The evolution of high energy neutrinotelescopes

Christian SpieringDESY

The evolution of high energy neutrinotelescopes

…a long marchwhich has notyet reachedits end.

under-ground

optical:- deep water- deep ice

- air showers- radio- acoustics

Ann.Rev.Nucl.Sci10 (1960) 63

Ann.Rev.Nucl.Sci10 (1960) 1

Moisej Markov Bruno Pontecorvo

M.Markov,1960: „We propose to install detectors deep in a lake or in the sea and to determine the direction of charged particles with the helpof Cherenkov radiation“ Proc. 1960 ICHEP, Rochester, p. 578.

Central interest: cross sections, W-mass… one of the main motivations for Reines‘ South Africa detector, the Kolar Gold Field Detector (India) and the Baksan scintillation detector. Early sixties: doesthe neutrino cross section saturate beyond 1 GeV (i.e. one would never measureatm. neutrinos with energies higher than a few GeV). The question was relaxed in the mid seventies:

First measurement of atmosphericneutrinos

Beside several ideas like e.g.H. Uberall and C. Cowan, 1965 CERN Conf. on Experimental Neutrino Physics, p. 231– Downward looking PM observing a

10 m thick water target, „possibly in ocean or a lake“

V. Bogatyrev, Yad.Fiz 13 (1971) 336– Three detectors each 107 tons of distilled

water a several km depth, widely spacedSN triangulation

in 1965 detection of nearlyhorizontal atmospheric neutrinosby F. Reines in a South African Gold mine.

DUMAND

1973 ICRC, Reines, Learned, Shapiro, Zatsepin, Miyake: a deep water detector to clarify puzzles in muon depth-intensitycurvesPuzzles faded away, but there remained the awareness that such a detector could also work as neutrino detectorThe name: DUMAND (Deep Underwater Muon And Neutrino Detector), proposed by Fred Reines1975: First DUMAND Workshop in Washington State CollegeDUMAND Steering Committee, chaied by F.Reines, J. Learned, . A.Roberts

See also: A.Roberts: The birth of high-energy neutrinoastronomy: a personal history of the DUMAND project,Rev. Mod. Phys. 64 (1992) 259.

ν

μ

Principle and capabilities

Angular resolution of 1° possible

astrononomy

Energy resolution formuons is 50% at best, for 1 km tracklength

The DUMAND Workshops

An unbelievable source of basic ideas(including crazy ones which are sometimes the most exciting)

1976 Honolulu1978 Scripps1979 Khabarovsk/Baikal1978 HonoluluPlus dedicated workshops on deployment, acousticdetection, signal procressing and oceanengineering

Which physics?

UNDINE: UNderwater Detection of Interstellar Neutrino Emission– i.e. Supernova too rarely to optimize an ocean detector for it ( IMB)

ATHENE: ATmospheric High-Energy Neutrino Experiment– Better with underground experiments

UNICORN: UNderwater Interstellar COsmic Ray Neutrinos– The high energy option– preferred option, but: how large are the fluxes ?– think as big as possible !

A. Roberts:

1978: 1.26 km³22,698 OMs

1980: 0.60 km³6,615 OMs

1982: 0.015 km³756 OMs

1988: 0.002 km³

216 OMs

DUMAND-II

Financial and technological reality !

DUMAND-II (The Octagon)

9 strings216 OMs100 diameter, 240 m heightDepth of bottom: 4.8 kmLowest OM 100 m abovebottom

γγνμππγ

νν

νμπ

μ

μ

+→+→+→+→+

++→

+→+→+

+ 0

....

pnp

e

pp

e

or

Point sources, DUMAND-II (0.002 km³) expectations in the eighties !!!

Note: in 1989, the only proven TeV γ source was the Crab SNR!With these assumptions, a km³ detector would have discovered 5-50 (worst scenario) up to several ten thousand events (best scenario) per source

Diffuse sources, DUMAND-II (0.002 km³) expectations in the eighties

Technology boostsOptical fibers with < 12 dbattenuation over 40-km lengthand data rates of hundreds of MBaud (Nobel prize 2009!)

Appearance of 16“ Hamamatsu PMT

Appearance of 14“ „smart“ Philips PMT

JOMJapanese Optical Module

EOMEuropean Optical Module

1987: The SPS

1982-87: a series of 14 cruises, with two lost strings1987: success !– depth-intensity curve– angular distributions– attenuation lenght (47±22 m)

„Short Prototype String“

DUMAND after the SPS:

1989: HEPAP supports DUMAND-II1990: DOE allocates funds for DUMAND-IIFurther financial cuts TRIAD (3 strings)1993: shore cable laidDecember 1993: deployment of first string and connection to junction box. Failure after severalhours1995: DUMAND project is terminated

RussiaVery active during early DUMAND workshops(Chudakov, Berezinsky, Bezrukov, Zhelesnykh, Petrukhin)Kicked out of DUMAND after Russian Afghanistan invasionA. Roberts:

1980: Chudakov proposes exploration of Lake Baikal as possible site for a neutrino telescope1981: start of site investigations at Lake Baikal (Domogatksy, Bezrukov)

Exploration of Atlantic, Black Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific and Mediterranean sites (Zheleznyk, Petrukhin)

A. Roberts: „Communication among these groups is not very good“

The Lake BAIKAL experiment

G. Domogatsky

Bezrukov, Domogatsky, Berezinsky, Zatsepin

Largest fresh water reservoir in the worldDeepest Lake (1.7 km)1981: first site explorations & R&DChoosen site 3.6 km from shore, 1.3 km depth

Ice as a natural deployment platform

… and its mis-interpretation:

A. Roberts:

Lake Baikal: the eighties

1984: first stationary string– Muon flux measurement

1986: second stationary string(Girlyanda 86)– Limits on GUT

magnetic monopolesAll that with 15-cm flat-window PMT FEU-49

Development of a Russiansmart phototube (Quasar)

Towards NT-2001988: Germany joins

1989/90: design of NT-200

1993 + 1994: NT-36 - 18 channels at 3 strings- first underwater array- first 2 neutrino candidates

1995: NT-72- 38 channels at 4 strings

1996: NT-96- 48 channels at 4 strings- clear neutrinos

1998: NT-200- 96 channels at 8 strings

4-string stage (1996)

J. Learned:„Congratulations for winningthe 3-string race!“(Baikal vs Dumand vs AMANDA)

NT-200

NT-200

3600 m

1366

m

2 PMTs in coincidenceto surpress background

NT200 results

Atmospheric neutrinos

WIMP searchDiffuse neutrino fluxes

Skymap

GRB coincidencesMagnetic monopoles

396 ν candidates

Amanda 4 years

Baikal 5 years

NT200+

NT200

3600 m

1366

m

140 mNT200+

- upgrade 2005/06- 4 times better sensitivity thanNT200 for PeV cascades

- basic cell for km3 scale detector

construction1993-1998

For searches of diffuse neutrino fluxes, the small NT200 could compete with the much larger Amanda by monitoring

a large volume below the detector. NT200+ fences this volume.

Gigaton Volume Detector, GVD

Sacrifice low energies (muon threshold ~ 10 TeV)Protoype strings being testedModular clusters, stepwise installation > 2012~ 2000 optical modules (conventional PMs)

12 clusters of strings

NT1000: top view

R ~ 60 m

L~ 350

 m

All other deep water/ice detector projects startedaround 1990 or later.

In the eighties /early nineties, shallow detectorshave been proposed but never built.

On the other hand, deep underground detectorsreached their full blossom:- solar neutrinos- supernova neutrinos- limits on proton decay- first hints to neutrino oscillations- sky maps

Shallow detector projects

Advantages: easy access, less challenging environmentDisadvantages: huge background, not expandable

GRANDE– Shallow water, Lake, Arkansas, H. Sobel (Irvine)

LENA– Artificial water pool, Gran Sasso, M.Koshiba

SINGAO– Resistive Plate Chambers, Italy/UK

Swedish lakes– Early nineties, before Sweden joined Amanda

Underground Detectors

KGF

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FREJUS

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