Appendix A
1951-1965
THE FIRST FIFTEEN YEARS OF FIELD-ION MICROSCOPY-A BIBLIOGRAPHY
Contents A.l General Reviews A.2 Ion Mechanics: Field Ionization and Field Evaporation A.3 Image Interpretation A.4 Techniques A.5 Lattice Imperfections A.6 Grain Boundaries A.7 Alloys A.8 Radiation Darnage A.9 Other Applications A.lO Author Index
A.1 General Reviews
Papers 1- 14
15- 29 30- 38 39- 52 53- 68 69- 73 74- 77 78- 83 84-104
I. E. W. Müller, "Das Auflosungsvermogen des Feldionenmikroskopes" ("The Resolution of Field-lon Microscopes"), Z. N aturjorsch. 11a: 88 ( 1956).
2. E. W. Müller, "Study of Atomic Structure of Meta! Surfaces in the Field Ion Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 28: I (1957).
3. E. W. Müller," Experimenteren mit Atomaren Kristallbausteinen in Feldionenmikroskop," Z. Electrochem. 61 : 43 (1957).
4. M. Drechsler, "Kristall Stufen von I bis 1000 A," Z. Electrochem. 61: 48 (1957). 5. J. A. Becker, "Study of Surfaces by Using New Tools," Solid Stare Phys. 7: 416 (1958). 6. E. W. Müller, W. T. Pimbley, and J. F. Mulson, "The Study of Meta! Surfaces by the
Field-Ion Microscope," in: Interna/ Stress and Fatigue in Metals, G. M. Rassweiler and W. L. Grube, eds., Elsevier (Amsterdam), 1959, p. 189.
7. E. W. Müller, "Field Ionization and Field Ion Microscopy," Advan. in Electron. and Electron Phys. 13: 83 (1960).
8. R. Gomer, Field Emission and Field Ionization, Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass. ), 1961.
9. E. Sugata and S. Nakamura, "Study of Field-Emission Cathode by Field-Ion Microscopy," Appl. Phys. Japan (Oyo Butsuri) 1: 50 (1962).
10. D. G. Brandon, "The Resolution of Atomic Structure: Recent Advances in Theory and Development of the Field lon-Microscope," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 14: 474 (1963).
213
214 Appendix A
II. B. Ralph and D. G. Branson, "The Field Ion Microscope: I. Design and Development, 2. Applications," J. Roy. Microscop. Soc. 82: 179 and 188 (1964).
12. E. W. Müller, Progress and Problems in Field Ion Microscopy, Xerox-Cornell Material Science Center, Leelure Series, Rept. No. 276.
13. E. W. Müller, "Field Ion Microscopy," Science 149: 591 (1965). 14. S. S. Brenner, "Field Ion Microscope Studies of Surfaces," in: Surfaces: Srructure, Ener
getics, and Kinetics, Oct. 27, 1965.
A.2 Ion Mechanics: Field lonization and Field Evaporation 15. E. W. Müller and K. Bahadur, "Velocity Distribution in Field Ion Emission," Phys. Rev.
99: 1651 (1955). 16. E. W. Müller, ''Resolution of the Atomic Structure of a Meta! Surface by the Field-lon
Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 27: 474 (1956). 17. E. W. Müller and K. Bahadur, "Field Ionization of Gases at a Meta! Surface and the
Resolution of the Field-Jon Microscope," Phys. Rev. 102: 624 (1956). 18. E. W. Müller, "Field Desorption," Phys. Rev. 102: 618 (1956). 19. E. W. Müller and J. F. Mulson, "Surface Structure of Field-Evaporated Meta! Crystals,"
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11, 3: 69 (1958). 20. E. W. Müller, "Perfection of Meta! Crystal Surfaces by Field Evaporation," Bull. Am.
Phys. Soc., Ser. 11,4: 322 (1959). 21. E. W. Müller and R. D. Young, "Determination of Field Strength for Field Evaporation
and Ionization in the Field-lon Microscope," J. App/. Phys. 32: 2425 (1961). 22. T. C. Clements and E. W. Müller, "Occurrence ofH; in the Field Ionization ofHydrogen,"
J. Chem. Phys. 37: 2684 (1962). 23. M. J. Southon and D. G. Brandon, ''Current Voltage Characteristics ofthe Helium Fielcl
Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 8:579 (1963). 24. G. Erhlich and F. G. Hudda, "Promoted Field Desorption and the Visibility of Adsorbed
Atoms in the Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 8: 1587 (1963). 25. R. Gomer and L. W. Swanson, "Theory of Field Desorption," J. Chem. Phys. 38: 1613
(1963). 26. E. W. Müller, "The Effect ofPolarization, Field Stress and Gas Impact on the Topography
of Field Evaporated Surfaces," Surface Science 2: 484 (1964). 27. E. W. Müller, S. Nakamura, and 0. Nishikawa, "Field-Evaporation End Form of Pure
Metals," Bul/. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11 9: 150 (1964). 28. T. T. Tsong and E. W. Müller, "Measurement of Energy Distribution in Field Ionization,"
J. Chem. Phys. 41: 3279 (1964). 29. D. G. Brandon, "The Structure of Field Evaporated Surfaces," Surface Science 3: I (1965).
A.3 Image Interpretation 30. E. W. Müller, "Extreme Stress Conditions at the Tip Crystal ofthe Field-lon Microscope,"
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. 11, 3: 265 (1958). 31. M. Drechsler and P. Wolf, "Zur Analyse von Feldionenmikroskop-Aufnahmen mit
Atomaren Auflosung," in: Intern. Conf Electron Microscopy, 4th Berlin, Germany, 1958. 32. A. J. W. Moore, "The Structure of Atomically Smooth Spherical Surfaces," Phys. Chem.
Solids 23: 907 (1962). 33. D. G. Brandon, "Image Formation in the Field-Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 7: 1003 (1962). 34. D. G. Brandon, "The Aceurate Determination of Crystal Grientation from Field-Ion
Micrographs," J. Sei. lnst. 41: 373 (1964). 35. S. Ranganathan, "Contras! from Imperfections in Field-Ion Microscopy," in: Electron
Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 265.
36. B. Ralph, "The Interpretation of Field-Ion Microscope Images of Alloys," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 265.
Appendix A 215
37. D. G. Brandon, "The Analysis of Field Evaporation Data from Field-Ion Microscope Experiments," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 16: 683 (1965).
38. S. Ranganathan, K. M. Bowkett, J. Hren, and B. Ralph, "The Interpretation of Field-Ion Micrographs: Streak Contras!," Phi/. Mag. 12: 841 (1965).
A.4 Techniques 39. E. W. Müller, "Das Feldionenmikroskop," Z. Physik. 131: 136 (1951). 40. E. W. Müller, "Betriebsbedingungen des Tieftemperatur-Feldionenmikroskop," Ann.
Physik. 20: 315 (1957). 41. E. C. Cooper and E. W. Müller, "Field Desorption by Alternating Fields," Rev. Sei. Instr.
29:309 (1958). 42. B. J. Waclawski and E. W. Müller, "Operation ofthe Field-Ion Microscope with a Dynamic
Gas Supply," J. Appl. Phys. 32: 1472 (1961). 43. D. G. Brandon, S. Ranganathan and D. S. Whitmell, "Image Intensification in the Field
Ion Microscope," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 15, 55 (1964). 44. 0. Nishikawa and E. W. Müller, "Operation of the Field-Ion Microscope with Neon,"
J. Appl. Phys. 35, 2806 (1964). 45. C. Baker and B. Ralph, "A Combined Electron and Field-Ion Microscopic Study of
Graphite Whiskers," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House ofthe Czechoslovak Academy ofSciences, 1964, p. 325.
46. S. B. McLane, E. W. Müller, and 0. Nishikawa, "Field-Ion Microscopy with an External Image Intensifier," Rev. Sei. Instr. 35: 1297 (1964).
47. W. T. Pimbley and R. M. Ball, "Use of a Refrigerator with the Field-Ion Microscope," Rev. Sei. I nstr. 36: 225 (1965).
48. B. Ralph and M. 1. Southon, "Field-Ion Microscope," J. Sci.lnstr. 42:543 (1965). 49. E. W. Müller and 0. Nishikawa, "Increased Image Brightness in a Field-Ion Microscope,"
Rev. Sei. Instr. 36: 556 (1965). 50. H. F. Ryan and 1. Suiter, "An All Meta! Field-Ion Microscope," J. Sci.lnstr. 42: 645 (1965). 51. V. G. Weizer, "Variable Image Intensification in the Field-Ion Microscope," J. Appl.
Phys. 36: 2090 (1965). 52. E. W. Müller, S. Nakamura, 0. Nishikawa, and S. B. McLane, "Gas Surface Interaction
and Field-Ion Microscopy of Non-refractory Metals," J. Appl. Phys. 36: 2496 (1965).
A.5 Lattice lmperfections 53. M. Drechsler, G. Pankow, R. Vanselow, "Uber den Nachweis von Versetzungen beim
Abbau von Wolfram-, Tantal- und Nickel-Einkristallen" ("Concerning the Appearance of Dislocations after Field Evaporation with W, Ta, and Ni"), Z. Physik. Chem. (Frankfurt) 4:17(1955).
54. E. W. Müller, "Pseudospirals, Imperfect Structures and Crystal Habit Produced by Field Evaporation of Meta! Crystals," Acta Met. 6: 620 (1958).
55. E. W. Müller, "Beobachtungen der Atomartig Struktur von Metalloberflachen im Feldionenmikroskop," Proc. Intern. Conf Electron Microscopy, 4th, Berlin, Germany, 1958, Vol. I; Springer Verlag (Berlin), 1960, p. 820.
56. E. W. Müller, "Beobachtung von nahezu fehlerfreien Metallkristallen und von Punktdefekten im Feldionenmikroskop" ("Observation of Nearly Perfeet Meta! Crystals and of Point Defects in the Field-Ion Microscope"), Z. Physik 156: 399 (1959).
57. E. W. Müller, "Field-Ion Microscope Studies of Surface Corrosion, of Interstitials, Vacancies, and IX-irradiation Darnage by Controlled Field Evaporation of Atomic Layers," in: Structure and Properries ofThin Films, C. A. Neugebauer, J. D. Newkirk, and D. A. Vermileya, eds. Wiley (New York), 1959, p. 476.
58. D. G. Brandon and M. Wald, "The Direct Observation of Lattice Defects by Field-Ion Microscopy," Phi/. Mag. 6, 1035 (1961).
59. E. W. Müller, "Direct Observation ofCrystal Imperfection by Field-Ion Microscopy," in: Imperfection in Crystals, 1. B. Newkirk and J. H. Wernick, eds., Wiley (Interscience) (New York), 1961.
216 Appendix A
60. D. G. Brandon, M. Wald, B. Ralph, and M. J. Southon, "The Application of Field-Ion Microscopy to Some Metallurgical Problems," in: Proc. Intern. Congr. Electron Microscopy, 5th, 1962, pp. J-17.
61. E. W. Müller, "Field Ion Microscopy of the Defect Structure of Meta! Crystals," J. Phys. Soc. Japan 18 Sup. II: (1963).
62. E. W. Müller, "Field Emission Microscopy of Clean Surface with Electrons and Positive Ions," Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sei. 101: 585 (1963).
63. D. G. Brandon, M. Wald, M. J. Southon, and B. Ralph, "The Application of Field-lon Microscopy to the Study of Lattice Defects," J. Phys. Soc. Japan 18, Sup. II: 324 (1963).
64. E. W. Müller, "Field-Stress-Induced Surface Defects," Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., Ser. II, 9: 104 (1964).
65. E. W. Müller, "Field-Ion Microscopy of Rhenium," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conf, 3rd, Prague, Czechos/ovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academ y of Sciences, 1964, p. 161.
66. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Field-Ion Microscope Observations of Stacking Faults in Tungsten," J. Less-Common Metals 9: 258 (1965).
67. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Cavities in Tungsten," J. Less-Common Metals 9: 307 (1965). 68. S. Nakamura and E. W. Müller, "Field Evaporation and Form of Tantal um," J. Appl.
Phys. 36: 2535 (1965).
A.6 Grain Boundaries 69. T. H. George, "An Unusual Example ofa Grain Boundary," Z. Physik 176: 556 (1963). 70. D. G. Brandon, B. Ralph, S. Ranganathan, and M. Wald, "A Field-lon Microscope Study
of Atomic Configuration at Grain Boundaries," Acta Met.l2: 813 (1964). 71. H. F. Ryan and J. Suiter, "Grain Boundary Topography in Tungsten," Phi/. Mag. 10:
727 (1964). 72. S. Ranganathan and A. H. Cottrell, "A Field-Ion Microscopic Study of Grain Boundaries
in Iridium," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Con(, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 163.
73. J. Hren, "An Analysis of the Atomic Configuration of an Incoherent Twin Boundary with the F.I.M.," Acta Met. 13:479 (1965).
A.7 Alloys 74. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-lon Microscope Study ofSome Tungsten Rhenium
Alloys," Phi/. Mag. 8:919 (1963). 75. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-Ion Microscope Study of the Order-Disorder
Reaction in Equiatomic Cobalt-Piatinum," Journees Internationales des App/ications du Cobalt 9: I (1964).
76. B. Ralph and D. G. Brandon, "A Field-Ion Microscopic Study of the Equiatomic CobaltPlatinum Alloy in the Permanent Magnetic State," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Con(, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1964, p. 303.
77. E. K. Caspary and E. Krautz, "Feldionenmikroskopische Untersuchungen im Mischkristallsystem Wolfram Molybdan," Z. Naturforsch. 19a: 591 (1964).
A.8 Radiation Darnage 78. E. W. Müller, "Observation of Radiation Darnage with the Field Ion Microscope," in:
Reactivity of Solids, Proc. Intern. Symp. Reactivity of Solids, 4th, 1. H. de Boer et al., eds., Elsevier (Amsterdam), 1960. p. 691.
79. D. G. Brandon, M. J. Southon, and M. Wald, "The Application of Field-Ion Microscopy to Radiation Damage," in: Proc. Intern. Conf Berkeley Cast/e, Gloucestershire, England, Butterworth (London), 1961, p. 113.
80. M. K. Sinha and E. W. Müller, "Bombardment ofTungsten with 20 keV Helium Atoms in a Field-lon Microscope," J. App/. Phys. 35: 1256 (1964).
Appendix A 217
81. K. M. Bowkett, J. Hren, and B. Ralph, "A Study of Neutron Darnage with the Field-Ion Microscope," in: Electron Microscopy, 1964, Proc. European Conl, 3rd, Prague, Czechoslovakia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak <\cademy of Sciences, 1964, p. 191.
82. M. J. Attardo and J. M. Galligan, "Radiation Darnage in Platinum," Phys. Rev. Letters 14:641 (1965).
83. K. M. Bowkett, L. T. Chadderton, H. Norden, and B. Ralph, "A Study of Fission Fragment Darnage in Tungsten with the Field-Ion Microscope," Phi/. Mag. 11: 651 (1965).
A.9 Other Applications Adsorption, Corrosion, Surface Diffusion, Whiskers
84. E. W. Müller, "Observation of Paired Screw Dislocations in Iron Whiskers," J. Appl. Phys. 30: 1843 (1959).
85. G. Ehrlich and F. G. Hudda, "Observation of Adsorption on an Atomic Scale," J. Chem. Phys. 33: 1253 (1960).
86. M. Drechsler, "Uber Versetzeugen in Eisen-Whiskern nach FeldionenmikroskopAufnahmen," Phys. Verhandlungen 3: 115 (1962).
87. G. Ehrlich and F. G. Hudda, "Direct Observation of Individual Adatoms: Nitrogen on Tungsten," J. Chem. Phys. 36: 3233 (1962).
88. H. D. Beckey, "Field Ionization Mass Spectroscopy," in: Advan. Mass Spectrometry 2: Pergarnon Press (New York), 1962.
89. H. D. Beckey, "Feldionisations-Massenspektren orgamscher Molekule. I. n-Paraffine von C 1 bis C9 " ("Field Ion Mass Spectroscopy of Organic Molecules I. n-Paraffins from C 1
to C9"), Z. Naturforsch. 179: I 103 (1962). 90. H. D. Beckey and G. Wagner, "Analytische Anwendungsmoglichkeiten des Feldionen
Massenspektrometers" ("Possibilities for Analytical Applications of the Field Ion Mass Spectrometer"), Z. Anal. Chem. 197: 58 (1963).
91. D. W. Bassett, Thermal Rearrangementofa Perfectly Ordered Tungsten Surface," Nature 198: 468 (1963).
92. A. J. Melmed, "Field Electron a11d Field-Ion Emission from Single Vapour-Grown Whiskers," J. Chem. Phys. 38, 607 (1963).
93. A. J. Melmed, "Field-Emission Microscopy ofTwins in Vapour-Grown F.C.C. Whiskers," 94. J. F. Mulson and E. W. Müller, "Corrosion ofTungsten and lridium.by Field Desorption
ofNitrogen and Carbon Monoxide," J. Chem. Phys. 38:2615 (1963). 95. H. D. Beckey, "Production of the lonized State of Molecules by High Electric Fields,"
Bull. Soc. Chim. Belges. 73: 326 (1964). 96. G. Ehrlich, "An Atomic View of Adsorption," Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 15:349 (1964). 97. D. W. Bassett, "The Thermal Stability and Rearrangement of Field Evaporated Tungsten
Surfaces," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A256: 191 (1965). 98. H. D. Beckey and G. Wagner, "Feldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. li.
Amine" ("Field Ion Mass Spectroscopy of Organic Molecules. li. Amines"), Z. Naturforsch. 20a: 169 ( 1965).
99. H. D. Beckey, "Analyse fester organischer Naturstoffe mit dem Feldionen-Massenspektrometer" ("Analysis of Solid Organic Substances with the Field Ion Mass Spectrometer"), Z. Anal. Chem. 207: 99 (1965).
100. H. D. Beckey, "Fieldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. 111. n-Paraffine bis zum C 16 und verzweigte Paraffine," Z. Naturforsch 20: 1329 (1965).
101. H. D. Beckey and P. Schulze, "Feldionen-Massenspektren organischer Molekule. IV. Olefin," Z. Natur.forsch. 20a: 1335 (1965).
102. S. Nakomura and E. W. Müller, "Initial Oxidation of Tantal um Observation in a FieldIon Microscope," J. Appl. Phys. 36: 3634 (1965).
103. T. Gurney, F. Hutchinson, and R. D. Young, "Condensation ofTungsten on Tungsten in Atomic Detail: Observation with the Field-Ion Microscope," J. Chem. Phys. 42: 3939 (1965).
104. R. D. Young and D. C. Schuber!, "Condensation of Tungsten on Tungsten in Atomic Detail: Monte Carlo and Statistical Calculation vs Experiment, J. Chem. Phys. 42: 3943 (1965).
218 Appendix A
A.1 0 Author Index
Attardo, M. J., 82. Bahadur, K., 15, 17. Baker, C., 45. Ball, R., 47. Bassett, D. W., 91, 97. Beckey, H. D., 88, 89, 90, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101. Becker, J. A., 5. Bowkett, K. M., 38, 81, 83. Brandon, D. G., 10, II, 23, 29, 33, 34, 37, 43,
58,60,63, 70, 74, 75, 76, 79. Brenner, S. S., 14. Casparky, E. K., 77. Chadderton, L. T., 83. Clements, T. C., 22. Cooper, E. C., 41. Cottrell, A. H., 72. Drechsler, M., 4, 31, 86. Ehrlich, G., 24, 85, 87, 96. Galligan, J. M., 82. George, T. H., 69. Gomer, R., 8, 25. Gurney, T., 103. Hren, J., 38, 73, 81. Hudda, F. G., 24, 85, 87. Hutchinson, F., 103. Krantz, E., 77. McLane, S. B., 46, 52. Melmed, A. J., 92, 93. Moore, A. J. W., 32.
Müller, E. W., I, 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 49, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65,68, 78,80,84,94, 102.
Mulson, J. F., 6, 19, 94. Nakamura, S., 9, 27, 52, 68, 102. Nishikawa, 0., 27, 44, 46, 59, 52. Norden, H., 83. Pankow, G., 53. Pimbley, W. T., 6, 47. Ralph, B., II, 36, 38, 45, 48, 60, 63, 70, 74, 75,
76,81,83. Ranganathan, S., 35, 38, 43, 70, 72. Ryan, H. F., 50, 66, 67, 71. Schubert, D. C., 104. Schulze, P., 101. Sinha, M. K., 80. Southon, M. J., 23, 48, 60, 63, 79. Sugata, E., 9. Suiter, J., 50, 66, 67, 71. Swanson, L. W., 25. Tsong, T. T., 28. Vanselow, R., 53. Waclawski, B. J., 42. Wagner, G., 90, 98. Wald, M., 58, 60, 63, 70, 79. Weizer, V. G., 51. Whitmell, D. S., 43. Wolf, P., 31. Young, R. D., 21, 103, 104.
Appendix B
LATTICE GEOMETRY
8.1 Plane Spacings
The value of d, the distance between adjacent planes in the set (hkl), may be found from the following equations: Cubic:
Hexagonal:
8.2 Cell Volumes
The following equations give the volume v of the unit cell: Cubic:
Hexagonal:
8.3 lnterplanar Angles
The angle <P between the plane (h 1k1 / 1) and the plane (h 2k212) may be found from the following equations: Cubic:
<P hlh2 + klk2 + /1/2 cos = j(hi + ki + li)(h~ + k~ + ID
Hexagonal:
h1h2 + k1k 2 + ±{h1k2 + h2kd + (3a 2/4c2)1 112 cos</J =-r====~========~~~==~==~==========7==7~
j[hi + ki + h1k 1 + (3a2/4c2 )l~][h~ + q + h2k 2 + (3a2/4c2 )l~] 219
Appendix C
Angles between Crystallographic Planes in Crystals of the Cubic System
{HKL} {hkl) Values of angles between H KL and hkl planes (or directions)
100 100 oo 900 110 45° 90° 111 54° 44' 210 26° 34' 63° 26' 90°
211 35° 16' 65° 54' 221 48° 11' 70° 32' 310 18° 26' 71° 34' 90° 311 25° 14' 72° 27' 320 33° 41' 56° 19' 90° 321 36° 43' 57° 42' 74° 30'
110 110 oo 60° 90° 111 35° 16' 90° 210 18° 26' 50° 46' 71° 34'
211 30° 54° 44' 73° 13' 90°
221 19° 28' 45° 76° 22' 90°
310 26° 34' 47° 52' 63° 26' 77° 5'
311 31° 29' 64° 46' 90°
320 II o 19' 53° 58' 66° 54' 78° 41'
321 19° 6' 40° 54' 55° 28' 67° 48' 79° 6'
III 111 oo 70° 32' 210 39° 14' 75° 2' 211 19° 28' 61° 52' 90°
221 15° 48' 54° 44' 78° 54'
310 43° 5' 68° 35' 311 29° 30' 58° 31' 79° 58'
320 61° 17' 71° 19'
321 22° 12' 51° 53' 72° I' 90°
210 210 oo 36° 52' 53° 8' 66° 25' 78° 28' 90°
211 24° 6' 43° 5' 56° 47' 79° 29' 90°
221 26° 34' 41° 49' 53° 24' 63° 26' 72° 39' 90°
310 8o 8' 58° 3' 45° 64° 54' 73° 34'
311 19° 17' 47° 36' 66° 8' 82° 15'
320 70 7' 29° 45' 41° 55' 60° 15' 68° 9' 75° 38' 82° 53'
321 17° 1' 33° 13' 53° 18' 6! 0 26' 70° 13' 83° 8' 90°
220
Appendix C 221
Angles between Crystallographic Planes in Crystals of the Cubic System (Continued)
{HKL} {hkl} Values of angles between H KL and hkl planes (or directions)
211 211 oo 33° 33' 48° II' 60° 70° 32' 80° 24' 221 17° 43' 35° 16' 47° 7' 65° 54' 74° 12' 82" 12' 310 2SO 21' 49° 48' 58° 55' 75° 2' 82° 35' 311 19" 8' 42° 24' 60° 30' 75° 45' 90° 320 25° 9' 37° 37' 55° 33' 63° 5' 83° 30' 321 10° 54' 29° 12' 40° 12' 49° 6' 56° 56'
70° 54' 77° 24' 83° 44' 90°
221 221 oo 27° 16' 38° 57' 63° 37' 83° 37' 90° 310 32° 31' 42° 27' 58° 12' 65° 4' 83° 57' 311 25° 14' 45° 17' 59° 50' 72° 27' 84° 14' 320 22° 24' 42° 18' 49° 40' 68° 18' 79° 21' 84° 42' 321 11° 29' 270 I' 36° 42' 57° 41' 63° 33' 74° 30'
79° 44' 84° 53'
310 310 oo 25° 51' 36° 52' 53° 8' no 33' 84° 16' 311 17° 33' 40° I 7' 55° 6' 67° 35' 79° I' 90° 320 15° 15' 37° 52' 52° 8' 74° 45' 84° 58' 321 21° 37' 32° 19' 40° 29' 47° 28' 53° 44' 59° 32'
65° 75° 19' 85° 9' 90°
311 311 oo 35° 6' 50° 29' 62° 58' 84° 47' 320 23° 6' 41° II' 54° 10' 65° 17' 75° 28' 85° 12' 321 14° 46' 36° 19' 49° 52' 61° 5' 71° 12' 80° 44'
320 320 oo 22° 37' 46° II' 62° 31' 67° 23' 72° 5' 90° 321 !5° 30' 27° II' 3SO 23' 48° 9' 53° 37' 58° 45' 63° 36'
72° 45' 77° 9' 85° 45' 90°
321 321 oo 21° 47' 31° 38° 13' 44° 25' 50° 60° 64° 37' 69° 4' 73° 24' 81° 47' 85° 54'
Appendix D
STANDARD STEREOGRAPHie PROJECTIONS
The field-ion image approximates a Stereographie projection. Since the wires that are used for the preparation of field-ion specimens usually exhibit strong textures, the standard projections that prove particularly useful are (100), (111), (110) for cubic crystals and (1120) for hexagonal crystals. Since hexagonal crystals specially grown to have (0001) as the wire axis are available, this projection is also included. It may be noted that the planes that are prominent in field ion images from f.c.c. crystals are marked in the (100) and (111) projection, while the (110) projection has planesthat areprominent in images from b.c.c. crystals.
222
Appendix D 223
/Ii~_ +110 +11o
~ jj3 '" 101 '" '" '" / ~+~+-~ +-+_-+--+-+--+ III
I'\. 212 213-- 1203 -213 /\ '\. -- + 315 + + h.
}_22+ __ ""{~~12 + t!o2'"315,(:+1 1 ~35 )~2 _1)3+ ~~3+ .:'" 113 +103 :'" 113 +123t~33 155+ 135+ 115'+.,._ I :t-"115 +13 5 +155 0 II I - - -, H1 ,__GO]., T Tl7 013 012 023 I
olo+-- -- --+~3;9~2+'l-3+-+-+-+-T-+Ql!_ -- ----+olo I 135 - 11V I' 111 135 1 155 / - + _115:+< "'+115 + t
1~3t 123-t:_ 113/ +103 '+113 + 123 tl33 122+\ _112/- 315 + 102 '+..112 +122
3735 T 213 + 1 2003 315 +~35/ + t +213 '
/
111 +-r +-t-+=~~+-+-+m- ~ 11 313 "' "' 313 ~
ITo+~+L/+110
100
Fig. D.l. Standard (001) projection for cubic crystals.
224 Appendix D
~+~
~ -------+ -+'oll
Fig. 0.2. Standard ( 111) projection for cubic crystals.
Appendix D 225
+ rlr + Trr -__ 213+ +112 123 Oll ~
\ -----~+~3231233~+\::.:.;.--- j
201 312 +......_ _.,.+ 132 + +2rvi"!.' + +o2r
301/ + +332'-+ 121 I 031
sort 4~/321+ 1 +23~ 141 tosr + / 431 + + 341 + +
_____ _:I.:..OO::....lG!.Q+-l.!.~- l!.!_+l~~~~l...:O~I.:..O _____ +TIO
I"- 41- 43T,34i _ /I - + "-+ I + + 231 /_ + -
501 ~ - ~21+ _ ,!" /_+ 141 1 05~ _1301 +211 +332 +121 fD31
201 \ 312+ .:"-1~ _+ 13'2 tozT i\ 323 +..,..., ~+ 233 /n
IOi +~ rr2 "'::- Oll --~ 213+ + +123 ~ --
111 + +111
Fig. 0.3. Standard (11 0) projection for cubic crystals.
22& Appendix D
Fig. 0.4. Standard (0001) projection for hexagonal crystals. (The ratio c/a is the ideal one for hexagonal close packing.)
Appendix D 227
Appendix E
THE INDEXING OF FIELD-ION MICROGRAPHS The poles that appear in a field-ion micrograph can be indexed by the use of symmetry considerations, morphological aspects and projection relationships. The { 100}, { 111}, and { 110} pol es in cubic crystals can be indexed by inspection as they possess fourfold, threefold, and twofold symmetry. Similarly the {0001} pole in the h.c.p. crystal can be indexed, as it possesses sixfold symmetry. In such identification the bright zone-decoration atoms are very helpful.
It has long been known to crystallographers that the structure of the crystal plays an important part in the morphology of the crystal. Bravais was the first to recognize that the interplanar distance determines whether a particular face appears in the resultant crystal or not. Donnay and Harker 1
gave a precise formulation to this idea: "The morphological importance of a crystal face is inversely proportional to its reticular area S if the lattice has no centering and the space group is devoid of screw axes and glide planes. The effect of lattice centering, screw axes, and glide planes is corrected for if the face indices are replaced in the S formula, by the 'multiple indices' of the lowest order of x-ray refiection compatible with the space-group symmetry." Drechsler and Wolf2 were the first to point out the usefulness of x-ray extinction rules in indexing field-ion micrographs.
It then becomes possible to order the planes for a given structure in terms of increasing reticular area S (or decreasing interplanar distance). Such a Iist is also an indication of the morphological importance of various planes. The lists for b.c.c. and f.c.c. crystals are given below.
Body-Centered Cubic
110 200 211 310 222 321 411 420 332 431 2 4 6 10 12 14 18 20 22 26
Face-Centered Cubic
111 200 220 311 331 420 422 511 531 442 3 4 8 11 19 20 24 27 35 36
228
Appendix E 229
Thus it is possible to distinguish between b.c.c. and f.c.c. field-ion micrographs by merely noting whether a twofold or a threefold axis is important. An indication of the importance of a particular plane in the micrograph is given by the number of rings having the same pole.
The morphological aspect can thus be used for indexing a micrograph. However the projection relationships are also useful in such an indexing process. This is briefly considered below.
The field-emission microscope presents a less complicated geometry than the field-ion microscope. The screen is in the shape of a hemisphere, and the photographed image is an orthographic projection of the crystal being imaged. The field-ion microscope uses a flat screen, as the low image intensity necessitates the use of f: 1 Jenses with a shallow depth of focus. Müller 3 made the assumption that the field-ion micrograph is also a case of Orthographie projection. Brenner4 has shown that the projection is nearer the stereographic projection by the simple expedient of superposing a Stereographie net of the appropriate size on the field-ion image. Recently
Fig. E.l. Helium field ion micrograph of tungsten with prominent planes indexed.
230 Appendix E
Brandon5 has shown that the distances of poles from the centrat pole are best explained by assuming that the projection center is two radii away from the center. (For the three classical projections-the gnomonic, the Stereographie, and the Orthographie projection-the projection center is zero, unit radius, and infinite distance from the tip center). The result was entirely empirical. Unless great accuracy is demanded, the field-ion micrograph can be treated as a case of Stereographie projection. Figure E.l shows a tungsten field-ion micrograph indexed on the above principles.
References
I. J. D. H. Donnay and D. Harker, Am. Mineralogist 22:446 (1937). 2. M. Drechsler and P. Wolf, Proc. Intern. Conf. Electron Microscopy, 4th, Berlin, Springer
Verlag (Berlin), 1958, p. 835. 3. E. W. Müller, Advan. Electron. Electron Phys. 13: 83 (1960). 4. S. Brenner, Meta/ Surfaces, ASM publication, 1962. 5. D. G. Brandon, J. Sei. Instr. 41: 373 (1964).
Appendix F
Material
Tungsten Tungsten W-Re alloys Tantal um and its alloys
Niobium Niobium and its alloys Rhenium Iridium Molybdenum Platinum Platinum Pt-Co alloys Zirconium Beryllium Rhodium Silicon
Gold Gold Iron Cobalt Titanium Palladium Nickel Copper Zinc Tin
Polishing Solutions and Conditions
Electrolyte
5% NaOH 20% KCN 20% KCN 90% HN03
10% HF or 17.5% HF 17.5% H2S04
65% H2 0 Molten NaN02
As for tantalum and its alloys Conc. HN03
20% KCN 20% KCN Molten NaCl 20% KCN 20% KCN 10% HF Conc. H 3 PÜ4
Aqu. so!. KCN 45 pts 40% HF 60 pts Conc. HN03
20 pts acetic acid 3 pts bromine
50% HCl, 50% HN03
20% KCN 10%HC1 10% HC1 40% HF 30% HCl, 70% HN03
10% HCl Conc. H 3 PÜ4
Conc. KOH 40%HF
231
Remarks
5-15 V d.c. 1-5 V a.c.; startat higher voltage As for tungsten 0--3 V d.c.; very 1ow current densi
ties chilled e1ectrolyte in a stainless steel beaker
6 V a.c.
10 V d.c. 3-15 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 1-5 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 5.5-6 V d.c. 3-15 V a.c. ; start at higher voltage 3-15 V a.c.; startat higher voltage Dip into solution 30--50 V d.c. I V a.c. Dip into fresh so!.
10 V a.c. 3-10 V a.c.; start at high er voltage 1-3 V a.c.; start at higher voltage 4--6 V d.c. 4--12 V d.c. 3 V a.c. 1-3 V a.c.; startat higher voltage 1-5 V a.c. 10--15 V d.c. 1-6 V a.c.
Appendix G
MICROSCOPE DESIGNS
There are at least as many field-ion microscope designs as there are researchers. References 39 through 52 of AppendixAare an excellent source for particular design features. Commercial microscopes are also available from the following:
CENCO Instruments, 1700 Irving Park Road, Chicago, Illinois, 60613 (U.S.A.)
HRB-Singer, Box 60, State College, Pennsylvania 16801 (U.S.A.) Jackson and Church Electronics, 1127 South Patrick Drive, Satellite
Beach, Florida 32935 (U.S.A.) Materials Research Corporation, Route 303, Orangeburg, New York
10962 (U.S.A.) Optometrie Instruments, 8255 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, Cali
fornia 90048 (U.S.A.) Twentieth Century Electronics Ltd., King Henry's Drive, New Adding
ton, Croydon, Surrey (U.K.)
The following figures are intended to illustrate the range of designs of varying complexity that are appropriate for particular applications.
232
Appendix G 233
Fig. G.l. A bakeable glass field-ion microscope with Iiquid-nitrogen cooling. (Courtesy of A. J. W. Moore.)
Carbon res1slar5
Rrtaml f!!J p/ale
(a)
He/1um tn
Transfer Tube
Stamle$$ Steet Splfal
Slainlu5 Sl•el CJ/mder
Capp•r blaclt.
Specimen
Het1um Dewar Hicroscope
(b)
Safely Va/re
Rolary Pump
Fig. G.2. Schematic for a liquid-helium-cooled field-ion microscope of glass. (Courtesy of D. G. Brandon.)
234
~---+--STAINLESS STEa
LIQUID H2
OPPER
Appendix G
(a)
Appendix G
Fig. G.3. Liquid-hydrogen-cooled stainless steel field-ion microscope: (a) schematic of microscope body, and (b) photograph of the system. (Courtesy of S. S. Brenner.)
235
(b)
236 Appendix G
Fig. G.4. Functional diagram of combined field-ion and field-electron microscope with UHV system, valtage pulser, and specimen heater. (Courtesy of Jackson and Church Electronics.)
INDEX
A Abbott, R. C.
204, 207 Accommodation Coefficient
22, 23 Adsorption
General, 1, 2, 92 On electron emitters, 11, 12, 203-209 In field ionization, 13 In field evaporation, 2 8 During field etching, 60-64 During hydrogen promotion, 98-100 At grain boundaries, 154 At mass spectrometric source, 198-200 For biological molecule imaging, 200, 201,
204-208 Alloys
Field evaporation of, 32-37, 50, 51 Computer Simulation of images from,
81-86 Streaks in Images of, 124-126 With atomic order, 135, 162-166 Two-phase, 154, 155 Tbeory of Images from, 81-86, 158-162 Segregation in, 166
Alpha-Particle Bombardment 93, 154, 180
Amelinckx, S. 140, 153
Anantharaman, T. R. 135
Anisotropy Of mea.sured work function, 10 Of end form, 88 Of elastic con.stants, 66
Artifacts Dead spot in phosphor, 93 Zone decoration, 45, 90, 91 Jnduced defects, 93- 9 8 Metastahle sites, 46, 47, 90-92 Streaks, 124 Specimen Asymmetry, 4, 88-91, 127-130
237
A tornie Order (see Alloys)
Attardo, M. J. 175
Aust, K. T. 148
B Bahadur, K. H.
3, 15, 16, 17, 54, 66,197 Ball Models
(see Hard Sphere Models) Barnes, R. S.
154 Becker, J. A.
12, 201, 202 Beckey, H. D.
197. 199, 200 Berghezan, A.
142 Best Imaging Voltage
3, 18-20, 24-26, 99 Bond Model of Surface
74-76, 90-91 Boudreaux, D. s.
18 Bowkett, K. M.
110, 121, 124, 129, 149, 154, 175, 177. 178, 180, 181
Brandes, R. G. 201, 202
Brandon, D. G. 2, 4, 19, 20, 23, 29, 32, 34, 35, 38, 42, 49,
50, 51, 55, 57, 61, 80, 82, 83, 86, 88, 93, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 135, 138, 145, 148, 153, 154, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 168, 175,177,179, 180
Brenner, S. S. 28, 154
Brock, E. G. 138
238
Bullough, R. 107' 108
Buswell, J. T. 179
c Carrington, W.
134 Caspery, E. K.
80, 82, 85, 157 Chadderton, L. T.
171, 180, 181 Christian, J. W.
135 Cohen, J. B.
123, 132 Coincidence Lattice
Theory of, 145-148 Observations, 148-153
Computer Simulation of Images Ofpure metals, 42-44,77-80 Of alloys, 81- 86 Of defects, 117-119
Cooper, E. C. 179,205
Conrad, H. 65
Cottrell, A. H. 115, 120, 148, 154
Critical Distance Theory of, 14-16 Measurement of, 16, 17 A s a function of imaging gas, 17
Cryogenics In FIM, 2, 3, 19, 233-236
Current- Voltage Characteristics Electron emission, 6- 8, 12 Field-ion, 18-20 In field-ion source for mass spectrometry,
197 Cutler, P. H.
18
D Deformation of Specimen
During imaging, 64-67,95-98,105,106, 130, 142
During specimen preparation, 107, 138 Dekeyser, W.
140, 153 Diffraction Effects
25, 26 Dislocations
Contrast from, 2, 48-50, 114-119, 123, 124,131,132,175-177
Influence of field stresses on, 65, 105 Surface image forces on, 106-108 Core structure of, 103, 104
Dislocations (continued) Impurity segregation to, 132
Index
In grain boundaries, 133-134, 149-153 Created while imaging, 95-98, 130 Density, 106, 107 Interna! stresses arising from, 112-113
Dittmar, W. 184
Dolan, W. W. 8, 12, 15, 38
Domain Boundaries 135, 167
Double Layer 9-11, 32, 39-42
Drechsler, M. 38, 81, 91, 105, 115
DuBroff, W. 93, 160
Dyke, W. P. 8, 12, 15, 38
E Ehrlich, G.
12, 34, 154 Elastic Constants
65, 66, 96, 97' 108 Electron Energy Levels
In field emitter, 6- 8 In field-ion specimen, 13, 14, 25 In imaging gas, 13, 14 Near solute, 158-160 Near grain boundaries, 149 In double layer, 10, 11, 32, 39-42 Ionization potential, 35-37, 62-64
End Form 4, 42-51,66, 88-90, 105-107, 127-130,
191 Energy Distribution of Ions
Field dependence, 3, 17, 18, 25 Temperature dependence, 18-20 Imaging gas mixtures, 13 (see also Current- Voltage Characteris
tic s and Field Ionization) Essmann, U.
113 Evans, E. Li.
34, 35
F Faulkner, R. G.
168 Field Desorption
2, 12-13, 28-29, 200, 202-204 ( see also Field Evaporation)
Field-Emission Current Derivation of, (see Fowler- Nordheim
Equation)
Index
Field-Emission Current (continued) Measurement of work function from,
9-12 Field-Emission Microscope
Contrastin image, 9-12 Design of, 9, 193
Field Etching Theories of, 57-64 Effect on specimen, 93
Field Evaporation Theories of, 4, 2 9- 32 Experimental data on, 19, 38 Variation with material, 32-37 Temperature dependence of, 20 (see also Field Etching)
Field Distribution On emitter surface, 43, 106
Field Ionization Theories of, 13-17 Energy distribution of ions, 17-19 (see also Current- Voltage Characteris
tics) Field-Penetration Polarization
45-47. 90-92, 114 Flashing
64-68, 95-98, 105, 140 Fortes, Mo Ao
161, 166, 168, 169, 175, 176 Fowler-Nordheim Equation
1, 7-9,12,39 Fowler, Ro Ho
1, 7, 12, 39 Frank, Fo Co
123 Friede!, Jo
40, 120, 159, 160
G Galligan, J o Mo
175 Gamow, Go
1 Gas- Surface Collisions
22-25, 57-59, 93, 99, 179 Gas- Surface Reactions
35, 37, 60-63, 93-95 ( see also Adsorption and Molecular
Complex at Surface) Gilbey, Oo Mo
57 Glasstone, So
29 Gomer, Ro
2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 38, 39, 53, 54, 66, 88, 184, 194, 197. 198, 200
Good, Ro Ho 8, 11, 12, 20, 26
Goodman, Fo Oo 57
Grain Boundaries Coincident lattice theory of, 145-148 Orientation determination, 138-140 Dislocation content of, 140-143, 154 Occurrence of, 137 Contrast effects, 126, 127, 148-153
Gurney, To 195, 207
H Haefer, Ro
201 Haie, Ko Fo
134 Hall, Eo Oo
142 Hard Sphere Models
FCC, 70-71 BCC, 73-74
239
Construction of arbitrary (hk!) in cubic lattice, 71-73
Of defects, 103-105, 121, 125 Of flat surfaces, 69-74 Of spherical surface, 76-77 Of grain boundaries, 147
Heats of Adsorption ( see Adsorption)
Herring, Co 10
Hinton, Ro 123, 132
Hirsch, P 0 Bo 123
Hirschhorn, J o So 122
Holland, Bo W 0
127 Hopping
(see Imaging Gas) Hörl, Eo
201 Hren, Jo Jo
102, 109, 121, 124, 128, 129, 138, 139, 142, 149, 153, 154, 165, 166, 167. 175
Hudda, Fo Go 154
Hudson, J 0 Ao 179
Hutchinson, F o 195, 207
Hydrogen Promotion 5, 98-100, 190
Ideal Surfaces Flat surfaces, 69-74
240
Ideal Surfaces (continued) Spherical surfaces, 76, 77 Computer Simulation of, 77-81 Kink sites, 70, 71, 76, 79 Ball models of, (see Hard Sphere Models)
Image Contrast of FEEM General, 1, 8-12 Ofadsorbed atoms, 192-195,200-205
Image Contrast in Field-Ion Microscope General, 2, 3, 12, 13, 24-26, 78, 79,
92-94,177,178 From vacancies on interstitials, 47, 113,
114 From dislocations, 48, 49,114-119, 174,
175, 188-190 From grain boundaries, 49, 140-153 From ordered alloys, 135, 162-167 From solute atoms, 50, 85, 86, 160-162 From clusters, 174, 175, 180, 181 From stacking faults, 49, 121-125, 131-
135 From slip bands, 130 Of adsorbed atoms, 195, 196 Of biological molecules, 205-207 Of artifacts, 44-47, 88-101 (see also Resolution and Streaks)
Image Force Model 4, 29-32 ( see also Field Evaporation)
Imaging Gas Gas mixtures, 93, 95, 98-100 Active gases, 2, 13, 60-64, 187-189,
206, 208 Characteristics of, 3, 5, 15-18 Arrival rate at emitter, 21-24, 53-56 Hopping of on surface, 2, 24 Energy transfer to specimen, 56, 57, 92
93 (see also Hydrogen Promotion, Field
Etching, and Gas-Surface Collisions) Image Potential
6, 7, 15, 30, 32 Impurity Segregation
At the surface, 34 At grain boundaries, 154, 166 Clustering, 160 At dislocations, 166
Imura, T. 123
Indexing Patterns 228-230 (see also Projection Geometry)
Inghram, M. G. 3, 13, 17, 197, 198
Inner Potential Definition of, 30, 31 Importance of in field evaporation, 30-32 (see also Work Function)
Intersection Model 29-32 (see also Field Evaporation)
Ion Current Theory of, 23 Measurement of, 17-20
Ionization Lifetime 15-17
Ionization Potentials In field evaporation, 30-32, 35
Ionization Probability 16 (see also Field Ionizatio~)
Ionization Zone Critical distance, 14-17 Energy distribution of ions, 17-19
J Jackson, P. J.
183 Jones, F. 0.
134 Juretschke, J. H.
10
K Kink Sites
( see Ideal Surfaces) Komar, A. A.
201 Komar, A. P.
201 Koster, G.
159 Krautz, E.
80, 82, 85, 157 Kubascl\ewski, 0.
34, 35
L Laidler, K. J.
29 Lay, K.
123, 132 LeFevre, B. G.
165, 166, 167 Li, J. C. M.
154 Liepack, H.
91, 105 Livingston, W. A.
204
M McKenzie, J. K.
75 McLane, S. B.
5, 63, 90, 155, 190
Index
Index
McLean, Do 134, 137. 146
Machlin, Eo So 93, 157. 160
Martin, Eo Eo 8, 12, 15
Mason, Jo Fo 93
Melmed, Ao Jo 184, 188, 193, 195, 201, 204, 205
Metastahle Surface Sites Occurrence of, 46-47,90-92,114 Zone decoration, 45, 91 (see also Field-Penetration Polarization)
Jl,licroscope Design \ 232-236
(see also Cryogenics) Molecular Complex at Surface
35-37. 61-63 (see also Adsorption and Gas-Surface
Reactions) Molecular Images
Of adsorbed organic molecules, 200-205, 208
Other preparation techniques, 206-211 Montague-Pollack, Ho
195, 207 Moore, Ao Jo Wo
43, 44, 71, 75, 88, 117. 123 Morgan, Ro
168 Müller, Eo Wo
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20,24,26,28,29, 31, 37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47. 50, 56, 57. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 76, 81, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 102, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 130, 131, 134, 135, 138, 141, 153, 154, 155, 157. 158, 162, 177, 179, 180, 184, 190, 195, 197, 198,200, 201, 202, 205
Multiple Ionization During field evaporation, 30-33
Mott, No Fo 153
Mulson, J o Fo 37, 63
N Nabarro, Fo Ro No
183 Nakamura, So
63, 66, 90, 93, 99, 100, 155, 190 Nakayama, Y 0
123 Negative Ion Bombardment
94, 95, 180 Nelson, Ro So
179
Neutron Irradiation Studies 175-177
Newman, R 0 W 0
165, 166, 167 Neumann, Ko
184 Nicholas, Jo Fo
71,75 Nichols, No Ho
10 Nicholson, Mo Eo
158 Nishikawa, Oo
241
5, 57. 59, 60, 63, 93, 95, 99, 100, 141, 153, 155, 184, 190
Norden, Ho 180, 181
Norheim, Lo 1, 7, 12,39
Nucleation
0
Of thick films, 195 Of whiskers, 183
Oppenheimer, Jo Ro 1
Grientation of Emitter Determination of, (see Indexing FIM
Patterns) Effect on field stresses, 106
Oxidation
p
In field evaporation of impurities, 34 At grain boundaries, 154 (see also Impurity Segregation, and Field
Etching)
Pankow, Go 115
Particle Bombardment 93, 177-181 (see also Alpba-Particle Bombardment)
Pashley, Do Wo 115
Phosphors Dead spot, 93
Photographie Techniques 3, 4, 161, 173, 174
Pinning of Dislocations 112, 113, 134
Polarizibility 40-42, 91, 92
Preferential Field Evaporation Of second component, 34-37, 50, 51, 85,
93, 113, 160-164 At surface defects, 45-50, 124, 125, 174 At grain boundaries, 50, 148, 149 Of organic molecules, 203-204
242
Preferential Field Evaporation (continued) Near large voids, 210-211 (see also Field Evaporation)
Projection geometry
R
Ion trajectories, 3, 24, 25, 138-140 Magnification, 25·, 26 In electron emitter, 9 Of asymmetric tips, 127-131, 140 Of irregular surfaces, 124-127,202-204
Radius of Specimen For field ionization, 13 Local radius, 81, 88-90, 106 Average, 38 Field dependence, 11, 38, 39, 54, 105 In electron emitters, 9 (see also Specimen Shape)
Ralph, B.· 49, 50, 51, 80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 121, 124,
125, 126, 127. 128, 129, 135, 138, 142, 145, 148, 149, 153, 154, 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167. 168, 169, 173, 175, 176, 177. 17.9, 180, 181
Ranganathan, S. 49, 102. 115, 119, 121, 124, 127. 131, 13;3,
134, 145, 148, 149, 153, 154, 156 Rates of
Field evaporation, 37, 38, 58-60 Gas arrival at emitter, 53- 56 Whisker growth, 183, 184
Read, W. T. 103, 120
Reid, C. N. 108
Redding, G. B. 154
Rendulic, K. 66
Resolution Of FEEM, 11 Of FIM, 1, 3, 24-26 (see also Uncertainty Principle)
Rhodin, T. 195
Robertson, J. M. 200
Rose, D. J. 202
Rutter, J. W. 148
Ryan, H. F. 49, 121, 131, 133, 142, 153
s Sampling Procedures
For organic molecule imaging, 204-207 In whisker studies, 190-192
Sampling Procedures (continued) In irradiation studies, 173-175 In alloys, 161
Index
For grain boundary studies, 137, 138 In sturlies of dislocations, 106
Sanwald, R. C. 102, 119
Sass, S. 123, 132
Schmidth, L. 12
Schottky Effect 7. 14, 30, 31 ( see also Image Potential)
Schubert, D. C. 195
Sears, G. W. 184
Segall, R. W. 123
Silverston, J. M. 158
Sinha, M. K. 47. 179
Slater, J. 159
Sleeswyk, A. W. 122
Smoluchowski, R. 10, 39
Solid Solutions ( see Alloys)
Southon, M. J. 2, 17, 19,20,21,22, 23, 24, 53,148,157,
175, 179, 195 Southworth, H. N.
135, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 Specimen Preparation
8, 12, 42, 50, 63, 107,137, 173, 180, 185-187, 193, 195, 199,201,204-207,231
Specimen Shape Anisotropy of, 88, 131 Field variation with, 42, 66 Of alloys after field evaporation, 50 (see also Radius of Specimen)
Stacking Faults 121-123 (see also Image Cantrast in Field-Ion
Microscope) Stangler, F.
201 Strain Energy
To create vacancy, 98, 111 Dilitation of lattice under imaging
stresses, 66, 67, 97, 98 Stored in specimen during imaging, 66,
111 Stranski, I. N.
90
Index
Stratton, Ro 6
Strayer, Ro Wo 29, 179
Stress Electrostatic, 64, 95, 105 Shear, 65, 66, 98, 130 On defects, 106, 107, 111 Anisotropy of, 66, 98, 106 Of field emitters, 11 Imageforce on dislocations, 107-110
Sublimation Energy Of atomic state, 31, 36 Of ionic state, 31, 36 Of solute, 34, 35, 36 Of molecular complex, 62
Suiter, Jo Co 49, 121' 131, 133, 142' 153
Surface Energy 67, 68
Surface-Gas Reactions (see Gas-Surface Reactions)
Surface Migration For specimen preparation, 4
Surface Models (see Ideal Surfaces)
SWanson, Lo W 0
29, 31, 32, 88, 179
T Thomas, Go
120, 124 Temperature Dependence
Of field-emision current, 8 Of current-voltage curves in field
ionization, 20 Of field evaporation, 37, 38, 41, 57-59 Of resolution, 2, 3, 26 Of surface migration, 4 Of field-ion energy distribution, 19 Of enhancement factor, 21, 22 Of ion current, 23 Of gas arrival rate, 53 Of point-defect migration, 110-112,
171, 172 Thomsen, Ro
93 Trolan, J o Ko
8, 12, 15 :rsong, T o T o
17, 18, 19, 162 Tunneling
In field emitters, 1-3, 6-8 In field ionization, 3, 13 -17, 54 Of metal ion in field evaporation, 39 Ortentation dependence, 90
Twlnning During image formation, 5, 97
Twinning (continued) Structure of interface, 141-145 In whiskers, 188
Two-Phase Structures Precipitates, 90, 168 Interphase boundaries, 154, 155
u Uncertainty Principle
7,11,25,26 (see also Resolution)
Utsaugi, Ho 29
V Vacancies
Counting techniques, 174-178 Contrast from, 2, 174 Clustering of, 175-178 Artifacts, 92-95
Vacuum
243
Requirements for field emission, 2, 11 Systems, 233-236 Requirements for FIM, 3, 178
Van Bueren, Ho Go 171
Van Oostrom, Ao Go Jo 12, 39
Vanselow, Ro 115
Vapor Deposition Of epitsxial films on field emitters, 193,
194 Nucleation studies with FIM, 195
Votava, Eo 123, 142
w Waclawski, Bo J 0
95 Wald, Mo
49, 93, 127, 145, 153, 156, 157, 175, 177, 179, 180
Warren, Bo Eo 120
Webb, Wo Wo 84
Weissman, So 123
Whiskers Handling of, 186, 187 Observations of, 187-192 Specimen preparation from, 187, 192
WKB Approximation 14 (see also Tunneling)
Wolf, Po 38, 81, 105, 138, 201
244
Wood, R. W. 8
W ork Function Definition of, 6, 7 Effect on field emission current, 7 Distinction from absolute work function,
9, 10 (see also Inner Potential) E ffect on cantrast in field-emission micro
scope, 10-12 In field ionization, 14, 15 Anisotropy of measured value, 10
Work Function (continued) (see also Field-Emission Current)
y
Yashiro, Y. 173
Young, R. D. 8, 12, 18, 24, 39, 96, 195, 207
z Zollweg, R. J.
90
Index