The Forefathers of Astronomy

The scientific revolution occurred from roughly the late 16th century to the early 18th

This revolution brought about radical changes in scientific thought

The era is heralded as the birth of modern science

The most important changes occurred in the fields of astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology

The Forefathers of Astronomy

The most significant change in astronomy was the acceptance of the view that the sun was the center of the universe, not the earth

Until the middle of the 16th century, natural philosophers [scientists] subscribed to the views of Claudius Ptolemy

According to Ptolemy’s observations in the 2nd century AD the earth was stationary and the sun, stars and moon revolved around it

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Ptolemy’s observations did not stop there

He observed that beyond the planets existed a large sphere which carried the fixed stars

This theory popularized astrology

Stars are fixed and rotate around the earth, the center of the universe

Ptolemy also made observations in physics

The Forefathers of Astronomy

He observed that the earth was made up of the four great elements, earth, air, water and fire

Of these elements, all things were made

However, Ptolemy observed that the stars and planets had a fifth element, ether

Ether was an eternal element that could not be altered, corrupted or destroyed

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Ptolemy’s writings formed the basis of all astrological thought for 1300 years

Many of hie theories held until the late 18th century

His first challenger was Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish cleric

Copernicus observed the night sky with his bare eyes and concluded in 1543 in his book, The Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, that the sun revolved around the earth

The Forefathers of Astronomy

This purposed that the earth was not the center of the universe but that the sun was

The book was well circulated but Copernicus’ writings were difficult to understand

Only the highest educated, and skilled mathematicians could see what Copernicus was describing

Many were also afraid of the consequences of such radical beliefs

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe accepted Copernicus’ theory but rejected the belief that the sun was the center of the universe

German astronomer Johannes Kepler supported Brahe’s views but confirmed Copernicus’ theory as well

Kepler’s book however did not reach a wide audience

It would take an Italian to make the observations public

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Proof would come due to innovations with glass

As far back as 3500 BC, the Phoenicians discovered glass when they cooked food on sand

Despite such a monumental discovery, it would take an additional 5000 years before being shaped into the 1st telescope

The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans all knew of glass but made little use of it

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Roman philosopher Seneca mentioned reading all the books of Rome by peering at them through a glass globe of water

Nero, it is written, observed gladiatorial combats in the coliseum by pressing his eye to an emerald

True glasses did not come onto the scene until about 1000 AD when monks began using a segment of a glass sphere placed on paper to read

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Years later, in Venice Italy, people put the first glass lenses into frames creating the first eyeglasses

Eyeglasses emerged between 1268 and 1289

Centuries later, in Holland, Hans Lippershay c 1570-1619 constructed the first spyglass

He was a spectacles maker

The Forefathers of Astronomy

The spyglass was very weak and was likely never used to gaze at the stars

It was used as a gimmick, a toy

In 1608, Galileo Galilei in Padua Italy heard of the device

He began constructing his own for scientific observations

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Galileo spent many tedious hours polishing glass lenses so he could achieve the greatest magnification possible

He then did something unprecedented

He pointed it to the stars

Galileo first looked at the moon

Many believed the moon was completely smooth

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Galileo however observed that the moon was rough, it had canyons, craters and mountains

Then, by creating an ingenious refractory device he observed the sun

Later he pointed it to Venus and then Jupiter

As Galileo wrote down what he saw, he began noticing many new things

The Forefathers of Astronomy

He noticed that the moon changed over time

He saw that Venus changed shape, similar to that of the moon during its various phases

He saw the sun had spots on it that moved across its surface

Jupiter had moon like earth but they would disappear then reappear

All of these discoveries would make a major impact on the scientific community

The Forefathers of Astronomy

Galileo had great literary skill, something his predecessors did not

He published in a book his writings called, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

The dialogue was an argument between two people between the two systems of astrological thought

The book was widely recognized and converted many to Galileo’s sun centered theory

The Forefathers of Astronomy

In Galileo’s Dialogue, the supporter of the Ptolemaic system was Simplicio or the simple minded one

The Catholic Pope, Pope Urban VIII understood this to be himself

Galileo’s theories also challenged the Bible itself

Soon, Galileo came under fire by the church and the inquisitors took him to trial for heresy

The Catholic Church held their views until 1822, they issued a formal apology to Galileo in 1992

The Forefathers of Astronomy