&Company,andtheambitiousfarmerturned
salesmansoldtheproductwithsuchconvictionthathesoonwontheconfidenceofthe
citysgrocerytradeandthebusinessthrived.WhenDr.Churchretired,histwosons
startedtheirownfirm,Church&Co.,in1867,withasodafactorylocatedatGreenpoint,
Brooklyn,NewYork. JamesA.Churchbroughtwithhim,fromhisdefunctVulcanSpice
Mills,theArm&HammerlogodepictingVulcan,themythicalhammerwieldinggodof
fire,andappliedittopackagesofbakingsoda. Meantime,JohnDwight&Company
continuedasaseparatebusiness,andin1876introducedCowBrandBakingSoda,
namedforLadyMaud,aprizewinningJerseycowatthePhiladelphiaCentennial
Exposition. Bothbrandsrepresentedthefinestqualityproductandwereequally
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popularwithhomemakers.WhenthecompaniesofChurchandDwightwerefinally
mergedin1896toformChurch&DwightCo.,Inc.,thetwologoswerebothfeaturedin
consumeradvertising. Arm&Hammereventuallyedgedahead,anddistributionofCow
Brandwasdiscontinuedin1960.(Church&DwightCo.,Inc.1996,24)
Asweve
seen
in
the
proceeding
chapter,
the
arm
&
hammer
was
already
awidely
known
icon
of
labor
bythetimeitappearedonChurch&Cospackagesin1867.WecanonlyhypothesizewhyChurch,
Patterson,oranyoneelsedecidedtousethearm&hammeremblemasacommerciallogoatthistime.
First,itwasanestablishediconthatwouldbeeasilyremembered. Asasymbolofthenationallabor
movement,thearm&hammerstillretainedthepositiveconnotationsofintegrityandstrengthderived
fromtheVulcanmyth. Thisisalsotheexacttimethattheseedsoftheunionlabelmovementwere
beingplantedacrossthecountryinSanFrancisco,startingwiththeCarpenters8Hourlumberstamp
(1869)andtheCigarMakerswhitemenlabel(1874).Theselabelsweremeantgiveconsumersan
economicwaytosupportlabor,andtoawaytodifferentiatehigherqualityunionmadegoodsfrom
thoseproducedinsweatshopsandotherunsanitaryconditions. Itmaybepossiblethatconsumers
wereprepared
for
the
concept
of
the
union
label
because
they
had
already
started
to
see
and
trust
productsthatusedhonestlabor,thearm&hammeremblemorothervariationsonthisthemeasa
sellingpoint.
Asidefromallthis,ChurchandDwightspecificallyhadanotherlogicalreasontocontinuetousea
representationofthegodoffireastheirlogo;firehastraditionallybeenunderstoodasasymbolof
purification.xi Obviously,purityisimportantwhenyourproductisafinewhitepowder,butthiswasalso
thebirthofanewmarketingtrend,ashistorianThomasJ.Schlerethpointsout:
Theconceptoftheconvenient,sanitary,novelpackagetincan,glassbottle,sealed
cardboardboxtransformedmarketingstrategiesbyprovingthatrawgoodscouldbe
profitablyturned
into
standardized
products
with
national
brand
names.
Advertisers
trumpetedthepurityofcannedfoodstuffs.NohumanhandtouchedStaceysWorkdipt
Chocolates,Schlitzcooleditsbeerinfilteredair,andBostonhousewivescouldbuy
HuckinsHermeticallySealedSoups. (Schlereth,1992.163)
PurityandcleanlinesshavealwaysbeenkeyconceptsinthemarketingoftheArm&Hammerbrand.
ConsumerscouldpurchaseasealedboxofArm&Hammerbakingsodaandassumeitwascleanand
manufacturedinasanitaryenvironment. InlateryearsChurchandDwightaddedthemottothe
standardofpuritytotheirtrademark.
Whatever
the
reasons
for
the
initial
popularity
of
the
Arm
&
Hammer
packaging,
Church
&
Dwight
were
inventiveandpersistentmarketers;theyofferedthepublicawidearrayofposters,cookbooks,
calendars,andtheenormouslypopularconservationthemedbirdcards(themottoonthecardswas
For the good of all, do not destroy the birds.) Collecting these, according to the Church & Dwight
anniversary booklet, was a national fad.xii Alloftheseitems,ofcourse,prominentlydisplayedthe
Arm&Hammerlogo.AsproductsbearingtheArm&Hammertrademarkproliferatedoverthedecades,
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Church&Dwightsubiquitousmarketingbuiltthebrandintooneofthemostrecognizedcommercial
logosintheUnitedStates.
OnepersonwhodevelopedalifelonginterestinC&Dsarm&hammertrademarkwasArmand
Hammer(18981990),themultimillionaireindustrialistandartcollector,whohadbeenquestioned
abouthis
relationship
to
Arm
&
Hammer
baking
soda
so
often
that
he
felt
compelled
to
devote
several
pagesofhisautobiographytothestory,beginningwithhisnameitself:
MyfathernamedmeArmandafterArmandDuval,theromanticheroinDumassLa
DameauxCamlias,orsohesaid. Itisfairlyobviousthathemustalsohavehadinmind
thesymboloftheSocialistLaborPartyanarmandahammer.Ihavehadmorefunout
oftheconstantconfusionofmynamewiththebakingsodawhichissoldallover
AmericaAsajoke,Ihaddesignedanensignwithanarmandahammerformyyacht.
WhenevertheyachtwouldappearinAmericanwaters,peoplewouldcomeuptome
saying,Ah,youmustbethebakingsodaking.(Hammer1987,503)
Eventhough
Church
&
Co.
began
using
the
Arm
&
Hammer
trademark
30
years
before
he
was
born,
beingonthereceivingendofquestionslikeisArm&Hammerbakingsodanamedafteryou?year
afteryearwassuchasourceofamusementforHammerthathedecidedtoinvestigatebuyingthe
companyinthe1950s(wewillreturntotheSocialistPartysuseoftheembleminthenextsection).
ChurchandDwightwasstillprivatelyownedbythefamilyatthistimeandtheysharplytoldHammer
andhisbrotherthattheircompanywasnotforsale. PursuingChurch&Dwightonawhim,thefamilys
obviousdismayattheideaoftheproposedsaleandthepotentialfortymilliondollarpricetagcooled
Hammersenthusiasm,butperiodicallyhewouldrenewhisattemptstotrytoacquirethecompany.Carl
Blumay,authorofTheDarkSideofPower:TheRealArmandHammer,(writtenin1992afterHammers
death)explainsthatovertheyearsthefirm(Church&Dwight)hadfoughthimoffandmadepublic
declarationsthat
it
had
nothing
to
do
with
him,
especially
because
of
his
involvement
with
the
Soviet
UnionandhiscriminalactivitiesinconjunctionwiththeNixonreelectioncampaignfund.(Blumay1992,
429)xiii
In1985,Hammerwasfinallyabletofulfillhisdreamofbeingthebakingsodaking.Occidental
PetroleumexchangedahalfinterestinanOccidentalpotassiumcarbonateplantinAlabamafor1.1
millionsharesofChurch&Dwightstockand$5.5millionincash,givingOccidental5%ofChurch&
Dwightsstock. Thetwocompaniesalsoenteredintoa50/50jointventure,calledArmandProducts
Company(stillactive),whichallowedHammertobenamedtotheChurch&Dwightboardofdirectors,
allowinghimtosay,Yes,Iamthebakingsodaking.In1991,shortlyafterHammersdeath,Occidental
restructuredtheir
finances,
and
sold
their
holdings
of
Church
&
Dwight
stock
for
$19
million.
(Blumay
1992,465)
TheSocialists
FoundedinNewYorkin1876,TheSocialistLaborPartyofAmerica(SLP)adoptedtheupliftedArm&
Hammerastheiremblemandratifieditintotheirconstitutionattheeleventhnationalconventionin
NewYork,1904(figure17). Itwasandstillisprominentlyfeaturedinallrelatedpublications.
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munsonpage15
LawyerDanielDeLeon(18521914),aColumbiaLawSchoollecturerwhobecametheSLPsleaderand
mainarchitectin1890,definedtheSocialismasthatsocialsystemunderwhichthenecessariesof
productionareowned,controlledandadministeredbythepeople,forthepeople,andunderwhich,
accordingly,thecourseofpoliticalandeconomicdespotismhavingbeenabolished,classruleisatan
endThatissocialism,nothingshortofthat.(DeLeon1906).TheSocialists,whosegoalwasnolessthan
asocial
revolution
ending
the
class
and
wage
system
in
the
US,
always
supported
Labors
struggle
for
fairtreatment,butweregenerallydisapprovingoftheAFLs,inclusivecraftunioniststanceofthe
AmericanFederationofLaboranditsaffiliates.
Figures16&17emblemofthe
SocialistTrade&LaborAlliance,
1869(right).Currentemblemof
theSocialistLaborPartyof
America.
TheSocialistTrade&LaborAlliance,anoffshootoftheSLPfoundedbyDeLeonandformermembersof
theKnightsofLabor,heldtheirfirstconventioninNewYorkinJuneof1896. Thisgroupformedin
responsetotheirfeelingthattheAFLandotherlabororganizationshadgottentooclosetoorganized
capitaltobeeffective. TheST&LAwasincorporatedintotheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorldwhenit
formedin1905. Seemingtoeruptfromtheearth,thehandintheST&LAsemblem(figure16)holdsits
hammerverymuchthetorchofenlightenmentheldbytheStatueofLiberty(thetorchitselfwasoften
usedasasymbolinSocialistpostersandpublications).
ThebroadsheetTotheArmandHammer:aSongforMayDay,1898(figure18),writtenbyJosephC.
BordenJr.ofSouthNorwalk,Connecticuthintsatanotherchapterinthestoryofthearm&hammer
emblem. Thelyricsofthesongaresurroundedbyanornateborderinarts&craftsstylefeaturingmale
andfemaleallegoricalfigures,allwearingPhrygiancaps(symbolizingrevolution)andholdingbanners
withsuchphrasesasSocialandEconomicFreedomLeisure,Peace&AbundanceforAll;TheCo
OperativeCommonWealthOneforAll,AllforOne;InternationalSolidarityand,heldbytheangel
betweenthetwoarm&hammeremblemsinthetopcenter,HumanEmancipation. Thesongasks
whentheworkerswillheedthemessageofstrengthandunityembodiedinthearm&hammer,and
encouragesthem
not
to
wait
too
long
to
celebrate
gaily
the
Future
of
Man.
The
year,
1898,
and
the
phraseCoOperativeCommonwealth,mayprovideuswithacluetothedeepermeaningofthissong.
Beginningaroundthe1880s,severalorganizationsformedwiththegoalofestablishingutopian
colonies,buildingontheideasindifferingliteraryworkslikeJohnRuskinsForsClavirera(1870s),
LaurenceGronlundsTheCooperativeCommonwealthinitsOutines:AnExpositionofModernSocialism
(1884),EdwardBellamysLookingBackward20001887(abestsellingtimetravelstorypublishedin
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munsonpage16
1887)andWilliamMorrisNewsfromNowhere(1891).Thesecolonieswerevisualizedasidealrural
communities,whereeveryonehadsatisfyingandcreativework,allcompetitionandconflictsufferedby
peopleunderthecapitalistsystemwouldbeoverthrown,andeveryonewouldliveinpeaceand
economicstability.
Figure18TotheArmandHammer:ASongforMayDay.JosephC.Borden,Jr.(1898).Broadsheet,29x
36cm.
OneoftheorganizationsthattriedtomakethesedreamsrealitywasTheSocialDemocracyinAmerica,
whichwasfoundedbyEugeneV.DebsfromsegmentsoftheAmericanRailwayUnionandthe
BrotherhoodoftheCooperativeCommonwealthonJune15,1897.Theleadershipofthisgroupwas
interestedin
establishing
acolony
to
seed
the
future
Cooperative
Commonwealth
in
the
Cumberland
PlateauofTennessee,andpossiblyinprovidingalaborforcetobuildarailroadinNashville. Therewas
muchdisagreementaboutthisgoalwithinthegroup,however,withalargecontingentmoreinfavor
tryingtoadvancetheirSocialistaspirationsthoughpoliticalorganizationandtheelectoralprocess. They
wereunabletofulfilltheirgoal,butothergroupshadmoresuccess,andafewshortlivedcommunes
wereactuallyformed.Forexample,theBrotherhoodoftheCooperativeCommonwealthfoundedthe
colonyofEqualityonPugetSoundinWashingtonStatein1897,whichlasteduntil1907.xiv
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BordenssongTotheArmandHammercouldhavebeenwrittenfororinspiredbyTheSocial
Democracyssecondconventionin1898.Atitscore,thisattemptatcolonizationistheepitomeofthe
Vulcanmythcraftsmengoingintonaturetobuildanidealisticnewcivilizationoftheirownonthe
strengthoftheirownskillsandlabor.Bytheearly1900sitbecameraretoseethearm&hammer
symbolusedinanycapacityotherthantheChurchandDwightbakingsodatrademarkorbyorgansof
theSocialist
party.
Organized
labor,
embracing
the
ideas
of
pure
&
simple
trade
unionism,
moved
awayfromtheimageoflaborunityformerlyembodiedinthearm&hammeremblem,fracturinginto
myriadindividualunionemblemsandlabels. NoneofthisseemedtoeffectChurch&Dwight,whoby
theearly1900swerewildlysuccessfulandhadoneofthebestknowntrademarksintheUnitedStates.
iKimMunson(MAarthistory,SanFranciscoStateUniversity)isanindependentscholar
researchingandwritingonaspectsofAmericanCultureandworksonpaper,suchaslabor
graphicsandcomicart.Thisstudyofthearm&hammeremblemispartofalargerwork,Signs
ofUnity:StoriesandSymbolsoftheAmericanUnionLabelMovement.Shecanbereachedat
Kim
would
like
to
thank
Marc
H.
Greenberg,
Catherine
Powell
of
the
LaborArchivesandResearchCenteratSFSU,andmostofall,thelatelaborfolkloristArchie
Green,whosuggestedthearm&hammerasatopic.
Atthebeginningofmyresearch,Ididexplorethepossibilitythatthisemblemgrewfromthe
mythologyofotherhelpergodslikePrometheusorThor,buttheiriconologywasvery
different. Prometheusisalmostalwaysseenwithatorch(orthetorchalone),whichwasbriefly
usedbytheSocialistLaborPartyandwasfrequentlyusedasasymbolofinventionandprogress
inlogosofthe1930s1950s(discussedatlengthinMendenhallsSymbolsofPowerand
Progress).Thorshammerisusuallyseenasaseparatesymbol,withnoarmattached(orasa
fullbodyportrayal),E.R.EllisDavidsonsarticleThorsHammerisanexcellentintroductionto
thisfolklore. Thereisalsoaversionwithanarm&hammerdescendingfromacloudsmashing
arock,
accompanied
by
agod
like
head
breathing
fire;
this
stems
from
the
biblical
motto
Is
not
myWordlikefire,saystheLord,andlikeahammerthatbreaksarockinpieces?(Jeremiah
23:29). Therestofthispassageisgenerallyinterpretedtobeaboutfalseprophets. Asthisis
visuallyandconceptuallyverydifferent,itdidntseemtobeagoodfiteither.Thebestknown
representationofthisisthecolophonoftheGermanprinterHeinrichPetriwhichadornsthe
titlepageofthe15662nd
editionofNicolausCopernicus(14731543)Derevolutionibusorbium
coelestium(OntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlySpheres),andotherpublications.iiInanotherpopularversionofthemyth,Vulcanfallsintotheseaandisraisedbythesea
nymphThetis.PanofskydiscussesaversionthattellsofVulcanbeingraisedbyapes(he
suspectsthisisduetoaproblemintheGreektoItaliantranslation). Inhisarticle,Panofsky
specificallyfocuses
on
the
nymphs
of
Lemnos
version
because
he
is
exploring
acycle
of
five
paintingsbydiCosimothatincludesadepictionofthediscoveryofyoungVulcanbythe
nymphs(whichhadbeenmisinterpreteduptothattime),aswellasVulcan&Aeolus,which
concludesthecycle.iiiPanovskycitesBoccacciosuseofVitruviusDeArchitecturaLibridecemII.
ivThegiraffearrivedattheFlorenceZooin1487.Itwasasourceoffascinationformany
Florentineartists,appearinginmanypaintingsaroundthistime.
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munsonpage18
vMuchhasbeenwrittenabouttheimportanceofthefamilyunitinRenaissanceFlorence.I
recommendbookthreeofAlbertisILibriDellaFamiglia(1434).Thereisalsoatheorythatit
wasacommonbeliefintheRenaissancethatifyoulookedatanimagelongenough,itsgood
qualitieswouldruboffontheviewer. PerhapsPugliesemeanttoinspirehisfamilytoworkas
hardat
his
business
as
he
did.
Who
knows,
maybe
the
young
family
man
in
this
painting
is
his
son.viWorshipfulwasanhonorarytitle,usedbyalltheguilds.
viiAccordingtoKingsHandbookofBoston(1878),theMassachusettsMechanicsAssociations
buildinginBostononChauncyStreetalsohadtheirversionofthearm&hammerembleminan
archwaynearthedoor. Theirmottobejustandfearnot,strikesmeasmorereminiscentof
thebiblicalhammerstoryIvediscussedinthefirstendnote.viii
ThisarticlewasoneofapairbyRubensteinthataccompaniedanexhibitionattheNational
MuseumofAmericanHistoryin1989,SymbolsandImagesofAmericanLabor.ixOnthewebsiteoftheMonticelloCouncilNo.63,JuniorOrderofUnitedAmericanMechanics,
ThomasRuecitesahistoryoftheJOUAMbyDeemer,Shanor&Deily,publishedinBostonin
1896bytheFraternalPublishingCompanydescribingtheadoptionoftheJOUAMsseal:OnOctober12,1868,TheStateCouncilorofPennsylvania,Bro.Jno.O.Montanye,submitteda
designasabadgeoftheOrderashield,withthearmandhammer,compassandsquareinthe
center;whenitwasresolvedthatthedesignsubmittedbemadethebadgeoftheOrder.The
Masonsdouseadifferenthammer,thegavelorhiram,asanattributeoftheLodgeMaster(but
notasagraphic).xForexample,theHaymarketriotandtrialinthatrockedChicagoin18867.xiForexample,itwasbelievedthatthesoulsofwitcheswerepurifiedwhentheirbodieswere
burnedatthestake.xii
ChurchandDwightproducedtheBeautifulBirdsofAmericaandothernaturethemedcards
forfive
decades,
from
1888
to
1966.
xiiiOnecouldwriteabookaboutHammersbusinessandpolitics,andmanyauthorshave.Aside
fromHammersownautobiographyHammerand BlumayandEdwardsTheDarkSideof
Power:TheRealArmandHammer,IrecommendtwoshortarticlesfromtheNewYorkTimes,
WilliamSmithsBusinessmanofManyFacets:ArmandHammer(1972)andArmandHammers
MazeofSkulduggerybyRalphBlumenthal(1996).xiv
ThereisanexcellentshortarticlebyWayneD.Sneathonthecolonizationmovementandthe
Equalitycolony(withpictures)ontheBowlingGreenStateUniversityAmericanCulturalStudies
website. AnothergoodsourceonRuskin,Morris,andtheirinfluenceontheSocialistParty
(andonBritishandAmericanarts,culture&politics),canbefoundinEileenBorisexcellent
book
Art
and
Labor:
Ruskin,
Morris,
and
the
Craftsman
Ideal
in
America.
8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson
19/20
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50states.com.WisconsinStateFlag.Accessed9/29/08.
Blumay,CarlwithHenryEdwards.TheDarkSideofPower:TheRealArmandHammer.Simon&Shuster:
NY1992.
Borden,JosephC.Jr.TotheArmandHammer:aSongforMayDay(1898).LibraryofCongresswebsite.
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