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D Spain and 13 Royal Families and the Vatican Church
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Chickamauga Wars
(1776–1794)
Dragging Canoe meets with Shawnee emissaries after the destruction of Chickamauga and ten other towns
The Chickamauga Wars (1776–1794) were a series of back-and-forth raids, campaigns, ambushes, minor skirmishes, and several full-scale frontier battles which were a continuation of the Cherokee (Ani-Yunwiya, Ani-Kituwa, Tsalagi, Talligewi) struggle against encroachment into their territory by American frontiersmen from the former British colonies, and, until the end of the American Revolution, their contribution to the war effort as British allies.
Open warfare broke out in the summer of 1776 between the Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe (initially called the "Chickamauga" or "Chickamauga-Cherokee", and later the "Lower Cherokee", by colonials) and frontier settlers along the Watauga, Holston, Nolichucky rivers, and Doe rivers in East Tennessee and later spread to those along the Cumberland River in Middle Tennessee and in Kentucky, as well as the colonies (later states) of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The earliest phase of these conflicts, ending with the treaties of 1777, is sometimes called the "Second Cherokee War", a reference to the earlier Anglo-Cherokee War, but that is something of a misnomer. Since Dragging Canoe was the dominant leader in both phases of the conflict, however, referring the period as "Dragging Canoe's War" would not be incorrect.
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Dragging Canoe's warriors fought alongside and in conjunction with Indians from a number of other tribes both in the South and in the Northwest (most often Muscogee in the former and Shawnee in the latter); enjoyed the support of, first, the British (often with active participation of British agents and regular soldiers) and, second, the Spanish; and
were founding members of the *ative Americans' Western Confederacy.
Though the Americans used "Chickamauga" as a convenient label to distinguish between the Cherokee followers of Dragging Canoe and those abiding by the peace treaties of 1777, there was never actually a separate tribe of “Chickamauga”, as mixed-blood Richard Fields related to the Moravian Brother Steiner when the latter met with him at Tellico Blockhouse.
Contents
• 1 Prelude o 1.1 Anglo-Cherokee War o 1.2 Treaty of Fort Stanwix o 1.3 Watauga Association o 1.4 Henderson Purchase
• 2 The "Second Cherokee War" o 2.1 Visit from the northern tribes o 2.2 Jemima Boone and the Calloway sisters o 2.3 The attacks o 2.4 Colonial response o 2.5 The Treaties of 1777
• 3 First migration, to the Chickamauga area • 4 Reaction
o 4.1 First invasion of the Chickamauga Towns o 4.2 Concord between the Lenape and the Cherokeeo 4.3 Death of John Stuart o 4.4 The Chickasaw o 4.5 Cumberland Settlements o 4.6 Augusta and King's Mountain
• 5 Second migration and expansion o 5.1 Loss of British supply lines o 5.2 Politics in the Overhill Towns o 5.3 Cherokee in the Ohio region o 5.4 Second invasion of the Chickamauga Townso 5.5 The Five Lower Towns o 5.6 Another visit from the North
• 6 After the Revolution o 6.1 Chickasaw and Muscogee treaties o 6.2 Treaties of Hopewell and Coyatee o 6.3 State of Franklin o 6.4 Attacks on the Cumberland o 6.5 Formation of the Western Confederacy
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o 6.6 Coldwater Town o 6.7 Muscogee council at Tuckabatchee
• 7 Peak of Lower Cherokee power and influence o 7.1 Massacre of the Kirk family o 7.2 Massacre of the Brown family o 7.3 Murders of the Overhill chiefs o 7.4 Houston's Station o 7.5 Invasion and counter-invasion o 7.6 The Flint Creek band/Prisoner exchange o 7.7 Blow to the Western Confederacy o 7.8 Chiksika's band of Shawnee o 7.9 The "Miro Conspiracy" o 7.10 Doublehead o 7.11 Treaty of New York o 7.12 Muscle Shoals o 7.13 Bob Benge o 7.14 Treaty of Holston o 7.15 Battle of the Wabash
• 8 Death of "the savage Napoleon" • 9 The final years
o 9.1 John Watts o 9.2 Buchanan's Station o 9.3 Muscogee attack the Holston and the Cumberlando 9.4 Attack on a Cherokee diplomatic party o 9.5 Invasion and Cavett's Station o 9.6 Battle of Etowah
• 10 End of the Chickamauga Wars o 10.1 Muscle Shoals Massacre o 10.2 Final engagements o 10.3 The Nickajack Expedition o 10.4 Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse
• 11 Assessment • 12 Aftermath
o 12.1 Post-war settlements of the Cherokee o 12.2 Muscogee-Chickasaw War o 12.3 Treaty of Greenville o 12.4 Leaders of the Lower Towns in peacetime
• 13 Tecumseh's return and later events o 13.1 The Creek War
• 14 Statement of Richard Fields on the "Chickamauga"• 15 Scots (and other Europeans) among the Cherokee • 16 Possible origins of the words "Chickamauga" and "Chattanooga"• 17 References • 18 Sources • 19 See also
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• 20 External links
Prelude
If James Mooney is correct, the first conflict of the Cherokee with the British occurred in 1654 when a force from Jamestown Settlement supported by a large party of Pamunkey attacked a town of the "Rechaherians" (referred to as the "Rickohakan" by German traveler James Lederer when he passed through in 1670) that had between six and seven hundred warriors, only to be driven off.
After siding with the Province of South Carolina in the Tuscarora War of 1711-1715, the Cherokee turned on their erstwhile British allies in the Yamasee War of 1715-1717 along with the other tribes until switching sides again midway, which ensured the defeat of the latter.
Anglo-Cherokee War
Main article: Anglo-Cherokee War
A commander of Fort Patrick Henry sent Henry Timberlake as a token of friendship after the Anglo-Cherokee War. Timberlake later takes three Cherokee to London, 1763.
At the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754-1763), the Cherokee were staunch allies of the British, taking part in such far-flung campaigns as those against Fort Duquesne (at the modern-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) and the Shawnee of the Ohio Country. In 1755, a band of Cherokee 130-strong under Ostenaco (Ustanakwa) of Tomotley (Tamali) took up residence in a fortified town at the mouth of the Ohio River at the behest of fellow British allies, the Iroquois.
For several years, French agents from Fort Toulouse had been visiting the Overhill Cherokee, especially those on the Hiwassee and Tellico Rivers, and these had made in-
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roads into those places. The strongest pro-French sentiment among the Cherokee came from Mankiller (Utsidihi) of Great Tellico (Talikwa), Old Caesar of Chatuga (Tsatugi), and Raven (Kalanu) of Great Hiwassee (Ayuhwasi). The First "Beloved Man" (Uku) of the nation, Kanagatucko (Kanagatoga, "Stalking Turkey", called 'Old Hop' by the whites), was himself very pro-French, as was his nephew who succeeded at his death in 1760, Standing Turkey (Kunagadoga).
The former site of the Coosa chiefdom during the time of the Spanish explorations in the 16th century, long deserted, was reoccupied in 1759 by a Muscogee contingent under a leader named Big Mortar (Yayatustanage) in support of his pro-French Cherokee allies in Great Tellico and Chatuga and as a step toward an alliance of Muscogee, Cherokee, Shawnee, Chickasaw, and Catawba. His plans were the first of their kind in the South, and set the stage for the alliances that Dragging Canoe would later build. After the end of the French and Indian War, Big Mortar rose to be the leading chief of the Muscogee.
• The Anglo-Cherokee War was initiated in 1758 in the midst of the ongoing war by Moytoy (Amo-adawehi) of Citico in retaliation for mistreatment of Cherokee warriors at the hands of their British and colonial allies, and lasted from 1758 to 1761. Moytoy's horse-stealing began the domino effect that ended with the murders of Cherokee hostages at Fort Prince George near Keowee, and the massacre of the garrison of Fort Loudoun near Chota.
Those two connected events catapulted the whole nation into war until the actual fighting ended in 1761, with the Cherokee being led by Oconostota (Aganstata) of Chota (Itsati), Attakullakulla (Atagulgalu) of Tanasi, Ostenaco of Tomotley, Wauhatchie (Wayatsi) of the Lower Towns, and Round O of the Middle Towns.
The peace between the Cherokee and the colonies was sealed with separate treaties with the Colony of Virginia (1761) and the Province of South Carolina (1762). Standing Turkey was deposed and replaced with pro-British Attakullakulla. John Stuart, the only officer to escape the Fort Loudoun massacre, became British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southern District out of Charlestown, South Carolina, and the main contact of the Cherokee with the British government. His first deputy, Alexander Cameron, lived among them, first at Keowee, then at Toqua on the Little Tennessee, while his second deputy, John McDonald, set up a hundred miles to the southwest on the west side of Chickamauga River, where it was crossed by the Great Indian Warpath.
During the war, a number of major Cherokee towns had been destroyed by the army under British general James Grant, and were never reoccupied, most notably Kituwa, the inhabitants of which migrated west and took up residence at Great Island Town on the Little Tennessee River among the Overhill Cherokee.[5]
In the aftermath of the war, that part of France’s Louisiana Territory east of the Mississippi went to the British along with Canada, while Louisiana west of the Mississippi went to Spain in exchange for Florida going to Britain, which divided it into East Florida and West Florida. Mindful of the recent war and after the visit to London of
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Henry Timberlake and three Cherokee leaders: Ostenaco, Standing Turkey, and Wood Pigeon (Ata-wayi), King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 prohibiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, laying the foundation of one of the major irritants for the colonials leading to the Revolution.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
After Pontiac’s War (1763-1764), the Iroquois Confederacy ceded to the British government its claims to the hunting grounds between the Ohio and Cumberland rivers, known to them and other Indians as Kain-tuck-ee (Kentucky), to which several other tribes north and south also lay claim, in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix. The land in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes regions, meanwhile, later known to the fledgling independent American government as the Northwest Territory, were planned as a British colony that was to be called Charlotina. These events initiated much of the conflict which followed in the years ahead.
Watauga Association
Main article: Watauga Association
Wikisource has original text related to this article:Watauga Petition
The earliest colonial settlement in the vicinity of what became Upper East Tennessee was Sapling Grove, the first of the North-of-Holston settlements, founded by Evan Shelby, who purchased the land from John Buchanan, in 1768. Jacob Brown began another on the Nolichucky River and John Carter on the Doe River in what became known as Carter's Valley, both in 1771. Following the Battle of Alamance in 1771, James Robertson led a group of some twelve or thirteen Regulator families from North Carolina to the Watauga River.
All these groups believed they were in the territorial limits of the colony of Virginia. After a survey proved their mistake, Deputy Superintendent for Indian Affairs Alexander Cameron ordered them to leave. However, Attakullakulla, now First Beloved Man, interceded on their behalf, and they were allowed to remain, provided there was no further encroachment.
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Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap, George Caleb Bingham, oil on canvas, 1851–52
In May 1772, the settlers on the Watauga signed the Watauga Compact to form the Watauga Association, and in spite of the fact the other settlements were not parties to it, all of them are sometimes lumped together as "Wataugans". [7]
The next year, in response to the first attempt to establish a permanent settlement inside the hunting grounds of Kentucky in 1773 by a group under Daniel Boone, the Shawnee, Lenape (Delaware), Mingo, and some Cherokee attacked a scouting and forage party that included Boone’s son James (who was captured and tortured to death along with Henry Russell), beginning Dunmore's War (1773–1774).
Henderson Purchase
Main article: Transylvania (colony)
One year later, in 1775, a group of North Carolina speculators led by Richard Henderson negotiated the Treaty of Watauga at Sycamore Shoals with the older Overhill Cherokee leaders, chief of whom were Oconostota and Attakullakulla (now First Beloved Man), surrendering the claim of the Cherokee to the Kain-tuck-ee (Ganda-giga'i) lands and supposedly giving the Transylvania Land Company ownership thereof in spite of claims to the region by other tribes such as the Lenape, Shawnee, and Chickasaw.
Dragging Canoe (Tsiyugunsini), headman of Great Island Town (Amoyeliegwayi) and son of Attakullakulla, refused to go along with the deal and told the North Carolina men, “You have bought a fair land, but there is a cloud hanging over it; you will find its settlement dark and bloody”. [8] The Watauga treaty was quickly repudiated by the governors of Virginia and North Carolina, however, and Henderson had to flee to avoid arrest. Even George Washington spoke out against it. The Cherokee appealed to John
Stuart, the Indian Affairs Superintendent, for help, which he had provided on previous such occasions, but the outbreak of the American Revolution intervened.
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The "Second Cherokee War"
In the view of both Henderson and of the frontiers people, the revolution negated the judgments of the royal governors, and the Transylvania Company began pouring settlers into the region they had "purchased". Stuart, meanwhile, was besieged by a mob at his house in Charlestown and had to flee for his life before he could act. His first stop was St. Augustine in East Florida [9], from where he sent his deputy, Cameron, and his brother Henry to Mobile to obtain short-term supplies with which the Cherokee could survive and fight if necessary.
Dragging Canoe took a party of eighty warriors to provide security for the pack train, and met Henry Stuart and Cameron, his adopted brother, at Mobile on 1 March 1776. He asked how he could help the British against their rebel subjects, and for help with the illegal settlers, and they told him to take no action at the present but to wait for regular troops to arrive.
When they arrived at Chota, Henry sent out letters to the trespassers of Washington District (Watauga and Nolichucky), Pendleton District (North-of-Holston), and Carter's Valley (along the Doe River) reiterating the fact they were on Indian land illegally and giving them forty days to leave, which those sympathetic to the Revolution then forged to indicate a large force of regular troops plus Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Muscogee was on the march from Pensacola and planning to pick up reinforcements from the Cherokee. The forgeries alarmed the countryside, and settlers began gathering together in closer settlements than their isolated farmsteads, building stations (small forts), and otherwise preparing for an attack.[10]
Visit from the northern tribes
In May 1776, partly at the behest of Henry Hamilton, the British governor in Detroit, the Shawnee chief Cornstalk led a delegation from the northern tribes (Shawnee, Lenape, Iroquois, Ottawa, others) to the southern tribes (Cherokee, Muscogee, Chickasaw, Choctaw), calling for united action against those they called the Long Knives, the squatters who settled and remained in Kain-tuck-ee (Ganda-gi), or, as the settlers called it, Transylvania. The northerners met with the Cherokee leaders at Chota. At the close of his speech, he offered his war belt, and Dragging Canoe accepted it, along with Abraham (Osiuta) of Chilhowee (Tsulawiyi). Dragging Canoe also accepted belts from the Ottawa and the Iroquois, while Savanukah, the Raven of Chota, accepted the belt from the Lenape. The northern emissaries also offered war belts to Stuart and Cameron, but they declined to accept.
The plan was for Middle, Out, and Valley Towns of what is now western North Carolina to attack South Carolina, the Lower Towns of western South Carolina and North Georgia (led by personally by Alexander Cameron) to attack Georgia, and the Overhill Towns along the lower Little Tennessee and Hiwassee rivers to attack Virginia and North Carolina. In the Overhill campaign, Dragging Canoe was to lead a force against the
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Pendelton District, Abraham another against the Washington District, and Savanukah one against Carter’s Valley.
To demonstrate his determination, Dragging Canoe led a small war party into Kentucky and returned with four scalps to present to Cornstalk before the northern delegation departed.[11]
Jemima Boone and the Calloway sisters
Main article: Capture and rescue of Jemima Boone
Shortly after the visit from the northern tribes, the Cherokee began small-party raiding into Kentucky, often in conjunction with the Shawnee. In one of these raids a week before the Cherokee attacks on the settlements and colonies, a war party of five, two Shawnee and three Cherokee led by Hanging Maw (Skwala-guta) of Coyatee (Kaietiyi), captured three teenage girls in a canoe on the Kentucky River. The girls were Jemima Boone, daughter of Daniel Boone, and Elizabeth and Frances Callaway, daughters of Richard Callaway. The war party hurried toward the Shawnee towns north of the Ohio River, but were overtaken by Boone and his rescue party after three days. After a brief firefight, the war party retreated and the girls were rescued, unharmed and having been treated reasonably well, according to Jemima Boone.
The Abduction of Daniel Boone's Daughter by the Indians by Charles Ferdinand Wimar (1853)
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Besides the sheer determined courage of the feat itself, the incident is also notable for providing inspiration for the chase scene in James Fenimore Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans after the capture of Cora and Alice Munro, in which their father Lieutenant-Colonel George Munro, the book's protagonist Hawkeye (Natty Bumppo), his adopted Mohican elder brother Chingachgook, Chingachgook's son Uncas, and David Gamut follow and overtake the Huron war party of Magua in order to rescue the sisters.
The attacks
The squatters in the settlements of what was to become Upper East Tennessee were forewarned of the impending Cherokee attacks by traders who'd come to them from Chota bearing word from the Beloved Woman (female equivalent of Beloved Man, the Cherokee title for a leader) Nancy Ward (Agigaue). Having thus been betrayed, the Cherokee offensive proved to be disastrous for the attackers, particularly those going up against the Holston settlements.
Finding Heaton's Station deserted, Dragging Canoe's force advanced up the Great Indian Warpath and had a small skirmish with a body of militia numbering twenty who quickly withdrew. Pursuing them and intending to take Fort Lee at Long-Island-on-the-Holston, his force advanced toward the island. However, his force encountered a larger force of militia six miles from their target, about half the size of his own but desperate, in a stronger position than the small group before. During the 'Battle of Island Flats' which followed, Dragging Canoe himself was wounded in his hip by a musket ball and his brother Little Owl (Uku-usdi) incredibly survived after being hit eleven times. His force then withdrew, raiding isolated cabins on the way and returned to the Overhill area with plunder and scalps, after raiding further north into southwestern Virginia.
The following week, Dragging Canoe personally led the attack on Black's Fort on the Holston (today Abingdon, Virginia). One of the settlers, Henry Creswell, who had just returned from fighting at Long Island Flats, was killed on July 22, 1776, when he and a group of settlers were attacked while they were on a mission outside the stockade.[12] More attacks continued the third week of July, with support from the Muscogee and Tories.
Abraham of Chilhowee was likewise unsuccessful in his attempt to take Fort Caswell on the Watauga, his attack being driven off with heavy casualties. Instead of withdrawing, however, he put the garrison under siege, a tactic which had worked well the previous decade with Fort Loudoun, but gave that up after two weeks. Savanukah raided from the outskirts of Carter's Valley far into Virginia, but those targets contained only small settlements and isolated farmsteads so he did no real military damage.
After the failed invasion of the Holston, despite his wounds, Dragging Canoe led his warriors to South Carolina to join Alexander Cumming and the Cherokee from the Lower Towns.
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Colonial response
Response from the colonials in the aftermath was swift and overwhelming. North Carolina sent 2400 militia to scour the Oconaluftee and Tuckasegee Rivers and the headwaters of the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee, South Carolina sent 1800 men to the Savannah, and Georgia sent 200 to the Chattahoochee and Tugaloo. In all, they destroyed more than fifty towns, burned their houses and food, destroyed their orchards, slaughtered livestocks, and killed hundreds, as well as putting survivors on the slave auction block.
In the meantime, Virginia sent a large force accompanied by North Carolina volunteers under William Christian to the lower Little Tennessee valley. By this time, Dragging Canoe and his warriors had returned to the Overhill Towns. Oconostota advocated making peace with the colonists at any price. Dragging Canoe countered by calling for the women, children, and old to be sent below the Hiwassee and for the warriors to burn the towns, then ambush the Virginians at the French Broad River, but Oconostota, Attakullakulla, and the rest of the older chiefs decided against that path, Oconostota sending word to the approaching army offering to exchange Dragging Canoe and Cameron if the Overhill Towns were spared.
In Dragging Canoe's last appearance at the council of the Overhill Towns, he denounced the older leaders as rogues and "Virginians" for their willingness to cede away land for an ephemeral safety, ending, "As for me, I have my young warriors about me. We will have our lands." [13][14] He then stalked out of the council. Afterwards, he and other militant leaders, including Ostenaco, gathered like-minded Cherokee from the Overhill, Valley, and Hill towns, and migrated to what is now the Chattanooga, Tennessee, area, to which Cameron had already transferred.
Christian's Virginia force found Great Island, Citico (Sitiku), Toqua (Dakwayi), Tuskegee (Taskigi), Chilhowee, and Great Tellico virtually deserted, with only the older leaders who had opposed the younger ones and their war remaining. Christian limited the destruction in the Overhill Towns to the burning of the deserted towns.
The Treaties of 1777
The next year, 1777, the Cherokee in the Hill, Valley, Lower, and Overhill towns signed the Treaty of Dewitt’s Corner with Georgia and South Carolina (Ostenaco was one of the Cherokee signatories) and the Treaty of Fort Henry with Virginia and North Carolina promising to stop warring, with those colonies promising in return to protect them from attack. Dragging Canoe responded by raiding within fifteen miles of Fort Henry during the negotiations. One provision of the latter treaty required that James Robertson and a small garrison be quartered at Chota on the Little Tennessee.[15] Neither treaty actually halted attacks by frontiersmen from the illegal colonies, nor stop
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encroachment onto Cherokee lands. The peace treaty required the Cherokee give up their land of the Lower Towns in South Carolina and most of the area of the Out Towns.
First migration, to the Chickamauga area
In the meantime, Alexander Cameron had suggested to Dragging Canoe and his dissenting Cherokee that they settle at the place where the Great Indian Warpath crossed the Chickamauga River (South Chickamauga Creek), which was later known as the Chickamauga (Tsikamagi) Town under Big Fool. Since Dragging Canoe made that town his seat of operations, frontier Americans called his faction the "Chickamaugas".
As mentioned above, John McDonald already had a trading post there across the Chickamauga River, providing a link to Henry Stuart, brother of John, in the West Florida capital of Pensacola. Cameron, deputy Indian superintendent and blood brother to Dragging Canoe, accompanied him to Chickamauga. In fact, nearly all the whites legally resident among the Cherokee by their permission were part of the exodus.
The Wilderness Road and the Transylvania purchase.
In addition to Chickamauga Town, Dragging Canoe's band set up three other settlements on the Chickamauga River: Toqua (Dakwayi), at its mouth on the Tennessee River, Opelika, a few kilometers upstream from Chickamauga town, and Buffalo Town (Yunsayi; John Sevier called it Bull Town) at the headwaters of the river in northwest Georgia (in the vicinity of the later Ringgold, Georgia). Other towns were Cayuga (Cayoka) on Hiwassee Island; Black Fox (Inaliyi) at the current community of the same name in Bradley County, Tennessee; Ooltewah (Ultiwa), under Ostenaco on Ooltewah (Wolftever) Creek; Sawtee (Itsati), under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl on Laurel (North Chickamauga) Creek; Citico (Sitiku), along the creek of the same name; Chatanuga (Tsatanugi; not the same as the later city) at the foot of Lookout Mountain in what is now St. Elmo; and Tuskegee (Taskigi) under Bloody Fellow (Yunwigiga) on Williams' Island (which after the wars stretched across from the island southwest into Lookout Valley).
The land used by the Cherokee was once the traditional location of the Muscogee, who had withdrawn in the early 1700s to leave a buffer zone between themselves and the
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Cherokee. In the intervening years, the two tribes used the region as hunting grounds. When the Province of Carolina first began trading with the Cherokee in the late 1600s, their westernmost settlements were the twin towns of Great Tellico (Talikwa, same as Tahlequah) and Chatuga (Tsatugi) at the current site of Tellico Plains, Tennessee. The Coosawattee townsite (Kuswatiyi, for "Old Coosa Place"), reoccupied briefly by Big Mortar's Muscogee as mentioned above, was among the sites settled by the new influx of people.
Many Cherokee resented the (largely Scots-Irish) settlers moving into Cherokee lands, and agreed with Dragging Canoe. The Cherokee towns of Great Hiwassee (Ayuwasi), Tennessee (Tanasi), Chestowee (Tsistuyi), Ocoee (Ugwahi), and Amohee (Amoyee) in the vicinity of Hiwassee River were wholly in the camp of the rejectionists of the pacifism of the old chiefs, as were the Lower Cherokee in the North Georgia towns of Coosawatie (Kusawatiyi), Etowah (Itawayi), Ellijay (Elatseyi), Ustanari (or Ustanali), etc., who had been evicted from their homes in South Carolina by the Treaty of Dewitts' Corner. The Yuchi in the vicinity of the new settlement, on the upper Chickamauga, Pinelog, and Conasauga Creeks, likewise supported Dragging Canoe's policies.
The attacks in July 1776 proved to be Dragging Canoe's Methven; he had tried fighting in regular armies like whites, only to find guerrilla warfare more suitable. Based in their new homes, his main targets were settlers, whom he invariably referred to as "Virginians", on the Holston, Doe, Watauga, and Nolichucky Rivers, on the Cumberland and Red Rivers, and the isolated stations in between. They also ambushed parties travelling on the Tennessee River, and local sections of the many ancient trails that served as "highways", such as the Great Indian Warpath (Mobile to northeast Canada), the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail (St. Augustine to the French Salt Lick at Nashville), the Cumberland Trail (from the Upper Creek Path to the Great Lakes), and the Nickajack Trail (Nickajack to Augusta). Later, these Cherokee stalked the Natchez Trace and such highways as were constructed by the uninvited settlers like the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Walton Roads. Occasionally, the Cherokee attacked targets in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Kentucky, and the Ohio country.
Reaction
In 1778–1779, Savannah and Augusta, Georgia, were captured by the British with help from Dragging Canoe, John McDonald, and the Chickamauga Cherokee, who were being supplied with guns and ammunition through Pensacola and Mobile, and together they were able to gain control of parts of interior South Carolina and Georgia.
First invasion of the Chickamauga Towns
In early 1779, James Robertson of Virginia received warning from Chota that Dragging Canoe's warriors were going to attack the Holston area. In addition, he had received intelligence that John McDonald's place was the staging area for a conference of Indians Governor Hamilton was planning to hold at Detroit, and that a stockpile of supplies equivalent to that of a hundred packhorses was stored there.
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Lieutenant Colonel Issac Shelby
In response, he ordered a preemptive assault under Evan Shelby (father of Isaac Shelby, first governor of the State of Kentucky) and John Montgomery. Boating down the Tennessee in a fleet of dugout canoes, they disembarked and destroyed the eleven towns in the immediate Chickamauga area and most of their food supply, along with McDonald's home and store. Whatever was not destroyed was confiscated and sold at the point where the trail back to the Holston crossed what has since been known as Sale Creek.
In the meantime, Dragging Canoe and John McDonald were leading the Cherokee and fifty Loyalist Rangers in attacks on Georgia and South Carolina, so there was no resistance and only four deaths among the towns' inhabitants. Upon hearing of the devastation of the towns, Dragging Canoe, McDonald, and their men, including the Rangers, returned to Chickamauga and its vicinity.
The Shawnee sent envoys to Chickamauga to find out if the destruction had caused Dragging Canoe's people to lose the will to fight, along with a sizable detachment of warriors to assist them in the South. In response to their inquiries, Dragging Canoe held up the war belts he'd accepted when the delegation visited Chota in 1776, and said, "We are not yet conquered".[16] To cement the alliance, the Cherokee responded to the Shawnee gesture with nearly a hundred of their warriors sent to the North.
The towns in the Chickamauga area were soon rebuilt and reoccupied by their former inhabitants. Dragging Canoe responded to the Shelby expedition with punitive raids on the frontiers of both North Carolina and Virginia.
Concord between the Lenape and the Cherokee
In spring 1779, Oconostota, Savanukah, and other non-belligerent Cherokee leaders travelled north to pay their respects after the death of the White Eyes, the Lenape leader
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who had been encouraging his people to give up their fighting against the Americans. He had also been negotiating, first with Lord Dunmore and second with the American government, for an Indian state with representatives seated in the Continental Congress, which he finally won an agreement for with that body, which he had addressed in person in 1776.
Upon the arrival of the Cherokee in the village of Goshocking, they were taken to the council house and began talks. The next day, the Cherokee present solemnly agreed with their "grandfathers" to take neither side in the ongoing conflict between the Americans and the British. Part of the reasoning was that thus "protected", neither tribe would find themselves subject to the vicissitudes of war. The rest of the world at conflict, however, remained heedless, and the provisions lasted as long as it took the ink to dry, as it were.[17][18]
Death of John Stuart
About this same time, John Stuart, up to that point Indian Affairs Superintendent, died at Pensacola. His deputy, Alexander Cameron, was assigned to the work with the Chickasaw and Choctaw and his replacement, Thomas Browne, assigned to the Cherokee, Muscogee, and Catawba. However, Cameron never went west and he and Browne worked together until the latter departed for St. Augustine.
The Chickasaw
The Chickasaw came into the war on the side of the British and their Indian allies in 1779 when George Rogers Clark and a party of over two hundred built Fort Jefferson and a surrounding settlement near the mouth of the Ohio, inside their hunting grounds. After learning of the trespass, the Chickasaw destroyed the settlement, laid siege to the fort, and began attacking the Kentucky frontier. They continued attacking the Cumberland and into Kentucky through the following year, their last raid in conjunction with Dragging Canoe's Cherokee, old animosities left over from the Cherokee-Chickasaw war of 1758-1769 forgotten in the face of the common enemy.
Cumberland Settlements
Later that year, Robertson and John Donelson traveled overland across country along the Kentucky Road and founded Fort Nashborough at the French Salt Lick (which got its name from having previously been the site of a French outpost called Fort Charleville) on the Cumberland River. It was the first of many such settlements in the Cumberland area, which subsequently became the focus of attacks by all the tribes in the surrounding region. Leaving a small group there, both returned east.
Early in 1780, Robertson and a group of fellow Wataugans left the east down the Kentucky Road headed for Fort Nashborough. Meanwhile, Donelson journeyed down the
18
Tennessee with a party that included his family, intending to go across to the mouth of the Cumberland, then upriver to Ft. Nashborough. Eventually, the group did reach its destination, but only after being ambushed several times.
In the first encounter near Tuskegee Island, the Cherokee warriors under Bloody Fellow focused their attention on the boat in the rear whose passengers had come down with smallpox. There was only one survivor, later ransomed. The victory, however, proved to be a Pyrrhic one for the Cherokee, as the ensuing epidemic wiped out several hundred in the vicinity.
Several miles downriver, beginning with the obstruction known as the Suck or the Kettle, the party was fired upon throughout their passage through the Tennessee River Gorge, the party losing one with several wounded. Several hundred kilometers downriver, the Donelson party ran up against Muscle Shoals, where they were attacked at one end by the Muscogee and the other end by the Chickasaw. The final attack was by the Chickasaw in the vicinity of the modern Hardin County, Tennessee.
Shortly after the party's arrival at Fort Nashborough, Donelson, Robertson and others formed the Cumberland Compact.
John Donelson eventually moved to the Indiana country after the Revolution, where he and William Christian were captured while fighting in the Illinois country in 1786 and were burned at the stake by their captors.[19]
Augusta and King's Mountain
Lieutenant Colonel John Sevier
19
That summer, the new Indian superintendent, Thomas Browne, planned to have a joint conference between the Cherokee and Muscogee to plan ways to coordinate their attacks, but those plans were forestalled when the Americans made a concerted effort to retake Augusta, where he had his headquarters. The arrival of a war party from the Chickamauga Towns, joined by a sizable number or warriors from the Overhill Towns, prevented the capture of both, and they and Brown's East Florida Rangers chased Elijah Clarke's army into the arms of John Sevier, wreaking havoc on rebellious settlements along the way. This set the stage for the Battle of King's Mountain, in which loyalist militia under Patrick Ferguson moved south trying to encircle Clarke and were defeated by a force of 900 frontiersmen under Sevier and William Campbell referred to as the Overmountain Men.[20]
Alexander Cameron, aware of the absence from the settlements of nearly a thousand men, urged Dragging Canoe and other Cherokee leaders to strike while they had the opportunity. With Savanukah as their headman, the Overhill Towns gave their full support to the new offensive. Both Cameron and the Cherokee had been expecting a quick victory for Ferguson and were stunned he suffered such a resounding defeat so soon, but the assault was already in motion.
Hearing word of the new invasion from Nancy Ward, her second known betrayal, Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson sent an expedition of seven hundred Virginians and North Carolinians against the Cherokee in December 1780, under the command of Sevier. It met a Cherokee war party at Boyd's Creek, and after the battle, joined by forces under Arthur Campbell and Joseph Martin, marched against the Overhill towns on the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee, burning seventeen of them, including Chota, Chilhowee, the original Citico, Tellico, Great Hiwassee, and Chestowee. Afterwards, the Overhill leaders withdrew from further active conflict for the time being, though the Hill and Valley Towns continued to harass the frontier.
In the Cumberland area, the new settlements lost around forty people in attacks by the Cherokee, Muscogee, Chickasaw, Shawnee, and Lenape.[21]
Second migration and expansion
By 1781, Dragging Canoe was working with the towns of the Cherokee from western South Carolina relocated on the headwaters of the Coosa River, and with the Muscogee, particularly the Upper Muscogee. The Chickasaw, Shawnee, Huron, Mingo, Wyandot, and Munsee-Lenape (who were the first to do so) were repeatedly attacking the Cumberland settlements as well as those in Kentucky. Three months after the first Chickasaw attack on the Cumberland, the Cherokee's largest attack of the wars against those settlements came in April of that year, and culminated in what became known as the Battle of the Bluff, led by Dragging Canoe in person. Afterwards, settlers began to abandon the settlements until only three stations were left, a condition which lasted until 1785.[22]
20
Loss of British supply lines
In February 1780, Spanish forces from New Orleans under Bernardo de Galvez, allied to the Americans but acting in the interests of Spain, captured Mobile in the Battle of Fort Charlotte. When they next moved against Pensacola the following month, William McIntosh, one of John Stuart's agents and father of the later Muscogee leader William McIntosh (Tustunnugee Hutkee), and Alexander McGillivray (Hoboi-Hili-Miko) rallied 2000 Muscogee warriors to its defense. A British fleet arrived before the Spanish could take the port. A year later, the Spanish reappeared with an army twice the size of the garrison of British, Choctaw, and Muscogee defenders, and Pensacola fell two months later. Shortly thereafter, Savannah and Augusta were also retaken by the revolutionaries.[23]
Politics in the Overhill Towns
In the fall of 1781, the British engineered a coup d'état of sorts that put Savanukah as First Beloved Man in place of the more pacifist Oconostota, who succeeded Attakullakulla. For the next year or so, the Overhill Cherokee openly, as they had been doing covertly, supported the efforts of Dragging Canoe and his Chickamauga Cherokee. In the fall of 1782, however, the older pacifist leaders replaced him with another of their number, Corntassel (Kaiyatsatahi, known to history as "Old Tassel"), and sent messages of peace along with complaints of settler encroachment to Virginia and North Carolina.[24] Opposition from pacifist leaders, however, never stopped war parties from traversing the territories of any of the town groups, largely because the average Cherokee supported their cause, nor did it stop small war parties of the Overhill Towns from raiding settlements in East Tennessee, mostly those on the Holston.
Cherokee in the Ohio region
A party of Cherokee joined the Lenape, Shawnee, and Chickasaw in a diplomatic visit to the Spanish at Fort St. Louis in the Missouri country in March 1782 seeking a new avenue of obtaining arms and other assistance in the prosecution of their ongoing conflict with the Americans in the Ohio Valley. One group of Cherokee at this meeting led by Standing Turkey sought and received permission to settle in Spanish Louisiana, in the region of the White River.[25]
By 1783, there were at least three major communities of Cherokee in the region. One lived among the Chalahgawtha (Chillicothe) Shawnee. The second Cherokee community lived among the mixed Wyandot-Mingo towns on the upper Mad River near the later Zanesfield, Ohio.[26] A third group of Cherokee is known to have lived among and fought with the Munsee-Lenape, the only portion of the Lenape nation at war with the Americans.[27]
Second invasion of the Chickamauga Towns
21
In September 1782, an expedition under Sevier once again destroyed the towns in the Chickamauga vicinity, though going no further west than the Chickamauga River, and those of the Lower Cherokee down to Ustanali (Ustanalahi), including what he called Vann's Town. The towns were deserted because having advanced warning of the impending attack, Dragging Canoe and his fellow leaders chose relocation westward. Meanwhile, Sevier's army, guided by John Watts, somehow never managed to cross paths with any parties of Cherokee.
Dragging Canoe and his people established what whites called the Five Lower Towns downriver from the various natural obstructions in the twenty-six-mile Tennessee River Gorge. Starting with Tuskegee (aka Brown's or Williams') Island and the sandbars on either side of it, these obstructions included the Tumbling Shoals, the Holston Rock, the Kettle (or Suck), the Suck Shoals, the Deadman’s Eddy, the Pot, the Skillet, the Pan, and, finally, the Narrows, ending with Hale's Bar. The whole twenty-six miles was sometimes called The Suck, and the stretch of river was notorious enough to merit mention even by Thomas Jefferson.[28] These navigational hazards were so formidable, in fact, that the French agents attempting to travel upriver to reach Cherokee country during the French and Indian War, intending to establish an outpost at the spot later occupied by British agent McDonald, gave up after several attempts.
The Five Lower Towns
The Five Lower Towns included Running Water (Amogayunyi), at the current Whiteside in Marion County, Tennessee, where Dragging Canoe made his headquarters; Nickajack (Ani-Kusati-yi, or Koasati place), eight kilometers down the Tennessee River in the same county; Long Island (Amoyeligunahita), on the Tennessee just above the Great Creek Crossing; Crow Town (Kagunyi) on the Tennessee, at the mouth of Crow Creek; and Lookout Mountain Town (Utsutigwayi, anglicized "Stecoyee"), at the current site of Trenton, Georgia. Tuskegee Island Town was reoccupied as a lookout post by a small band of warriors to provide advance warning of invasions, and eventually many other settlements in the area were resettled as well.
22
The Five Lower Towns and some of the old Chickamauga Towns
Because this was a move into the outskirts of Muscogee territory, Dragging Canoe, knowing such a move might be necessary, had previously sent a delegation under Little Owl to meet with Alexander McGillivray, the major Muscogee leader in the area, to gain their permission to do so. When he and his followers moved their base, so too did the British representatives Cameron and McDonald, making Running Water the center of their efforts throughout the Southeast. The Chickasaw were in the meantime trying to play off the Americans and the Spanish against each other with little interest in the British. Turtle-at-Home (Selukuki Woheli), another of Dragging Canoe's brothers, along with some seventy warriors, headed north to live and fight with the Shawnee.
Cherokee continued to migrate westward to join Dragging Canoe's followers, whose ranks were further swelled by runaway slaves, white Tories, Muscogee, Koasati, Kaskinampo, Yuchi, Natchez, and Shawnee, as well as a band of Chickasaw living at what was later known as Chickasaw Old Fields across from Guntersville, plus a few Spanish, French, Irish, and Germans.
Later major settlements of the Lower Cherokee (as were they called after the move) included Willstown (Titsohiliyi) near the later Fort Payne; Turkeytown (Gundigaduhunyi), at the head of the Cumberland Trail where the Upper Creek Path crossed the Coosa River near Centre, Alabama; Creek Path (Kusanunnahiyi), near at the intersection of the Great Indian Warpath with the Upper Creek Path at the modern Guntersville, Alabama; Turnip Town (Ulunyi), seven miles from the present-day Rome, Georgia; and Chatuga (Tsatugi), nearer the site of Rome.
23
This expansion came about largely because of the influx of Cherokee from North Georgia, who fled the depredations of expeditions such as those of Sevier; a large majority of these were former inhabitants of the Lower Towns in northeast Georgia and western South Carolina. Cherokee from the Middle, or Hill, Towns also came, a group of whom established a town named Sawtee (Itsati) at the mouth of South Sauta Creek on the Tennessee. Another town, Coosada, was added to the coalition when its Koasati and Kaskinampo inhabitants joined Dragging Canoe's confederation. Partly because of the large influx from North Georgia added to the fact that they were no longer occupying the Chickamauga area as their main center, Dragging Canoe's followers and others in the area began to be referred to as the Lower Cherokee, with he and his lieutenants remaining in the leadership.
Another visit from the *orth
In November 1782, twenty representatives from four northern tribes--Wyandot, Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potowatami--travelled south to consult with Dragging Canoe and his lieutenants at his new headquarters in Running Water Town, which was nestled far back up the hollow from the Tennessee River onto which it opened. Their mission was to gain the help of Dragging Canoe's Cherokee in attacking Pittsburgh and the American settlements in Kentucky and the Illinois country.[29]
After the Revolution
Eventually, Dragging Canoe realized the only solution for the various Indian nations to maintain their independence was to unite in an alliance against the Americans. In addition to increasing his ties to McGillivray and the Upper Muscogee, with whom he worked most often and in greatest numbers, he continued to send his warriors to fighting alongside the Shawnee, Choctaw, and Lenape.
In January 1783, Dragging Canoe travelled to St. Augustine, the capital of East Florida, for a summit meeting with a delegation of northern tribes, and called for a federation of Indians to oppose the Americans and their frontier colonists. Browne, the British Indian Superintendent, approved the concept. At Tuckabatchee a few months later, a general council of the major southern tribes (Cherokee, Muscogee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole) plus representatives of smaller groups (Mobile, Catawba, Biloxi, Huoma, etc.) took place to follow up, but plans for the federation were cut short by the signing of the Treaty of Paris. In June, Browne received orders from London to cease and desist.[30]
Following that treaty, Dragging Canoe turned to the Spanish (who still claimed all the territory south of the Cumberland and were now working against the Americans) for support, trading primarily through Pensacola and Mobile. What made this possible was that fact that the Spanish governor of Louisiana Territory in New Orleans had taken advantage of the British setback to seize those ports. Dragging Canoe maintained relations with the British governor at Detroit, Alexander McKee, through regular diplomatic missions there under his brothers Little Owl and The Badger (Ukuna).
24
Chickasaw and Muscogee treaties
In November, the Chickasaw signed the Treaty of French Lick with the new United States of America that year and never again took up arms against it. The Lower Cherokee were also present at the conference and apparently made some sort of agreement to cease their attacks on the Cumberland for after this Americans settlements in the area began to grow again.[31] That same month, the pro-American camp in the Muscogee nation signed the Treaty of Augusta with the State of Georgia, enraging McGillivray, who wanted to keep fighting; he burned the houses of the leaders responsible and sent warriors to raid Georgia settlements.[32]
Treaties of Hopewell and Coyatee
The Cherokee in the Overhill, Hill, and Valley Towns also signed a treaty with the new United States government, the 1785 Treaty of Hopewell, but in their case it was a treaty made under duress, the frontier colonials by this time having spread further along the Holston and onto the French Broad. Several leaders from the Lower Cherokee signed, including two from Chickamauga Town (which had been rebuilt) and one from Lookout Mountain Town. None of the Lower Cherokee, however, had any part in the Treaty of
Coyatee, which new State of Franklin forced Corntassel and the other Overhill leaders to sign at gunpoint, ceding the remainder of the lands north of the Little Tennessee. Nor did they have any part in the Treaty of Dumplin Creek, which ceded the remaining land within the claimed boundaries of Sevier County. The colonials could now shift military forces to Middle Tennessee in response to increasing frequency of attacks by both Chickamauga Cherokee (by now usually called Lower Cherokee) and Upper Muscogee.
State of Franklin
Main article: State of Franklin
State of Franklin
In May 1785, the settlements of Upper East Tennessee, then comprising four counties of western North Carolina, petitioned the Congress of the Confederation to be recognized as the "State of Franklin". Even though their petition failed to receive the two-thirds votes
25
necessary to qualify, they proceeded to organize what amounted to a secessionist government, holding their first "state" assembly in December 1785. One of their chief motives was to retain the foothold they had recently gained in the Cumberland Basin.
Attacks on the Cumberland
In the summer of 1786, Dragging Canoe and his warriors along with a large contingent of Muscogee raided the Cumberland region, with several parties raiding well into Kentucky. John Sevier responded with a punitive raid on the Overhill Towns. One such occasion that summer was notable for the fact that the raiding party was led by none other than Hanging Maw of Coyatee, who was supposedly friendly at the time.
Formation of the Western Confederacy
In addition to the small bands still operating with the Shawnee, Wyandot-Mingo, and Lenape in the Northwest, a large contingent of Cherokee led by The Glass attended and took an active role in a grand council of northern tribes (plus some Muscogee and Choctaw in addition to the Cherokee contingent) resisting the American advance into the western frontier which took place in November-December 1786 in the Wyandot town of Upper Sandusky just south of the British capital of Detroit.[33]
This meeting, initiated by Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), the Mohawk leader who was head chief of the Iroquois Six Nations and like Dragging Canoe fought on the side of the British during the American Revolution, led to the formation of the Western Confederacy to resist American incursions into the Old Northwest. Dragging Canoe and his Cherokee were full members of the Confederacy. The purpose of the Confederacy was to coordinate attacks and defense in the Northwest Indian War of 1785-1795.
According to John Norton (Teyoninhokovrawen), Brant's adopted son, it was here that The Glass formed a friendship with his adopted father that lasted well into the 19th century. [34] He apparently served as Dragging Canoe's envoy to the Iroquois as the latter's brothers did to McKee and to the Shawnee.
The passage of the Northwest Ordinance by the Congress of the Confederation (subsequently affirmed by the United States Congress) in 1787, establishing the Northwest Territory and essentially giving away the land upon which they lived, only exacerbated the resentment of the tribes in the region.
Coldwater Town
The settlement of Coldwater was founded by a party of French traders who had come down for the Wabash to set up a trading center in 1783. It sat a few miles below the foot of the thirty-five mile long Muscle Shoals, near the mouth of Coldwater Creek and about three hundred yards back from the Tennessee River, close the site of the modern Tuscumbia, Alabama. For the next couple of years, trade was all the French did, but then the business changed hands. Around 1785, the new management began covertly
26
gathering Cherokee and Muscogee warriors into the town, whom they then encouraged to attack the American settlements along the Cumberland and its environs. The fighting contingent eventually numbered approximately nine Frenchmen, thirty-five Cherokee, and ten Muscogee.
Cumberland River Watershed
Because the townsite was well-hidden and its presence unannounced, James Robertson, commander of the militia in the Cumberland's Davidson and Sumner Counties, at first accused the Lower Cherokee of the new offensives. In 1787, he marched his men to their borders in a show of force, but without an actual attack, then sent an offer of peace to Running Water. In answer, Dragging Canoe sent a delegation of leaders led by Little Owl to Nashville under a flag of truce to explain that his Cherokee were not the responsible parties.
Meanwhile, the attacks continued. At the time of the conference in Nashville, two Chickasaw out hunting game along the Tennessee in the vicinity of Muscle Shoals chanced upon Coldwater Town, where they were warmly received and spent the night. Upon returning home to Chickasaw Bluffs, now Memphis, Tennessee, they immediately informed their head man, Piomingo, of their discovery. Piomingo then sent runners to Nashville.
Just after these runners had arrived in Nashville, a war party attacked one of its outlying settlements, killing Robertson's brother Mark. In response, Robertson raised a group of one hundred fifty volunteers and proceeded south by a circuitous land route, guided by two Chickasaw. Somehow catching the town offguard despite the fact they knew Robertson's force was approaching, they chased its would-be defenders to the river, killing about half of them and wounding many of the rest. They then gathered all the trade goods in the town to be shipped to Nashville by boat, burned the town, and departed.[35]
After the wars, it became the site of Colbert's Ferry, owned by Chickasaw leader George Colbert, the crossing place over the Tennessee River of the Natchez Trace.
27
Muscogee council at Tuckabatchee
In 1786, McGillivray had convened a council of war at the dominant Upper Muscogee town of Tuckabatchee about recent incursions of Americans into their territory. The council decided to go on the warpath against the trespassers, starting with the recent settlements along the Oconee River. McGillivray had already secured support from the Spanish in New Orleans.
The following year, because of the perceived insult of the incursion Cumberland against Coldwater so near to their territory, the Muscogee also took up the hatchet against the Cumberland settlements. They continued their attacks until 1789, but the Cherokee did not join them for this round due partly to internal matters but more because of trouble from the State of Franklin.
Peak of Lower Cherokee power and influence
Dragging Canoe's last years, 1788-1792, were the peak of his influence and that of the rest of the Lower Cherokee, among the other Cherokee and among other Indian nations, both south and north, as well as with the Spanish of Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, and the British in Detroit. He also sent regular diplomatic envoys to negotiations in Nashville, Jonesborough then Knoxville, and Philadelphia.
Massacre of the Kirk family
In May 1788, a party of Cherokee from Chilhowee came to the house of John Kirk's family on Little River, while he and his oldest son, John Jr., were out. When Kirk and John Jr. returned, they found the other eleven members of their family dead and scalped.
Massacre of the Brown family
After a preliminary trip to the Cumberland at the end of which he left two of his sons to begin clearing the plot of land at the mouth of White's Creek, James Brown returned to North Carolina to fetch the rest of the family, with whom he departed Long-Island-on-the-Holston by boat in May 1788. When they passed by Tuskegee Island five days later, Bloody Fellow stopped them, looked around the boat, then let them proceed, meanwhile sending messengers ahead to Running Water.
Upon the family's arrival at Nickajack, a party of forty under mixed-blood John Vann boarded the boat and killed Col. Brown, his two older sons on the boat, and five other young men travelling with the family. Mrs. Brown, the two younger sons, and three daughters were taken prisoner and distributed to different families.
28
When he learned of the massacre the following day, The Breath (Unlita), Nickajack's headman, was seriously displeased. He later adopted into his own family the Browns' son Joseph as a son, who had been originally given to Kitegisky (Tsiagatali), who had first adopted him as a brother, treating him well, and of whom Joseph had fond memories in later years.
Mrs. Brown and one of her daughters were given to the Muscogee and ended up the personal household of Alexander McGillivray. George, the elder of the surviving sons, also ended up with the Muscogee, but elsewhere. Another daughter went to a Cherokee nearby Nickajack and the third to a Cherokee in Crow Town.[36]
Murders of the Overhill chiefs
At the beginning of June 1788, John Sevier, now no longer governor of the State of Franklin, raised a hundred volunteers in June of that year and set out for the Overhill Towns. After a brief stop at the Little Tennessee, the group went to Great Hiwassee and burned it to the ground. Returning to Chota, Sevier send a detachment under James Hubbard to Chilhowee to punish those responsible for the Kirk massacre, John Kirk Jr. among them. Hubbard brought along Corntassel and Hanging Man from Chota.
At Chilhowee, Hubbard raised a flag of truce, took Corntassel and Hanging Man to the house of Abraham, still headman of Chilhowee, who was there with his son, also bringing along Long Fellow and Fool Warrior. Hubbard posted guards at the door and windows of the cabin, and gave John Kirk Jr. a tomahawk to get his revenge.
The murder of the pacifist Overhill chiefs under a flag of truce angered the entire Cherokee nation and resulted in those previously reluctant taking the warpath, an increase in hostility that lasted for several months. Doublehead, Corntassel's brother, was particularly incensed.
Highlighting the seriousness of the matter, Dragging Canoe came in to address the general council of the Nation, now meeting at Ustanali on the Coosawattee River (one of the former Lower Towns on the Keowee River relocated to the vicinity of Calhoun, Georgia) to which the seat of the council had been moved, along with the election of Little Turkey (Kanagita) as First Beloved Man, an election contested by Hanging Maw of Coyatee (who had been elected chief headman of the traditional Overhill Towns on the Little Tennessee River), to succeed the murdered chief. Interestingly, both men had been among those who originally followed Dragging Canoe into the southwest of the nation, with Hanging Maw known to have been on the warpath at least as late as 1786.
Dragging Canoe's presence at the Ustanali council and the council's meetings now held in what was then the area of the Lower Towns (but to which Upper Cherokee from the Overhill towns were migrating in vast numbers), as well as his acceptance of the election of his former co-belligerent Little Turkey as principal leader over all the Cherokee nation, are graphic proof that he and his followers remained Cherokee and were not a separate tribe as some, following Brown, allege.
29
Houston's Station
In early August, the commander of the garrison at Houston's Station (near the present Maryville, Tennessee, received word that a Cherokee force of nearly five hundred was planning to attack his position. He therefore sent a large reconnaissance patrol to the Overhill Towns.
Stopping in the town of Citico on the south side of the Little Tennessee, which they found deserted, the patrol scattered throughout the town's orchard and began gathering fruit. Six of them died in the first fusilade, another ten while attempting to escape across the river.
With the loss of those men, the garrison at Houston's Station was seriously beleaguered. Only the arrival of a relief force under John Sevier saved the fort from being overrun and its inhabitants slaughtered. With the garrison joining his force, Sevier marched to the Little Tennessee and burned Chilhowee.
Invasion and counter-invasion
Later in August, Joseph Martin (who was married to Betsy, daughter of Nancy Ward, and living at Chota), with 500 men, marched to the Chickamauga area, intending to penetrate the edge of the Cumberland Mountains to get to the Five Lower Towns. He sent a detachment to secure the pass over the foot of Lookout Mountain (Atalidandaganu), which was ambushed and routed by a large party of Dragging Canoe's warriors, with the Cherokee in hot pursuit.[37] One of the participants later referred to the spot as "the place where we made the Virginians turn their backs".[38] According to one of the participants on the other side, Dragging Canoe, John Watts, Bloody Fellow, Kitegisky, The Glass, Little Owl, and Dick Justice were all present at the encounter.[39]
Lookout Mountain from Moccasin Bend
The army of Cherokee warriors Dragging Canoe raised in response reached three thousand in total, split into warbands hundreds strong each. One of these warbands was headed by John Watts (Kunnessee-i; also known as 'Young Tassel') with Bloody Fellow,
30
Kitegisky (Tsiagatali), and The Glass, and included a young warrior named or Pathkiller (*unnehidihi), later known as The Ridge (Ganundalegi).
In October of that year, the band advanced across country toward White's Fort. Along the way, they attacked Gillespie's Station on the Holston River after capturing settlers who had left the enclosure to work in the fields, storming the stockade when the defender's ammunition ran out, killing the men and some of the women and taking twenty-eight women and children prisoner. They then proceeded to attack White's Fort and Houston's Station only to be beaten back.[40][41] Afterwards, the warband wintered at an encampment on the Flint River in present day Unicoi County, Tennessee as a base of operations.[42]
In return, punishment attacks by the settlers' militia increased. Troops under Sevier destroyed the Valley Towns in North Carolina. At Ustalli, on the Hiwassee, the population had been evacuated by Cherokee warriors led by Bob Benge, who left a rearguard to ensure their escape. After lighting the town, Sevier and his group pursued its fleeing inhabitants, but were ambushed at the mouth of the Valley River by Benge's party. From there they went to the village of Coota-cloo-hee (Gadakaluyi) and proceeded to burn down its cornfields, but were chased off by 400 warriors led by John Watts (Young Tassel).[43][44]
One result of the above destruction is that the Overhill Cherokee and the refugees from other parts of the nation among them all but completely abandoned the settlements on the Little Tennessee and dispersed south and west, with Chota being virtually the only town left with any inhabitants.
The Flint Creek band/Prisoner exchange
John Watts' band on Flint Creek fell upon serious misfortune early the next year. In early January 1789, they were surrounded by a force under John Sevier that was equipped with grasshopper cannons. The gunfire from the Cherokee was so intense, however, that Sevier abandoned his heavy weapons and ordered a cavalry charge that led to savage hand-to-hand fighting. Watt's band lost nearly 150 warriors.[45]
Word of their defeat did not reach Running Water until April, when it arrived with an offer from Sevier for an exchange of prisoners which specifically mentioned the surviving members of the Brown family, including Joseph, who had been adopted first by Kitegisky and later by The Breath.[46] Among those captured at Flint Creek were Bloody Fellow and Little Turkey's daughter.[47]
Joseph and his sister Polly were brought immediately to Running Water, but when runners were sent to Crow Town to retrieve Jane, their youngest sister, her owner refused to surrender her. Bob Benge, present in Running Water at the time, he mounted his horse and hefted his famous axe, saying, "I will bring the girl, or the owner's head". The next morning he returned with Jane.[48] The three were handed over to Sevier at Coosawattee.
31
McGillivray delivered Mrs. Brown and Elizabeth to her son William during a trip to Rock Landing, Georgia, in November. George, the other surviving son from the trip, remained with the Muscogee until 1798.[49]
Blow to the Western Confederacy
In January 1789, Arthur St. Clair, American governor of the Northwest Territory, concluded two separate peace treaties with members of the Western Confederacy. The first was with the Iroquois, except for the Mohawk, and the other was with the Wyandot, Lenape, Ottawa, Potawotami, Sac, and Ojibway. The Mohawk, the Shawnee, the Miami, and the tribes of the Wabash Confederacy, who had been doing most of the fighting, not only refused to go along but became more aggressive, especially the Wabash tribes.[50]
Chiksika's band of Shawnee
In early 1789, a band of thirteen Shawnee arrived in Running Water after spending several months hunting in the Missouri River country, led by Chiksika, a leader contemporary with the famous Blue Jacket (Weyapiersenwah). In the band was his brother, the later leader Tecumseh.
Their mother, a Muscogee, had left the north (her husband died at the Battle of Point Pleasant, the only major action of Dunmore's War, in 1774) and gone to live in her old town because without her husband she was homesick. The town was now near those of the Cherokee in the Five Lower Towns. Their mother had died, but Chiksika's Cherokee wife and his daughter were living at nearby Running Water Town, so they stayed.
They were warmly received by the Cherokee warriors, and, based out of Running Water, they participated in and conducted raids and other actions, in some of which Cherokee warriors participated (most notably Bob Benge). Chiksika was killed in one of the actions in their band took part in April, resulting in Tecumseh becoming leader of the small Shawnee band, gaining his first experiences as a leader in warfare.
The band remained at Running Water until late 1790, then returned north, having been long gone.[51][52]
The "Miro Conspiracy"
Starting in 1786, the leaders of the State of Franklin and the Cumberland District began secret negotiations with Esteban Rodriguez Miro, governor of Spanish Louisiana, to deliver their regions to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire. Those involved included James Robertson, Daniel Smith, and Anthony Bledsoe of the Cumberland District, John Sevier and Joseph Martin of the State of Franklin, James White, recently-appointed American Superintendent for Southern Indian Affairs (replacing Thomas Browne), and James Wilkinson of Kentucky.
32
Coat-of-Arms of the Kingdom of Spain
The irony lay in the fact that the Spanish backed the Cherokee and Muscogee harassing their territories. Their main counterpart on the Spanish side in New Orleans was Diego de Gardoqui. Gardoqui's negotiations with Wilkinson, initiated by the latter, to bring Kentucky into the Spanish orbit also were separate but simultaneous.
The "conspiracy" went as far as the Franklin and Cumberland officials promising to take the oath of loyalty to Spain and renounce allegiance to any other nation. Robertson went as far as having the North Carolina assembly create the "Mero District" out of the three Cumberland counties (Davidson, Sumner, Tennessee). There was even a convention held in the failing State of Franklin on the question, and those present voted in its favor.
A large part of their motivation, besides the desire to secede from North Carolina, was the hope that this course of action would bring relief from Indian attacks. The series of negotiations involved McGillivray, with Roberston and Bledsoe writing him of the Mero District's peaceful intentions toward the Muscogee and simultaneously sending White as emissary to Gardoqui to convey news of their overture.[53]
The scheme fell apart for two main reasons. The first was the dithering of the Spanish government in Madrid. The second was the interception of a letter from Joseph Martin which fell into the hands of the Georgia legislature in January 1789.
North Carolina, to which the western counties in question belonged under the laws of the United States, took the simple expedient of ceding the region to the federal government, which established the Southwest Territory in May 1790. Of note is the fact that under the new regime the Mero District kept its name.
Wilkinson remained a paid Spanish agent until his death in 1825, including his years as one of the top generals in the U.S. army, and was involved in the Aaron Burr conspiracy. Ironically, he became the first American governor of Louisiana Territory in 1803.
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Doublehead
The opposite end of Muscle Shoals from Coldwater Town, mentioned above, was occupied in 1790 by a roughly forty-strong party under the infamous Doublehead (Taltsuska), plus their families. He had gained permission to establish his town at the head of the Shoals, which was in Chickasaw territory, because the local headman, George Colbert, the mixed-blood leader who later owned Colbert's Ferry at the foot of Muscle Shoals, was his son-in-law.
Like that of the former residents, Doublehead's Coldwater Town was mixed, with Cherokee, Muscogee, Shawnee, and a few Chickasaw, and quickly grew beyond the initial forty warriors, who carried out many small raids against the Cumberland and into Kentucky. During one of the more notable of these forays in June 1792, his warriors ambushed a canoe carrying the three sons of Valentine Sevier (brother of John) and three others out on a scouting expedition searching for his party, killing the three Seviers and another of the expedition, with two escaping.
Doublehead conducted his operations largely independent of the Lower Cherokee, though he did take part in large operations with them on occasion, such as the invasion of the Cumberland in 1792 and that of the Holston in 1793.[54]
Treaty of *ew York
Dragging Canoe's long-time ally among the Muscogee, Alexander McGillivray, led a delegation of twenty-seven leaders north, where they signed the Treaty of New York in August 1790 with the United States government on behalf of the "Upper, Middle, and Lower Creek and Seminole composing the Creek nation of Indians". However, the signers did not represent even half the Muscogee Confederacy, and there was much resistance to the treaty from the peace faction he had attacked after the Treaty of Augusta as well as the faction of the Confederacy who wished to continue the war and did so.
Muscle Shoals
In January 1791, a group of land speculators named the Tennessee Company from the Southwest Territory led by James Hubbard and Peter Bryant attempted to gain control of the Muscle Shoals and its vicinity by building a settlement and fort at the head of the Shoals. They did so against an executive order of President Washington forbidding it, as relayed to them by the governor of the Southwest Territory, William Blount. The Glass came down from Running Water with sixty warriors and descended upon the defenders, captained by Valentine Sevier, brother of John, told them to leave immediately or be killed, then burned their blockhouse as they departed.[55]
Bob Benge
Starting in 1791, Benge, and his brother The Tail (Utana; aka Martin Benge), based at Willstown, began leading attacks against settlers in East Tennessee, Southwest Virginia,
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and Kentucky, often in conjunction with Doublehead and his warriors from Coldwater. Eventually, he became one of the most feared warriors on the frontier. [56]
Meanwhile, Muscogee scalping parties began raiding the Cumberland settlements again, though without mounting any major campaigns.
Treaty of Holston
The Treaty of Holston, signed in July 1791, required from the Upper Towns more land in return for continued peace because the government proved unable to stop or roll back illegal settlements. However, it also seemed to guarantee Cherokee sovereignty and led the Upper Cherokee chiefs to believe they had the same status as states. Several representatives of the Lower Cherokee in the negotiations and signed the treaty, including John Watts, Doublehead, Bloody Fellow, Black Fox (Dragging Canoe's nephew), The Badger (his brother), and Rising Fawn (Agiligina; aka George Lowery).
Battle of the Wabash
Lithograph of Little Turtle, reputedly based upon a lost portrait by Gilbert Stuart, destroyed when the British burned Washington, D.C. in 1814.[57]
Later in the summer, a small delegation of Cherokee under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl traveled north to meet with the Indian leaders of the Western Confederacy, chief among them Blue Jacket (Weyapiersenwah) of the Shawnee and Little Turtle (Mishikinakwa) of the Miami. While they were there, word arrived at Running Water that Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, was planning an invasion against the allied tribes in the north. Little Owl immediately sent word south.
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Dragging Canoe quickly sent a 30-strong war party north under his brother The Badger, where, along with the warriors of Little Owl and Turtle-at-Home they participated in the decisive encounter in November 1791 known as the Battle of the Wabash, the worst defeat ever inflicted by Native Americans upon the American military, the American military body count of which far surpassed that at the more famous Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876.
After the battle, Little Owl, The Badger, and Turtle-at-Home returned south with most of the warriors who'd accompanied the first two. The warriors who'd come north years earlier, both with Turtle-at-Home and a few years before, remained in the Ohio region, but the returning warriors brought back a party of thirty Shawnee under the leadership of one known as Shawnee Warrior that frequently operated alongside warriors under Little Owl.
Death of "the savage *apoleon"
Inspired by news of the northern victory, Dragging Canoe embarked on a mission to unite the native people of his area as had Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, visiting the other major tribes in the region. His embassies to the Lower Muscogee and the Choctaw were successful, but the Chickasaw in West Tennessee refused his overtures. Upon his return, which coincided with that of The Glass and Dick Justice (Uwenahi Tsusti), and of Turtle-at-Home, from successful raids on settlements along the Cumberland (in the case of the former two) and in Kentucky (in the case of the latter), a huge all-night celebration was held at Lookout Mountain Town at which the Eagle Dance was performed in his honor.
By morning, March 1, 1792, Dragging Canoe was dead. A procession of honor carried his body to Running Water, where he was buried. By the time of his death, the resistance of the Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee had led to grudging respect from the settlers, as well as the rest of the Cherokee nation. He was even memorialized at the general council of the Nation held in Ustanali in June by his nephew Black Fox (Inali):
The Dragging Canoe has left this world. He was a man of consequence in his country. He was friend to both his own and the white people. His brother [Little Owl] is still in place, and I mention it now publicly that I intend presenting him with his deceased brother's medal; for he promises fair to possess sentiments similar to those of his brother, both with regard to the red and the white. It is mentioned here publicly that both red and white may know it, and pay attention to him.[58]
The final years
The last years of the Chickamauga wars saw John Watts, who had spent much of the wars affecting friendship and pacifism towards his American counterparts while living most of the time among the Overhill Cherokee, drop his facade as he took over from his mentor, though deception and artifice still formed part of his diplomatic repertoire.
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John Watts
At his own previous request, the old warrior was succeeded as leader of the Lower Cherokee by John Watts (Kunokeski), although The Bowl (Diwali) succeeded him as headman of Running Water[59], along with Bloody Fellow and Doublehead, who continued Dragging Canoe's policy of Indian unity, including an agreement with McGillivray of the Upper Muscogee to build joint blockhouses from which warriors of both tribes could operate at the junction of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, at Running Water, and at Muscle Shoals.
Watts, Tahlonteeskee, and 'Young Dragging Canoe' (whose actual name was Tsula, or "Red Fox") travelled to Pensacola in May at the invitation of Arturo O'Neill, Spanish governor of West Florida. They took with them letters of introduction from John McDonald. Once there, they forged a treaty with O'Neill for arms and supplies with which to carry on the war.[60] Upon returning north, Watts moved his base of operations to Willstown in order to be closer to his Muscogee allies and his Spanish supply line.
Tennessee River Gorge from Snooper's Rock
Watts at the time of Dragging Canoe's death had been serving as an interpreter during negotiations in Chota between the American government and the Overhill Cherokee. Throughout the wars, up until the time he became principal chief of the Lower Cherokee, he continued to live in the Overhill Towns as much as much as in the Chickamauga and Lower Towns, and many whites mistook him for a non-belligerent, most notably John Sevier when he mistakenly contracted Watts to guide him to Dragging Canoe's headquarters in September 1782.
Meanwhile John McDonald, now British Indian Affairs Superintendent, moved to Turkeytown with his assistant Daniel Ross and their families. Some of the older chiefs, such as The Glass of Running Water, The Breath of Nickajack, and Dick Justice of Lookout Mountain Town, abstained from active warfare but did nothing to stop the warriors in their towns from taking part in raids and campaigns.
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That summer, the band of Shawnee Warrior and the party of Little Owl began joining the raids of the Muscogee on the Mero District. In late June, they attacked a small fortified settlement called Ziegler's Station, swarming it, killing the men and taking the women and children prisoner.[61]
Buchanan's Station
In September 1792, Watts orchestrated a large campaign intending to attack the Holston region with a large combined army in four bands of two hundred each. When the warriors were mustering at Lookout Mountain Town, however, he learned that their planned attack was expected and decided to aim for Nashville instead.
The army Watts led into the Cumberland region was nearly a thousand strong, including a contingent of cavalry. It was to be a four-pronged attack in which Tahlonteeskee (Ataluntiski; Doublehead's brother) and Bob Benge's brother The Tail led a party to ambush the Kentucky Road, Doublehead with another to the Cumberland Road, and Middle Striker (Yaliunoyuka) led another to do the same on the Walton Road, while Watts himself led the main force, made up of 280 Cherokee, Shawnee, and Muscogee warriors plus cavalry, intending to go against the fort at Nashville.
He sent out George Fields (Unegadihi; "Whitemankiller") and John Walker, Jr. (Sikwaniyoha) as scouts ahead of the army, and they killed the two scouts sent out by James Robertson from Nashville.
Near their target on the evening of 30 September, Watts's combined force came upon a small fort known as Buchanan's Station. Talotiskee, leader of the Muscogee, wanted to attack it immediately, while Watts argued in favor of saving it for the return south. After much bickering, Watts gave in around midnight. The assault proved to be a disaster for Watts. He himself was wounded, and many of his warriors were killed, including Talotiskee and some of Watts' best leaders; Shawnee Warrior, Kitegisky, and Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl were among those who died in the encounter.
Doublehead's group of sixty ambushed a party of six and took one scalp then headed for toward Nashville. On their way, they were attacked by a militia force and lost thirteen men, and only heard of the disaster at Buchanan's Station afterwards. Tahlonteeskee's party, meanwhile, stayed out into early October, attacking Black's Station on Crooked Creek, killing three, wounding more, and capturing several horses. Middle Striker's party was more successful, ambushing a large armed force coming to the Mero District down the Walton Road in November and routing it completely without losing a single man.[62][63]
In revenge for the deaths at Buchanan's Station, Benge, Doublehead, and his brother Pumpkin Boy led a party of sixty into southwestern Kentucky in early 1793 during which their warriors, in an act initiated by Doublehead, cooked and ate the enemies they had just killed. Afterwards, Doublehead's party returned south and held scalp dances at
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Lookout Mountain Town, Turnip Town, and Willstown, since warriors from those towns had also participated in the raid in addition to his and Benge's groups.[64]
Joseph, of the Brown family discussed above, was a member of the station's garrison but had been at his mother's house three miles away at the time of the battle. When he learned of the death of his friend Kitegisky, he is reported to have mourned greatly.
Muscogee attack the Holston and the Cumberland
Meanwhile, a party of Muscogee under a mixed-breed named Lesley invaded the Holston region and began attacking isolated farmsteads. Lesley's party continued harassment of the Holston settlements until the summer of 1794, when Hanging Maw sent his men along with the volunteers from the Holston settlements to pursue them, killing two and handing over a third to the whites for trial and execution.[65]
After the failed Cherokee attack on Buchanan's Station, the Muscogee increased their attacks on the Cumberland in both size and frequency. Besides scalping raids, two parties attacked Bledsoe's Station and Greenfield Station in April of 1793. Another party attacked Hays' Station in June. In August, the Koasati from Coosada raided the country around Clarksville, Tennessee, attacking the homestead of the Baker family, killing all but two who escaped and one taken prisoner who was later ransomed at Coosada Town. A war party of Tuskeegee from the Muscogee town of that name was also active in Middle Tennessee at this time.[66]
Attack on a Cherokee diplomatic party
In early 1793, Watts began rotating large war parties back and forth between the Lower Towns and the North at the behest of his allies in the Western Confederacy, which was beginning to lose the ground to the Legion of the United States, which had been created in the aftermath of the Battle of the Wabash. With the exception of the 1793 campaign against the Holston, his attention was more focused on the north than on the Southwest Territory and its environs during these next two years.
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Upper East Tennessee
Shortly after a delegation of Shawnee stopped in Ustanali in that spring on their way to call on the Muscogee and Choctaw to punish the Chickasaw for joining St. Clair's army in the north, Watts sent envoys to Knoxville, then the capital of the Southwest Territory, to meet with Governor William Blount to discuss terms for peace. Blount in turn passed the offer to Philadelphia, which invited the Lower Cherokee leaders to a meeting with President Washington. The party that was sent from the Lower Towns that May included Bob McLemore, Tahlonteeskee, Captain Charley of Running Water, and Doublehead, among several others.
The party from the Lower Towns stopped in Coyatee because Hanging Maw and other chiefs from the Upper Towns were going also and had gathered there along with several whites who had arrived earlier. A large party of Lower Cherokee (Pathkiller aka The Ridge among them) had been raiding the Upper East, killed two men, and stolen twenty horses. On their way out, they passed through Coyatee, to which the pursuit party tracked them.
The militia violated their orders not to cross the Little Tennessee, then the border between the Cherokee nation and the Southwest Territory, and entered the town shooting indiscriminantly. In the ensuing chaos, eleven leading men were killed, including Captain Charley, and several wounded, including Hanging Maw, his wife and daughter, Doublehead, and Tahlonteeskee; one of the white delegates was among the dead. The Cherokee, even Watts' hostile warriors, agreed to await the outcome of the subsequent trial, which proved to be a farce, in large part because John Beard, the man responsible, was a close friend of John Sevier.[67][68]
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Invasion and Cavett's Station
Watts responded to Beard's acquittal by invading the Holston area with one of the largest Indian forces ever seen in the region, over one thousand Cherokee and Muscogee, plus a few Shawnee, intending to attack Knoxville itself. The plan was to have four bodies of troops march toward Knoxville esparately, converging at a previously agreed on rendezvous point along the way.
In August, Watts attacked Henry's Station with a force of two hundred, but fell back due to overwhelming gunfire coming from the fort, not wanting to risk another misfortune like that at Buchanan's Station the previous year.
The four columns converged a month later near the present Loudon, Tennessee, and proceeded toward their target. On the way, the Cherokee leaders were discussing among themselves whether to kill all the inhabitants of Knoxville, or just the men, James Vann advocating the latter while Doublehead argued for the former.
Further on the way, they encountered a small settlement called Cavett's Station. After they had surrounded the place, Benge negotiated with the inhabitants, agreeing that if they surrendered, their lives would be spared. However, after the settlers had walked out, Doublehead's group and his Muscogee allies attacked and began killing them all over the pleas of Benge and the others. Vann managed to grab one small boy and pull him onto his saddle, only to have Doublehead smash the boy's skull with an axe. Watts intervened in time to save another young boy, handing him to Vann, who put the boy behind him on his horse and later handed him over to three of the Muscogee for safe-keeping; unfortunately, one of the Muscogee chiefs killed the boy and scalped him a few days later.
Because of this incident, Vann called Doublehead "Babykiller" (deliberately parodying the honorable title "Mankiller") for the remainder of his life; and it also began a lengthy feud which defined the politics of the early 19th century Cherokee Nation and only ended in 1807 with Doublehead's death at Vann's orders. By this time, tensions among the Cherokee broke out into such vehement arguments that the force broke up, with the main group retiring south.
Battle of Etowah
Main article: Battle of Hightower
Sevier countered the invasion with an invasion and occupation of Ustanali, which had been deserted; there was no fighting there other than an indecisive skirmish with a Cherokee-Muscogee scouting party. He and his men then followed the Cherokee-Muscogee force south to the town of Etowah (Itawayi; near the site of present-day Cartersville, Georgia across the Etowah River from the Etowah Indian Mounds), leading to what Sevier called the "Battle of Hightower". His force defeated their opponents soundly, then went on to destroy several Cherokee villages to the west before retiring to Tennessee. This was the last pitched battle of the Chickamauga Wars.
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End of the Chickamauga Wars
In late June 1794, the federal government signed yet another treaty with the Cherokee, the Treaty of Philadelphia, which essentially reaffirmed the land cessions of the 1785 Treaty of Hopwell and the 1791 Treaty of Holston. Of note is that fact that it was signed by both Doublehead and Bloody Fellow.
Muscle Shoals Massacre
Later in the summer, a party of Cherokee under Whitemankiller (Unegadihi; aka George Fields) overtook a river party under one William Scott at Muscle Shoals, killing its white passengers, looting its goods, and taking the slaves captive.
Final engagements
In August of that year, Thomas Browne (now working as Indian Agent to the Chickasaw for the United States) sent word from Chickasaw territory to General Robertson of the Mero District, as the Cumberland region was then called, that the Cherokee and Muscogee were about to launch attacks all along the river. One party of 100 was going to take canoes down the Tennessee to the lower river while another of 400 was going to attack overland after passing through the Five Lower Towns and picking up reinforcements.
The river party actually began on their way to make the attacks, but dissension in the larger mixed Muscogee-Cherokee overland party caused by the actions of Hanging Maw against the party of Lesley in the Holston region broke them up before they reached the area, and only three small parties made it to the Cumberland, operating into at least September.
The *ickajack Expedition
Main article: Nickajack Expedition
Desiring to end the wars once and for all, Robertson sent a detachment of U.S. regular troops, Mero militia, and Kentucky volunteers to the Five Lower Towns under U.S. Army Major James Ore. Guided by those who knew the area, including former captive Joseph Brown, Ore's army travelled down the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail toward the Five Lower Towns.
On 13 September, the army attacked Nickajack without warning, slaughtering many of the inhabitants, including its pacifist chief The Breath, then after torching the houses proceeded upriver to burn Running Water, whose residents had long fled. Brown took an active part in the fighting but is known to have attempted to spare women and children.
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The actual Cherokee casualties were much lighter than they might have been because the majority of both towns were in Willstown attending a major stickball (similar to lacrosse) game.
Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse
The Tellico Blockhouse site, with posts and stone fill showing the original layout
The destruction of the two towns combined with the death of Bob Benge in April and the recent defeat of the Western Confederacy by General "Mad Anthony" Wayne's army at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (at which over a hundred Cherokee warriors fought) in August of that year, plus the fact that the Spanish could not support the Cherokee war due to problems they were having with Napoleon I of France in Europe, convinced Watts to end the fighting once and for all. Two months later, 7 November 1794, the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse finally ended the series of conflicts, which was notable for not requiring any further cession of land other than requiring the Lower (or Chickamauga) Cherokee to recognize those of the Holston treaty, which led to a period of relative peace into the 19th century.
Assessment
Counting the previous two years of all the Cherokee fighting openly as British allies, the Chickamauga Wars lasted nearly twenty years, one of the longest-running conflicts between Indians and the Americans, often overlooked for its length, its importance at the time, and its influence on later Native American leaders (or considering that Cherokee had been involved at least in small numbers in all the conflicts beginning in 1758, that number could be nearly forty years). Because of the continuing hostilities that followed the Revolution, one of two permanent garrisons in the territory of the new country was placed at Fort Southwest Point at the confluence of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, the other being Fort Pitt in Pennsylvania. No less under-rated are Dragging Canoe's abilities as a war leader and diplomat, and even today he is scarcely mentioned in texts dealing with conflicts between "Americans" and "Indians".
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Aftermath
Following the peace treaty, there was no further separation of the main Cherokee nation and the Lower Cherokee, at least on paper. Leaders from the Lower Cherokee were dominant in national affairs. When the national government of all the Cherokee was organized, the first three persons to hold the office of Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation - Little Turkey (1788-1801), Black Fox (1801-1811), and Pathkiller (*unnehidihi; 1811-1827) - had previously served as warriors under Dragging Canoe, as had the first two Speakers of the Cherokee National Council, established in 1794, Doublehead and Turtle-at-Home.
The domination of Cherokee nation by the former warriors from the Lower Towns continued well into the 19th century. Even after the revolt of the young chiefs of the Upper Towns, the Lower Towns were a major voice, and the "young chiefs" of the Upper Towns who dominated that region had themselves previously been warriors with Dragging Canoe and Watts.
Post-war settlements of the Cherokee
Many of the former warriors returned to several of the original settlements in the Chickamauga area, some of which had already been reoccupied, establishing new towns in the area as well, plus several in North Georgia aside from moving into those previously established by those forcibly removed from the Lower Towns in western South Carolina (such as Itawa, or Etowah), and joining with the remnant of the Overhill towns on the Little Tennessee River were referred to as the Upper Towns, with their center at Ustanali in Georgia and with the former warriors James Vann and his proteges The Ridge (Ganundalegi; formerly known as Pathkiller, or *unnehidihi) and Charles R. Hicks (also named *unnehidihi in Cherokee) as their top leaders, along with John Lowery, George Lowery, Bob McLemore, John Walker, Jr., George Fields, and others. The leaders of these towns were the most progressive, favoring extensive acculturation, formal education, and modern methods of farming.
For a decade of more after the end of the wars, the northern section of the Upper Towns had their own council and acknowledged the top headman of the Overhill Towns as their leader, but they were gradually driven south by land cessions.
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The Ridge (Ganundalegi), formerly known as Pathkiller (*unnehidihi)
John McDonald returned to his old home on the Chickamauga River, across from Old Chickamauga Town, and lived there until selling it in 1816 to the Boston-based American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions upon which to establish Brainerd Mission, which served as both a church (named the Baptist Church of Christ at Chickamauga) and a school offering both academic and vocational training. His daughter Mollie and son-in-law Daniel Ross made a farm and trading post near the old village of Chatanuga (Tsatanugi) from the early days of the wars; along with them came sons Lewis and Andrew, a number of daughters, and another son born at Turkey Town, later to become the most famous, named John.
The majority of the Lower Cherokee remained in the towns they inhabited in 1794, with their seat at Willstown, known as the Lower Towns. Their leaders were John Watts, Bloody Fellow, Doublehead, Black Fox, Pathkiller, Dick Justice, The Glass, Tahlonteeskee (brother of Doublehead), John Jolly (Ahuludiski; his nephew and adopted father of Sam Houston), John Brown (owner of Brown's Tavern, Brown's Landing, and Brown's Ferry, as well as judge of the Chickamauga District of the Cherokee Nation), Young Dragging Canoe, Richard Fields, and red-headed Will Weber, for whom Titsohili was called Willstown, among others. The former warriors of the Lower Towns dominated the political affairs of the Nation for the next twenty years and were in many ways more conservative, adopting many facets of acculturation but keeping as many of the old ways as possible.[69]
Roughly speaking, the Lower Towns were south and southwest of the Hiwassee River along the Tennessee down to the north border of the Muscogee nation and west of the Conasauga and Ustanali in Georgia while the Upper Towns were north and east of the
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Hiwassee and between the Chattahoochee and Conasauga. This was approximately the same area as the later Amohee, Chickamauga, and Chattooga Districts of the Cherokee Nation East.[70]
The settlements of the Cherokee remaining in the highlands of western North Carolina which had become known as the Hill Towns, with their seat at Quallatown, and the lowland Valley Towns, with their seat now at Tuskquitee, were more traditional, as was the Upper Town of Etowah, notable for being inhabited mostly by full-bloods and for being the largest town in the Nation.
All four regions had their own councils, which predominated in importance over the nominal nation council until the reorganization in 1810 after the council that year at Willstown.
Muscogee-Chickasaw War
The Muscogee kept on fighting after the destruction of Nickajack and Running Water and the following peace between the Lower Cherokee and the United States. In October 1794, they attacked Bledsoe's Station again. In November, they attacked Sevier's Station and massacred fourteen of the inhabitants, Valentine Sevier being one of the few survivors. In early January 1795, however, the Chickasaw, who had sent warriors to take part in the Army of the Northwest, began killing Muscogee warriors found in Middle Tennessee as allies of the United States and taking their scalps, so in March, the Muscogee began to turn their attentions away from the Cumberland to the Chickasaw, over the entreaties of the Cherokee and the Choctaw.
The Muscogee-Chickasaw War, also begun partly at the behest of the Shawnee to punish the Chickasaw for joining the Army of the Northwest at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, ended in a truce negotiated by the U.S. government at Tellico Blockhouse in October that year in a conference attended by the two belligerents and the Cherokee. The Muscogee signed their own peace treaty with the United States in June 1796.[71]
Treaty of Greenville
The northern allies of the Lower Cherokee in the Western Confederacy signed the Treaty of Greenville with the United States in August 1795, ending the Northwest Indian War. The treaty required them to cede the territory that became the State of Ohio and part of what became the State of Indiana to the United States and to acknowledge the United States rather Great Britain as the predominant ruler of the Northwest.
None of the Cherokee in the North were present at the treaty. Later that month, Gen. Wayne sent a message to Long Hair (Gitlugunahita), leader of those who remained in the Ohio country, that they should come in and sue for peace. In response, Long Hair replied that all of them would return south as soon as they finished the harvest.[72] However, they did not all do so; at least one, called Shoe Boots (Dasigiyagi), stayed in the area until 1803, so it’s likely others did as well.
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Leaders of the Lower Towns in peacetime
John Watts remained the head of the council of the Lower Cherokee at Willstown until his death in 1802. Afterwards, Doublehead, already a member of the triumvirate, moved into that position and held it until his death in 1807 at the hands of The Ridge, Alexander Saunders (best friend to James Vann), and John Rogers, a white former trader who had first come west with Dragging Canoe in 1777 and was now considered a member of the nation, even sitting on the council. He was succeeded by The Glass, who was also assistant principal chief of the nation to Black Fox, and remained at the head of the Lower Towns council until the unification council in 1810.
By the time of the visit to the area by John Norton (a Mohawk of Cherokee and Scottish ancestry) in 1809–1810, many of the formerly militant Cherokee were among the most acculturated members of the Cherokee nation. James Vann, for instance, was a plantation owner with over a hundred slaves and one of the wealthiest men east of the Mississippi. Norton became a personal friend of Turtle-at-Home as well as John Walker, Jr. and The Glass, who were all involved in business and commerce. At the time of Norton’s visit, Turtle-at-Home himself owned a ferry on the Federal Road between Nashville and Athens, Georgia, where he lived at Nickajack, which had itself spread not only down the Tennessee but across it to the north as well, eclipsing Running Water.
When pressure began to be applied to the Cherokee Nation for its members to emigrate westward across the Mississippi, leaders of the Lower Towns, such as Tahlonteeskee, Degadoga, John Jolly, Richard Fields, John Brown, Bob McLemore, John Rogers, Young Dragging Canoe, George Guess (Tsiskwaya, or Sequoyah) and Tatsi (aka Captain Dutch) spearheaded the way. These men established in Arkansas Territory what later became the Cherokee Nation West, which moved to Indian Territory after the treaty in Washington of 1828 between their nation and the federal government, becoming the "Old Settlers".
Likewise, the remaining leaders of the Lower Towns proved to be the strongest advocates of voluntary westward emigration, even as they were most bitterly opposed by those former warriors and their offspring who led the Upper Towns. Many of the latter, such as Major Ridge (as The Ridge had been known since his military service during the Creek and First Seminole Wars), his son John Ridge, his nephews Elias Boudinot and Stand Watie, ultimately switched sides to join westward emigration advocates John Walker, Jr., David Vann, and Andrew Ross (brother of then Principal Chief John Ross) leading to the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 and the Cherokee removal in 1838-1839.
Tecumseh's return and later events
Before beginning his great campaign, Tecumseh returned to the South in November 1811 hoping to gain the support of the southern tribes for his crusade to drive back the Americans and re-establish the old ways. He was accompanied by representatives from the Shawnee, Muscogee, Kickapoo, and Sioux. Tecumseh's exhortations in the towns of the Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Lower Muscogee found no traction, the exception being the Upper Muscogee, and even then only among a sizable faction of the younger
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warriors, the Upper Muscogee headman, The Big Warrior, having repudiated Tecumseh before the assembly.
A depiction of Tecumseh in 1848
There was so much opposition from the Cherokee delegation under warrior The Ridge that visited his council at Tuckabatchee that Tecumseh cancelled plans to visit the Cherokee Nation (The Ridge told him if he showed his face in the Cherokee Nation he would kill him). However, throughout his time in the South, he was accompanied by an enthusiastic escort of 47 Cherokee and 19 Choctaw, who presumably went north when he left the area.[73][74]
The Creek War
Tecumseh's mission did spark a religious revival which is referred to by James Mooney as the "Cherokee Ghost Dance" movement[75] and was led by another former Chickamauga warrior, the prophet Tsali of Coosawatee, who later moved to the western North Carolina mountains where he was executed for violently resisting Removal in 1838. In Tsali's meeting with the national council at Ustanali, many of the leaders were moved enough to support his cause, until The Ridge spoke even more eloquently in rebuttal, calling instead for support for the Americans in the coming war with the British and Tecumseh's alliance. This ultimately resulted in over five hundred Cherokee warriors volunteering to serve under Andrew Jackson in helping put down their former Upper Muscogee allies in the Creek War, but only after the Lower Muscogee under William McIntosh, who opposed the war of the “Red Sticks”, asked for their help.[76][77]
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A few years later, a troop of Cherokee cavalry under Major Ridge attached to the 1400-strong contingent of Lower Muscogee warriors under McIntosh accompanied the force of U.S. regulars, Georgia militia, and Tennessee volunteers into Florida for action in the First Seminole War against the Seminoles, refugee Red Sticks, and escaped slaves fighting against the United States.[78]
Following that war, Cherokee warriors were not seen on the warpath in the Southeast until the time of the American Civil War, when William Holland Thomas raised the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders to fight for the Confederacy, though warriors from the Cherokee Nation East did travel to the lands of the Old Settlers (or Cherokee Nation West) in Arkansas Territory to assist them in their wars against the Osage during the Cherokee-Osage War of 1817-1823.
With one notable exception: in 1830, the State of Georgia seized land in its south that had belonged to the Cherokee since the end of the Creek War, land separated from the rest of the Cherokee Nation by a large section of Georgia territory, and began to parcel it out to settlers. Major Ridge dusted off his weapons and led a party of thirty south, where they drove the settlers out of their homes on what the Cherokee considered their land, and burned all buildings to the ground, but harmed no one.[79]
Statement of Richard Fields on the "Chickamauga"
When a representative of the Moravian Brethren, Brother Steiner, met with Richard Fields at Tellico Blockhouse in 1799, the former Lower Cherokee warrior whom he had hired to serve as his guide and interpreter. Br Steiner had been sent south by the Brethren to scout for a location for a mission and school they planned to build in the Nation, ultimately located at Spring Place on land donated by James Vann. On one occasion, Br. Steiner asked his guide, "What kind of people are the Chickamauga?". Fields laughed, then replied, "They are Cherokee, and we know no difference."[80]
Scots (and other Europeans) among the Cherokee
St. Andrew's Cross
The traders and British government agents dealing with the Southern tribes in general and the Cherokee in particular were nearly all of Scottish extraction, especially from the Highlands, though a few were Scots-Irish, English, French, even German (see Scottish
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Indian trade). Many of these married women from their host people and remained after the fighting had ended, some fathering children who would later become significant leaders. Notable traders, agents, and refugee Tories among the Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee included John Stuart, Henry Stuart, Alexander Cameron, John McDonald, Clement Vann, James Vann, John Joseph Vann, Daniel Ross (father of John Ross), John Walker Sr., John McLemore (father of Bob), William Buchanan, John Elliot, John Watts (father of the chief), James Grant, John D. Chisholm, John Benge (father of Bob Benge), Thomas Brown, Arthur Coody, John Fields, John Thompson, Richard Taylor, Edward Adair (Irish), John Rogers (Welsh), John Gunter (German), Ned Sizemore (English), Peter Hildebrand (German), and William Thorp (English), among many others, several attaining the status of minor chiefs and/or members of significant delegations.
In contrast, a large portion of the settlers encroaching on their territories and against whom the Cherokee (and other Indians) took most of their actions were Scots-Irish, Irish from Ulster of Scottish descent, a group which also provided the backbone for the forces of the Revolution (a famous example of a Scots-Irishman doing the reverse is Simon Girty). It is a historical irony that those from a group seen as rebels or "Whigs" back home in the Isles became Tories in the Americas while those from a group now considered one of the most "Tory" in regards to the United Kingdom became Whigs in the Americas.
Possible origins of the words "Chickamauga" and
"Chattanooga"
According to Mooney, the word "Chickamauga", pronounced Tsi-ka-ma-gi in Cherokee, was the name of at least two places: a headwater creek of the Chattahoochee River, and the above-mentioned region near Chattanooga, but the word is not Cherokee. He states that Chickamauga may be derived from Shawnee,[81] and indeed there is/was a small town on the coast of North Carolina near Cape Hatteras (noted for a small battle that took place there early in the American Civil War) called Chicamacomico (meaning "dwelling place by the big water"), which is also the name of a river in Maryland. Both these areas were originally inhabited by tribes speaking variations of the Algonquin family of languages, of which Shawnee is one example. The Shawnee connection to the area should not be taken lightly, as the crossing of the Hiwassie River near Hiwassie Old Town in Polk County, Tennessee is known as Savannah Crossing, "Savannah" being a corruption of "Shawnee" as well as the name of the Shawnee village on the Savannah River from which the river, as well as the city of Savannah, Georgia, gets its name.
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City of Chattanooga from East Brow of Lookout Mountain
In addition to the Tennessee city of Chattanooga, which gets its name from a non-Cherokee word for Lookout Mountain, a community named Chattanooga Valley in Georgia lies just south of the Tennessee city. There is a community of Chattanooga in Mercer County, Ohio, possibly a legacy of the Cherokee who lived there and fought alongside the Shawnee, but more likely a legacy of the Lenape or later Shawnee who lived much longer in that area. True, there is also a town called Chattanooga in the former territory of the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, not surprising since southeast Tennessee was the last home of the Cherokee in the East, but there is also a town called Chattanooga in Colorado, a legacy of the Silver Rush, which has no connection to the Cherokee but does lie in the later territory of the Cheyenne confederacy of three Algonquin tribes.
A logical conclusion from all the above is that both place-names in Hamilton County, Tennessee—Chickamauga and Chattanooga—derive from the Algonquin language of the Shawnee.
On the other hand, Brown states that Chickamauga comes from the Muscogean "Chukko-mah-ko" for "dwelling place of the warchief", and Evans seems to agree, stating "The name comes from the Cherokee attempt to say Muscogee "Chiaha Olamico" which means 'The Upper Chiefdom'", and that "Tsika-magi was the way the Cherokees attempted to pronounce the Muscogee words."
References
1. ^ Allen Manuscript 2. ^ Mooney, Myths and Sacred Formulas, p. 29-31 3. ^ Tanner, p. 95 4. ^ Brown, Eastern Cherokee Chiefs 5. ^ Klink and Talman, p. 62 6. ^ Evans, Ostenaco 7. ^ http://www.tcarden.com/tree/ensor/Watag.html "Watauga Petition". Ensor
Family Pages.
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8. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, p. 179 9. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p. 138 10. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, pp. 180-182 11. ^ Hoig, p. 59 12. ^ "the Killing of William [sic] Henry Creswell"
http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~varussel/indian/19.html 13. ^ Alderman, p. 38 14. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p.161 15. ^ Moore and Foster, p. 168 16. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, p. 184 17. ^ Tanner, p. 98 18. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 205-207 19. ^ Hoig, p. 68 20. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, p. 184 21. ^ Moore, p. 175 22. ^ Moore, pp. 180-182 23. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, p. 185 24. ^ Mooney, Myths and Sacred Formulas, p.60 25. ^ Tanner, p. 99 26. ^ Tanner, p. 99 27. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 204-205 28. ^ Moore, p. 182 29. ^ Tanner, p. 99 30. ^ Evans, Dragging Canoe, p. 185 31. ^ Moore, p.182 32. ^ Braund, p. 171 33. ^ Tanner, p. 99 34. ^ Klink and Talman, p. 49 35. ^ Moore, pp. 182-187 36. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 272-275 37. ^ Evans, Last Battle, 30-40 38. ^ Klink and Talman, p.48 39. ^ Draper Mss. 16 40. ^ Moore, p. 204 41. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p. 293-295 42. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p. 297 43. ^ Evans, Bob Benge, p. 100 44. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 286-290 45. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 297-299 46. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p. 275 47. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, p. 299 48. ^ Evans, Bob Benge, p. 100 49. ^ Moore, p. 201 50. ^ Wilson, pp. 47-48 51. ^ Drake, Chapt. II 52. ^ Eckert, pp.379-387
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53. ^ Henderson, Chap. XX 54. ^ Moore, pp. 233 55. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 318-319 56. ^ Evans, Bob Benge, p. 100 57. ^ Carter, Life and Times, 62–3. 58. ^ American State Papers, Vol. I, p. 263 59. ^ Starr, p. 35 60. ^ Starr, p. 36 61. ^ Moore, pp. 205-211 62. ^ Brown, Old Frontiers, pp. 344-366 63. ^ Hoig, p. 83 64. ^ Evans, Bob Benge, p. 101-102 65. ^ Moore, p. 225-231 66. ^ Moore, p. 215-220 67. ^ Moore, pp. 220-225 68. ^ Evans, Bob Benge, pp. 103-104 69. ^ McLoughlin, pp. 33-47 70. ^ McLoughlin, pp. 58 71. ^ Moore, pp. 244-250 72. ^ American State Papers, p. 536 73. ^ Eckert, pp. 655-665 74. ^ McLoughlin, pp. 168-185 75. ^ Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, pp. 670-677 76. ^ McLoughlin, pp. 186-205 77. ^ Wilkins, pp. 52-80 78. ^ Wilkins, pp.114-115 79. ^ McLoughlin, pp. 209-215 80. ^ Allen Manuscript 81. ^ Mooney, p. 413
Sources
• Adair, James. History of the American Indian. (Nashville: Blue and Gray Press, 1971).
• Allen, Penelope. "The Fields Settlement". Penelope Allen Manuscript. Archive Section, Chattanooga-Hamilton County Bicentennial Library.
• American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol, I. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1816).
• Braund, Kathryn E. Holland. Deerskins and Duffels: Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815. (Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, 1986).
• Brown, John P. "Eastern Cherokee Chiefs". Chronicles of Oklahoma, Vol. 16, *o. 1, pp. 3–35. (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1938).
53
• Brown, John P. Old Frontiers: The Story of the Cherokee Indians from Earliest Times to the Date of Their Removal to the West, 1838. (Kingsport: Southern Publishers, 1938).
• Drake, Benjamin. Life Of Tecumseh And Of His Brother The Prophet; With A Historical Sketch Of The Shawanoe Indians. (Mount Vernon : Rose Press, 2008).
• Eckert, Allan W. A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh. (New York: Bantam, 1992).
• Evans, E. Raymond, ed. "The Battle of Lookout Mountain: An Eyewitness Account, by George Christian". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. III, *o. 1. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1978).
• Evans, E. Raymond. "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Ostenaco". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 1, *o. 1, pp. 41–54. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1976).
• Evans, E. Raymond. "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Bob Benge". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 1, *o. 2, pp. 98–106. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1976).
• Evans, E. Raymond. "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Dragging Canoe". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 2, *o. 2, pp. 176–189. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1977).
• Evans, E. Raymond. "Was the Last Battle of the American Revolution Fought on Lookout Mountain?". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. V, *o. 1, pp. 30–40. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1980).
• Evans, E. Raymond, and Vicky Karhu. "Williams Island: A Source of Significant Material in the Collections of the Museum of the Cherokee". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 9, *o. 1, pp. 10–34. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1984).
• Hamer, Philip M. Tennessee: A History, 1673-1932. (New York: American History Association, 1933).
• Haywood, W.H. The Civil and Political History of the State of Tennessee from its Earliest Settlement up to the Year 1796. (Nashville: Methodist Episcopal Publishing House, 1891).
• Henderson, Archibald. The Conquest Of The Old Southwest: The Romantic Story Of The Early Pioneers Into Virginia, The Carolinas, Tennessee And Kentucky 1740 To 1790. (Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, 2004).
• Hoig, Stanley. The Cherokees and Their Chiefs: In the Wake of Empire. (Fayeteeville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998)
• King, Duane H. The Cherokee Indian *ation: A Troubled History. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979).
• Klink, Karl, and James Talman, ed. The Journal of Major John *orton. (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970).
• Kneberg, Madeline and Thomas M.N. Lewis. Tribes That Slumber. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1958).
• McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the *ew Republic. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
• Mooney, James. The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896).
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• Mooney, James. Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokee. (Nashville: Charles and Randy Elder-Booksellers, 1982).
• Moore, John Trotwood and Austin P. Foster. Tennessee, The Volunteer State, 1769-1923, Vol. 1. (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1923).
• Ramsey, James Gettys McGregor. The Annals of Tennessee to the End of the Eighteenth Century. (Chattanooga: Judge David Campbell, 1926).
• Royce, C.C. "The Cherokee Nation of Indians: A narrative of their official relations with the Colonial and Federal Governments". Fifth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1883-1884. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1889).
• Starr, Emmet. History of the Cherokee Indians, and their Legends and Folklore. (Fayetteville: Indian Heritage Assn., 1967).
• Tanner, Helen Hornbeck. "Cherokees in the Ohio Country". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. III, *o. 2, pp. 95–103. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1978).
• Wilkins, Thurman. Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People. (New York: Macmillan Company, 1970).
• Williams, Samuel Cole. Early Travels in the Tennessee Country, 1540-1800. (Johnson City: Watauga Press, 1928).
• Wilson, Frazer Ells. The Peace of Mad Anthony. (Greenville: Chas. B. Kemble Book and Job Printer, 1907).
See also
• Timeline of Cherokee removal • Historic treaties of the Cherokee • Cherokee • Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians • United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians • Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma • Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee
External links
• The Cherokee Nation • United Keetoowah Band • Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (official site) • Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution (1897/98: pt.1), Contains The Myths of The Cherokee, by James Mooney
• Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma (official site) • Account of 1786 conflicts between Nashville-area settlers and natives (second
item in historical column) • The journal of Major John *orton • Emmett Starr's History of the Cherokee Indians
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Timeline of Cherokee removal · Civil War · Keetoowah Nighthawk SocietyCherokee Female Seminary · Cherokee Male Seminary
OrganizationsCherokee Artists Association · Cherokee Heritage Center · Cherokee Nation Warriors Society · Cherokee National Youth Choir · Heritage groups · Original KeSociety · Oconaluftee Indian Village
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickamauga_Wars_(1776%E2%80%931794)" Categories: 18th century in the United States | American Revolutionary War | British North America | Cherokee tribe | Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America | Native American history of Alabama | History of the Cherokee | History of Georgia (U.S. state) | History of Kentucky | History of North Carolina | History of South Carolina | History of Tennessee | History of Virginia | Native American history | Unassessed Indigenous peoples of North America articles | History of Scotland | History of the Thirteen Colonies
Council of Three Fires
Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Three Fires Council.
The Council of Three Fires, also known as the People of the Three Fires, the Three
Fires Confederacy, the United *ations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi
Indians, or �iswi-mishkodewin in the Anishinaabe language, is a long-standing Anishinaabe alliance of the Ojibwe (or Chippewa), Ottawa (or Odawa), and Potawatomi Native American tribes and First Nations.
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Originally one people, or a collection of closely related bands, the identities of Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi developed after the Anishinaabeg reached Michilimackinac on their journey westward from the Atlantic coast.[1] Using the Midewiwin scrolls, Potawatomi elder Shup-Shewana dated the formation of the Council of Three Fires to 796 AD at Michilimackinac.[2]
In this Council, the Ojibwe were addressed as the "Older Brother," the Odawa as the "Middle Brother," and the Potawatomi as the "Younger Brother." Consequently, whenever the three Anishinaabe nations are mentioned in this specific and consecutive order of Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, it is an indicator implying Council of Three Fires as well. In addition, the Ojibwa are the "keepers of the faith," the Odawa are the "keepers of trade," and the Potawatomi are the designated "keepers/maintainers of/for the fire" (boodawaadam), which became the basis for their name Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe spelling) or Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi spelling).
Though the Three Fires had several meeting places, Michilimackinac became the preferred meeting place due to its central location. From this place, the Council met for military and political purposes. From this site, the Council maintained relations with fellow Anishinaabeg nations, the Ozaagii (Sac), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), *aadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), *ii'inaawi-*aadawe (Wyandot), *aadawensiw (Sioux), Wemitigoozhi (France), Zhaaganaashi (England) and the Gichi-mookomaan (the United States).
Through the totem-system and promotion of trade, the Council generally had a peaceful existence with its neighbours. However, occasional unresolved disputes erupted into wars. Under these conditions, the Council notably fought against the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. During the Seven Years' War, the Council fought against England; and during the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812, they fought against the United States. After the formation of the United States of America in 1776, the Council became the core member of the Western Lakes Confederacy (also known as "Great Lakes Confederacy"), joined together with the Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sacs, Meskwaki and others.
Contents
• 1 Treaties o 1.1 With Great Britaino 1.2 With the United States
• 2 Notes • 3 See also • 4 External links
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Treaties
With Great Britain
• Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764) – as part of the Western Lakes Confederacy
With the United States
• Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789) – implied • Treaty of Greenville (1795) – implied • Treaty of Fort Industry (1805) – not implied, though all 3 nations present • Treaty of Detroit (1807) – not implied, though all 3 nations present • Treaty of Brownstown (1808) – implied • Treaty of Springwells (1815) – implied • Treaty of St. Louis (1816) • Treaty of Fort Meigs (1817) – not implied, though all 3 nations present • Treaty of Chicago (1821) – not implied, though all 3 nations present • Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825) – implied, as well as individually with the
Ojibwa and Odawa. • Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829)
*otes
1. ^ Warren, William W. 1984. History of the Ojibway People. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
2. ^ Loew, Patty. 2001. Indian Nations of Wisconsin: Histories of Endurance and Renewal." Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society Press.
See also
• Mackinaw City, Michigan
External links
• Confederacy of Three Fires: A History of the Anishinabek Nation
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Three_Fires" Categories: Anishinaabe groups | Anishinaabe culture | Odawa | Ojibwe | Potawatomi
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Anishinaabe
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Crest of the Anishinaabe people.
Anishinaabe or Anishinabe—or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek, which is the plural form of the word—is the autonym often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples. They all speak closely related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages, of the Algonquian-language family.
The meaning of Anishnaabeg is "First-" or "Original-Peoples". Another definition refers to "the good humans", or good people, meaning those who are on the right road/path given to them by the Creator or Gitchi-manitou (Great Spirit).
Not all Anishinaabemowin speakers, however, call themselves Anishinaabeg. The Ojibwe people who moved to what are now the prairie provinces of Canada call themselves *akawē(-k) and their branch of the Anishinaabe language, *akawēmowin. (The French ethnonym for the group was the Saulteaux). Particular Anishinaabeg groups have different names from region to region.
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Anishinaabe and Anishinini distribution around 1800
There are many variant spellings of the Anishinaabe name, depending on the transcription scheme and also on whether the name is singular or plural. Therefore, different spelling systems may indicate vowel length or spell certain consonants differently (Anishinabe, Anicinape); meanwhile, variants ending in -eg/ek (Anishinaabeg, Anishinabek) come from an Algonquian plural, while those ending in an -e come from an Algonquian singular.
The name Anishinaabe is realised as *ishnaabe, in some parts of North America, most prominently among the Odawa. The cognate word *eshnabé comes from the Potawatomi, a people long allied with the Odawa and Ojibwe in the Council of Three Fires. Identified as Anishinaabe, but not part of the Council of Three Fires, are the *ipissing, Mississauga and Algonquin.
Closely related to the Ojibwe and speaking a language mutually intelligible with Anishinaabemowin (Anishinaabe language) are the Oji-Cree (also known as "Severn Ojibwe"). Their most common autonym is Anishinini (plural: Anishininiwag) and they call their language Anishininiimowin.
Among the Anishinaabeg, the Ojibwe collectively call the Nipissings and the Algonquins as Odishkwaagamii (those who are at the end of the lake),[1] while among the Nipissings who identifies themselves as Algonquins call the Algonquins proper as Omàmiwinini (those who are downstream).[2]
Contents
• 1 History • 2 Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and other indigenous groups• 3 Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and European settlers
o 3.1 In French North America o 3.2 In British North America
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o 3.3 In the United States o 3.4 In Canada
• 4 Relations today between the Anishinaabeg and their neighbourso 4.1 Other indigenous groups o 4.2 Canada o 4.3 United States
• 5 Anishinaabe in popular culture • 6 See also • 7 References • 8 Further reading • 9 External links
History
According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from records of wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls), the people migrated from the eastern areas of North America, and from along the East Coast. In myth, the homeland was called Turtle Island.
Oral traditions among the Anishinaabeg tell a variety of creation stories. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent beings in human form) appeared to the Anishinaabe peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the people about the midewiwin life-style. One great miigis was too spiritually powerful and would kill people in the Waabanakiing whenever they were in its presence. This being later returned to the depths of the ocean, leaving the six great miigis to teach the people.
Each of the six miigis established separate doodem (clans) for the people. Of these doodem, five clan systems appeared: i) Awaazisii (Bullhead), ii) Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), iii) Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), iv) *ooke (Tender, i.e., Bear), and v) Moozoonii (Little Moose). Later a sixth was added. vi) Waabizheshi (Marten).
After founding the doodem, the six miigis returned to the depths of the ocean as well. Some oral histories surmise that if the seventh miigis had stayed, it would have established the Animikii Thunderbird doodem.
The powerful miigis returned in a vision relating a prophecy to the people. It said that the Anishinaabeg needed to move west to keep their traditional ways alive, because of the many new settlements and people not of Anishinaabe blood who would soon arrive. The migration path of the Anishinaabe peoples would become a series of smaller Turtle Islands, confirmed by the miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abnaki) of their safety in crossing other tribal territory, the Anishinaabeg moved inland. They advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River and through to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.
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The first of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, where Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. Here the Anishinaabeg divided into two groups: one who travelled up and settled along the Ottawa River, and the core group who proceeded to the "second stopping place" near Niagara Falls.
By the time the Anishinaabeg established their "third stopping place" near the present city of Detroit, the Anishinaabeg had divided into six distinct nations: Algonquin, *ipissing, Mississauga, Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi. While the Odawa established their long-held cultural centre on Manitoulin Island, the Ojibwe established their centre in the Sault Ste. Marie region of Ontario, Canada. With expansion of trade with the French and later the British, fostered by availability of European small arms, members of the Council of Three Fires expanded southward to the Ohio River, southwestward along the Illinois River, and westward along Lake Superior, Lake of the Woods and the northern Great Plains. In their western expansion, the Ojibwa again divided, forming the Saulteaux, the seventh major branch of the Anishinaabeg: .
As the Anishinaabeg moved inland, through both alliances and conquest, they incorporated various other closely related Algonquian peoples into the Anishinaabe Nation. These included, but were not limited to, the *oquet (originally part of the Menomini Tribe) and Mandwe (originally part of the Fox). Other incorporated groups can generally be identified by the individual's Doodem (Clan). Migizi-doodem (Bald Eagle Clan) generally identifies those whose ancestors were Americans and Ma'iingan-doodem (Wolf Clan) as Santee Sioux.
Other Anishinaabe doodem migrated out of the core Anishinaabeg groupings, such as the *ibiinaabe-doodem (Merman Clan), which is now the "Water-spirit Clan" of the Winnebagos. Anishinaabe peoples now reside throughout North America, in both the northern United States and southern Canada, chiefly around the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg.
After this migration, and the immigration of European newcomers to North America, many Anishinaabeg groups later entered into treaties with the governments of the Dominion of Canada and the United States. Treaty 3 (of the Numbered Treaties) in Canada was signed in 1873 between the Anishinaabe (Ojibwa) people west of the Great Lakes and the government of Canada. [3] Through other treaties and resulting relocations, some Anishinaabeg now reside in the states of Kansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Montana in the United States, and the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia in Canada.
Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and other
indigenous groups
This section requires
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Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and
European settlers
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (December 2007)
The first of the Anishinaabeg to encounter European settlers were those of the Three Fires Confederation, within the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania in the territory of the present-day United States, and southern Ontario and Quebec of Canada Although there were many peaceful interactions between the Anishinaabeg and the European settlers, there were also times of turmoil and war. Warfare cost many lives on both sides.
The Anishinaabe dealt with Europeans through the fur trade, intermarriage, and performance as allies. Europeans traded with the Anishinaabe for their furs in exchange for goods, and also hired the men as guides throughout the lands of North America. The Anishinaabeg (as well as other Aboriginal groups) began to intermarry with fur traders and trappers. Some of their descendants would later create the Métis ethnic group. Fur traders were generally capitalists with significant backing. They tended to marry daughters of chiefs, with both sides forming high-status alliances. The explorers, trappers and other European workers married or had unions with other Anishinaabeg women, and their descendants tended to form the Métis.
In French *orth America
This section requires
The earliest Europeans to encounter native peoples in the Great Lakes area were the French voyageurs. They were mainly trappers rather than settlers. Such explorers gave French names to many places in present-day Minnesota and Wisconsin.
In British *orth America
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The ethnic identities of the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi did not develop until after the Anishinaabeg reached Michilimackinac on their journey westward from the Atlantic coast. Using the Midewiwin scrolls, Potawatomi elder Shup-Shewana dated the formation of the Council of Three Fires to 796 AD at Michilimackinac.
In this Council, the Ojibwe were addressed as the "Older Brother," the Odawa as the "Middle Brother," and the Potawatomi as the "Younger Brother." Consequently, when the three Anishinaabe nations are mentioned in this specific order: Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, it is an indicator implying Council of Three Fires as well. Each tribe had
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different functions: the Ojibwa were the "keepers of the faith," the Odawa the "keepers of trade," and the Potawatomi are the "keepers/maintainers of/for the fire" (boodawaadam). This was the basis for their exonyms of Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe spelling) or Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi spelling).
The Ottawa (also Odawa, Odaawa, Outaouais, or Trader) are a Native American and First Nations people. Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa (or Anishinaabemowin in Eastern Ojibwe syllabics) is the third most commonly spoken Native language in Canada (after Cree and Inuktitut), and the fourth most spoken in North America (behind Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut). Potawatomi is a Central Algonquian language. It is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin, as well as in Kansas in the United States. In southern Ontario in Canada, it is spoken by fewer than 50 people.
Though the Three Fires had several meeting places, they preferred Michilimackinac due to its central location. The Council met for military and political purposes. The Council maintained relations with fellow Anishinaabeg nations: the Ozaagii (Sac), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), *aadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), *ii'inaawi-*aadawe (Wyandot), *aadawensiw (Sioux), Wemitigoozhi (France), Zhaaganaashi (England) and the Gichi-mookomaan (the United States). After the Europeans came into the country, the French built Fort Michilimackinac in the 18th century. After the Seven Years War, the victorious English took over the fort, also using it as a trading post.
Through the totem-system (a totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe [4].) and promotion of trade, the Council generally had a peaceful existence with its neighbours. However, occasional unresolved disputes erupted into wars. The Council notably fought against the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. During the Seven Years' War, the Council fought against England.[citation needed]
The Anishinaabeg established a relationship with the British similar to that they had with the French. They formed the Three Fires Confederation in reaction to conflict with encroaching settlers and continuing tensions with the British Canadian government, as well as that of the new United States.
In the United States
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The Three Fires Confederacy had conflict with the new United States after the American Revolution, as settlers kept encroaching on their territory. The Council became the core member of the Western Lakes Confederacy (also known as "Great Lakes Confederacy"), joining together with the Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sacs, Meskwaki and others.
During the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812, the Three Fires Confederacy fought against the United States. Many Anishinaabe refugees from the Revolutionary War, particularly Odawa and Potawatomi, migrated north to British-held areas.
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Those who remained in the east were subjected to the 1830 Indian Removal policy of the United States; among the Anishinaabeg, the Potawatomi were most affected. The Odawa had been removed from the settlers' paths, so only a handful of communities experienced removal. For the Ojibwa, removal attempts culminated in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and several hundred deaths. The Potawatomi avoided removal only by escaping into Ojibwa-held areas and hiding from US officials.
William Whipple Warren (1825-1853), a United States man of mixed-Ojibwe and European descent, became an interpreter, assistant to a trader to the Ojibwe, and legislator of the Minnesota Territory. A gifted storyteller and historian, he collected native accounts and wrote the History of the Ojibway People, Based Upon Traditions and Oral Statements, first published by the Minnesota Historical Society in 1885, some 32 years after his early death from tuberculosis. Given his Anglo-American father Lyman Marcus Warren and American education, the Indians of the time did not consider William one of them. They did think of him as a friend and half-brother, because he knew the Ojibwe language and much about the culture from his Ojibwe-French mother, Marie Cadotte.[5] His work covered much of the culture and history of the Ojibwe, gathered from stories of the nation.
Warren identified the Crane and Loon clans as the two Chief clans among his mother's Anishinaabe people. Crane Clan was responsible for external governmental relationships, and Loon Clan was responsible for internal governance relationships. Warren believed that the British and United States governments had deliberately destroyed the clan system, or the polity of governance, when they forced indigenous nations to adopt representative government and direct elections of chiefs. Further, he believed such destruction led to many wars among the Anishinaabe. He also cited the experiences of other Native Nations in the U.S. (such as the Creek, Fox and others). His work in its entirety demonstrated the significance of the clan system.[5]
After the Sandy Lake Tragedy, the government changed its policy to relocating tribes onto reservations, often by consolidating groups of communities. Conflict continued through the 19th century, as Native Americans and the United States had different goals. After the Dakota War of 1862, many Anishinaabe communities in Minnesota were relocated and further consolidated.
In Canada
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Population estimates indicate that the Anishinaabeg population in the United States is more numerous than that of Canada, but census reports are criticized as being inaccurate.
The Canadian Anishinaabeg are descended from the northern Lake Superior Anishinaabeg, whose original homeland was probably in the vicinity of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan. They separated, with one group going down into Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, southern Ontario and Pennsylvania, while another group migrated
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straight westward. The ancestors of the Canadian Anishinaabeg moved to the north, and then to the west. They migrated to eastern British Columbia in the 19th century.
Scholars of the Anishinaabeg will eventually learn if all Anishinaabeg are descended from those Anishinaabeg of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, or if they are descended from the Algonquin Anishinaabeg of Quebec. The people's history points to the upper peninsula of Michigan as their land of formation.
The Anishinaabeg of Canada have managed to withstand the efforts of the European settlers and hold onto their languages. An estimated 50,000 Canadian Anishinaabeg speak their native tongue. From Quebec to the eastern lands of British Columbia, the Anishinaabeg reserves are, for the most part, smaller in size than those in the US, a factor which may have helped them preserve the languages.
Relations today between the Anishinaabeg and their
neighbours
Anishinaabe Reserves/Reservations in North America, with diffusion rings if an Anishinaabe language is spoken. Cities with Anishinaabe population also shown.
Other indigenous groups
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There are many Anishinaabeg reserves and reservations; in some places the Anishinaabeg share some of their lands with others, such as the Cree,the Dakota, Delaware, and the Kickapoo, among others. The Anishnabek who "merged" with the Kickapoo tribe may now identify as being Kickapoo in Kansas and Oklahoma. The Prairie Potawatomi were the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi of Illinois and Wisconsin who were relocated to Kansas during the 19th century.
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Canada
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The Anishinaabe of Manitoba, particularly those along the east side of Lake Winnipeg, have had longstanding historical conflicts with the Cree people.
United States
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The relationships between the various Anishinaabe communities with the United States government have been steadily improving since the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act. Several Anishinaabe communities still experience tensions with the state governments, county governments and with non-Native American individuals and their groups.
In contemporary times, the Anishinaabe have worked to renew the clan system as a model for self-governance. They have drawn from the work of Ojibwe educator Edward Benton-Banai (1934 - ), who emphasizes education based in one's own culture. They believe using the clan system will also be a basis of cultural and political revitalization of the people.[citation needed]
Major issues facing the various Anishinaabe communities are:
• cultural and language preservation or revitalization; • full and independent federal recognition: some Anishinaabe communities are
recognized by county or state governments, or are recognized by the federal government only as part of another tribe;
• treaty rights: traditional means of support (hunting, fishing and gathering), establishment of reservations or upholding of the reservation boundaries per treaties and their amendments;
• personal health: diabetes and asthma affect many Anishinaabe communities at a rate higher than the general population; and
• social disparity: many Anishinaabeg suffer poor education, high unemployment, substance abuse/addiction and domestic violence at rates higher than the general population.
Anishinaabe in popular culture
A fictional Anishinaabe clan in Ontario, the Mtigwaki, were featured in the comic strip For Better or For Worse from 2005-2006.
The popular book "Keeper N' Me" also reflects on the people and the traditions of the Anishinaabe people.
o Oji-Cree language (Anishininiimowin) • Ojibwa/Chippewa (Ojibwe)
o Ojibwe language o Ojibwa ethnonyms
• Ottawa (Odaawaa/Odawa) o Odawa language
• Potawatomi (Boodewaadamii/Bodéwadmi) o Potawatomi language o Potawatomi ethnonyms
• Saulteaux/Plains Ojibwa (*akawē)
References
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external linksremain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improveintroducing more precise citations where appropriate. (February 2008)
1. ^ Baraga, Frederic. 1878. A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language, explained in English. Montréal: Beauchemin & Valois.
2. ^ Cuoq, Jean André. 1886. Lexique de la Langue Algonquine. Montréal: J. Chapleau & Fils.
3. ^ Alexander Morris, The Treaties of Canada with the Indians, Belfords , Clarke & Co., Toronto (1880)
4. ^ Merriem-Webster Online, http://www.merriam-webster.com/ 5. ^ a b William W. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, new intro and ed. by
Theresa Schenk, St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1885; reprint, 2009, pp. iii-xxi, accessed 22 Feb 2010
• Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa, The Mishomis Book. • Cappel, Constance, "Odawa Language and Legends: Andrew J. Blackbird and
Raymond Kiogima, Xlibris, 2006. • Warren, William W. History of the Ojibway People. Borealis Books (St. Paul,
MN: 1984). • White, Richard (July 31, 2000). "Chippewas of the Sault", The Sault Tribe *ews.
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Further reading
• Long, J. Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader Describing the Manners and Customs of the *orth American Indians, with an Account of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages. London: Robson, 1791.
• Warren, William W. (1851). History of the Ojibway People. • White, Richard (1991) The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in
the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Studies in North American Indian History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, ISBN 0-521-37104-X
External links
• Anishinabek Nation - Union of Ontario Indians • Algonquin Anishinabeg Nation Tribal Council • Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians History • Bemaadizing: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Indigenous Life (An online journal) • ‘Living’ Cybercartographic Atlas of Indigenous Artifacts and Knowledge • "The Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes", Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa,
(US-focused), Public Broadcasting Service/PBS. o Ojibwe migratory map, Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anishinaabe" Categories: First Nations in Ontario | First Nations in Quebec | First Nations in Manitoba | First Nations in Saskatchewan | Native American tribes in Michigan | Native American tribes in Indiana | Native American tribes in Wisconsin | Native American tribes in Minnesota | Native American tribes in North Dakota | Native American tribes in Montana | Native American tribes in Kansas | Native American tribes in Oklahoma | Potawatomi
Iroquois
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Iroquois (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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• Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since September 2009.
Iroquois
Haudenosaunee
Total population
approx.
(80,000 in the U.S, 45,000 in Canada)[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
Canada (southern Quebec, southern Ontario)
United States (New York, Wisconsin, Oklahoma)
Languages
Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora, English
Religion
Longhouse Religion; Christianity; others
The Iroquois (pronounced /ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/), also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse",[1] are an indigenous people of North America. In the 16th century or earlier, the Iroquois came together in an association known as the Iroquois
League, or the "League of Peace and Power". The original Iroquois League was often known as the Five Nations, and comprised the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. After the Tuscarora nation joined the League in the 18th century, the Iroquois have often been known as the Six Nations. The League is embodied in the Grand Council, an assembly of fifty hereditary sachems.[2]
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Iroquois were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as upstate New York.[3] Today, Iroquois live primarily in the United States and Canada.
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The Iroquois League has often also been known as the Iroquois Confederacy, but some modern scholars now make a distinction between the League and the Confederacy.[4][5][6] According to this interpretation, the Iroquois League refers to the ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in the Grand Council, while the Iroquois Confederacy was the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization. The League still exists, but the Confederacy was shattered by the defeat of the British and allied Iroquois nations in the American Revolutionary War.[4]
Contents
• 1 Name • 2 History
o 2.1 Formation of the Leagueo 2.2 Expansion o 2.3 Beaver Wars o 2.4 French and Indian Warso 2.5 American Revolution o 2.6 Post-war
• 3 Culture o 3.1 Melting pot o 3.2 Food o 3.3 Wampum o 3.4 Women in society o 3.5 Spiritual beliefs
• 4 People o 4.1 Nations o 4.2 Clans o 4.3 Population history o 4.4 Prominent individuals
• 5 Government o 5.1 Grand Council o 5.2 Influence on the United Stateso 5.3 Modern communities
• 6 See also • 7 References
o 7.1 Notes o 7.2 Bibliography
*ame
The Iroquois also refers to themselves as the Haudenosaunee, which means "People of the Longhouse," or more accurately, "They Are Building a Long House." The term is said
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to have been introduced by The Great Peacemaker at the time of the formation of the League. It implies that the nations of the League should live together as families in the same longhouse. Symbolically, the Seneca were the guardians of the western door of the "tribal longhouse" and the Mohawk were the guardians of the eastern door. The Onondagas, whose homeland was in the center of Haudenosaunee territory, were keepers of the League's (both literal and figurative) central flame.
The name "Iroquois" was bestowed upon the Haudensosaunee by the French[7] and has several potential origins.
• A possible origin of the name Iroquois is reputed to come from a French version of irinakhoiw, a Huron (Wyandot) name—considered an insult—meaning "Black Snakes" or "real adders". The Iroquois were enemies of the Huron and the Algonquin, who allied with the French, because of their rivalry in the fur trade.
• The Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse) often end their oratory with the phrase hiro kone;[8] hiro translates as "I have spoken", and kone can be translated several ways, the most common being "in joy", "in sorrow", or "in truth". Hiro kone to the French encountering the Haudenosaunee would sound like "Iroquois", pronounced [iʁokwe] in the French language of the time.
• Another version is however supported by French linguists such as Henriette Walter and anthropologists such as Dean Snow[9]. According to this account, "Iroquois" would derive from a Basque expression, Hilokoa, meaning the "killer people". This expression would have been applied to the Iroquois because they were the enemy of the local Algonquins, with whom the Basque fishermen were trading. However, because there is no "L" in the Algonquian languages of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence region, the name became "Hirokoa", which is the name the French understood when Algonquians referred to the same pidgin language as the one they used with the Basque. The French then transliterated the word according to their own phonetic rules, thus providing "Iroquois".
History
Formation of the League
The members of the League speak differently than the other speakers of the languages of the same Iroquoian family. This suggests that while they had a common historical and cultural origin, they diverged over a long enough time that the languages have become different. Archaeological evidence shows that the Iroquois lived in the Finger Lakes region from at least 1000.[10]
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A traditional Iroquois longhouse.
The Iroquois moved to the south in long wars of invasion in present-day Kentucky. According to one pre-contact theory, it was Iroquois who, by about 1200[citation needed], had pushed tribes of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea) and Ofo (Mosopelea) out of the region in a migration west of the Mississippi River. However, La Salle definitely listed the Mosopelea among the Ohio Valley peoples overthrown by the Iroquois in the early 1670s, during the later Beaver Wars.[11] By 1673, these Siouan groups had settled in their historically known territories of the Midwest, with some displacing other tribes to the west in their turn.[12]
The Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between about 1450 and 1600.[13][14] A few claims have been made for an earlier date; one recent study has argued that the League was formed in 1142, based on a solar eclipse in that year that seems to fit one oral tradition.[15] Anthropologist Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a date earlier than 1450, and that recent claims for a much earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes".[16]
According to tradition, the League was formed through the efforts of two men, Deganawida, sometimes known as the Great Peacemaker, and Hiawatha. They brought a message, known as the Great Law of Peace, to the squabbling nations. The nations who joined the League were the Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Mohawk. Once they ceased most of their infighting, the Iroquois rapidly became one of the strongest forces in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century northeastern North America.
According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last to be converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He became the spiritual leader of the Haudenosaunee.[17] This event is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near Syracuse, New York. The title Tadodaho is still used for the league's spiritual leader, the fiftieth chief, who sits with the Onondaga in council. He is the only one of the fifty to have been chosen by the entire Haudenosaunee people. The current Tadodaho is Sid Hill of the Onondaga Nation.
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Expansion
In Reflections in Bullough's Pond, historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose use of the corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population that made war against other Algonquian peoples. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to include a body of warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.[18]
The Iroquois may be the Kwedech described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies, the Kwedech, westward across New Brunswick, and finally out of the Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last-conquered land "Gespedeg" or "lost land," leading to the French word "Gaspé." The "Kwedech" are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring ca. 1535-1600.[19] Around 1535, Jacques Cartier reported Iroquoian groups on Gaspé and along the St. Lawrence River, and Samuel de Champlain found Algonquian groups in the same locations in 1608 — but the exact tribal identity of any of these groups has been debated.
Iroquoian tribes were also well-known in the south by this time. From the time of the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the Massawomeck, and to the French as the Antouhonoron, who came from the north, beyond the Susquehannocks. These "Massawomeck" / "Antouhonoron" have often been identified with the Iroquois proper, but other Iroquoian candidates include the Erie tribe, who were finally destroyed by the Iroquois in 1654[20] It is certain that the Five Nations acquired political control of most of Virginia west of the fall line over the years 1670-1710, which they continued to claim until they began selling this area to their British allies in 1722.
Beaver Wars
See also: Beaver Wars
Haudenosaunee flag created in the 1980s. It is based on the "Hiawatha Wampum Belt ... created from purple and white wampum beads centuries ago to symbolize the union forged when the former enemies buried their weapons under the Great Tree of Peace."[21] It represents the original five nations that were united by the Peacemaker and Hiawatha.
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The tree symbol in the center represents an Eastern White Pine, the needles of which are clustered in groups of five.[22]
Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in the Beaver Wars with the French and their Iroquoian-speaking Huron allies. They also put great pressure on the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast and what is now the boreal Canadian Shield region of Canada and not infrequently fought the English colonies as well. During the seventeenth century, they were said to have exterminated the Neutral Nation.[23][24] and Erie Tribe to the west. The wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade,[citation needed] although additional reasons are often given for these wars.
In 1628, the Mohawks defeated the Mahicans to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange, New Netherland. The Mohawks would not allow Canadian Indians to trade with the Dutch. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Hurons, Algonquins and French. In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the precarious peace of the time. However, Mohawk attitudes toward the peace soured during the men's journey. They were attacked by a Mohawk party en route. Taken to the village of Ossernenon (Auriesville, N.Y.), the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans decreed setting the priests free. Angered by this, the more hawkish Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The two French priests were later commemorated as among the eight North American Martyrs. In 1649 during the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois used recently purchased Dutch guns to attack the Hurons. From 1651 to 1652, the Iroquois attacked the Susquehannocks without success.
In the early seventeenth century, the Iroquois were at the height of their power, with a population of about twelve thousand people.[25] In 1654, they invited the French to establish a trading and missionary settlement at Onondaga (present-day New York state). The following year, the Mohawk attacked and expelled the French from this trading post, possibly because of the sudden death of 500 Indians from an epidemic of smallpox, a European infectious disease to which they had no immunity.
From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Delaware and Province of Maryland allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River. Smallpox struck again; through the effects of disease, famine, and war, the Iroquois were threatened by extermination. In 1664, an Oneida party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.
In 1665, three of the Five Nations made peace with the French. The following year, the Canadian Governor sent the Carignan regiment under Marquis de Tracy to confront the Mohawks and the Oneida. The Mohawks avoided battle, and the French burned their villages and crops. In 1667, the remaining two Nations signed a peace treaty with the French. This treaty lasted for 17 years.
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Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region. They began to claim ownership of it by right of conquest. In 1672, the Iroquois were defeated by a war party of Susquehannock. The Iroquois appealed to the French for support. They asked Governor Frontenac to assist them against the Susquehannock because
"it would be a shame for him to allow his children to be crushed, as they saw themselves to be... they not having the means of going to attack their fort, which was very strong, nor even of defending themselves if the others came to attack them in their villages."
[26] Some old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock during this time period. As no record of a defeat has been found, historians have concluded that no defeat occurred.[26] In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Susquehannock into their nation.[27]
By 1677, the Iroquois formed an alliance with the English through an agreement known as the Covenant Chain. Together, they battled the French to a standstill who were allied with the Huron. These Iroquoian people had been a traditional historic foe of the Confederacy. The Iroquois colonized the northern shore of Lake Ontario and sent raiding parties westward all the way to Illinois Country. The tribes of Illinois were eventually defeated, not by the Iroquois, but rather by the Potawatomis. In 1684, the Iroquois invaded Virginian and Illinois territory again, and unsuccessfully attacked the French fort at St. Louis. Later that year, the Virginia Colony agreed at Albany to recognize the Iroquois' right to use the North-South path running east of the Blue Ridge (later the Old Carolina Road), provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the fall line.
In 1679, the Susquehannock, with Iroquois help, attacked Maryland's Piscataway and Mattawoman allies. Peace was not reached until 1685.
With support from the French, the Algonquian nations drove the Iroquois out of the territories north of Lake Erie and west of present-day Cleveland, which had been conquered during the Beaver Wars.[28]
Jacques-Rene de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, Governor of New France from 1685 to 1689, set out with a well-organized force to Fort Frontenac. There they met with the 50 hereditary sachems of the Iroquois Confederation from the Onondaga council fire, who came under a flag of truce. Denonville recaptured the fort for New France and seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois Chiefs to Marseilles, France to be used as galley slaves. He then ravaged the land of the Seneca. The destruction of the Seneca land infuriated the Iroquois Confederation.
On August 4, 1689 they burned Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal, to the ground. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defenses for many months prior to that. They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac, who succeeded Denonville as
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Governor for the next nine years (1689–1698). Frontenac had been arranging a new plan of attack to mollify the effects of the Iroquois in North America and realized the danger of the imprisonment of the Sachems. He located the 13 surviving leaders and returned with them to New France that October 1698.
During King William's War (North American part of the War of the Grand Alliance), the Iroquois were allied with the English. In July 1701, they concluded the "Nanfan Treaty", deeding the English a large tract north of the Ohio River. The Iroquois claimed to have conquered this territory 80 years earlier. France did not recognize the validity of this treaty, as it had the strongest presence within the area in question. Meanwhile, the Iroquois were negotiating peace with the French; together they signed the Great Peace of Montreal that same year.
French and Indian Wars
See also: French and Indian Wars
After the 1701 peace treaty with the French, the Iroquois remained mostly neutral even though during Queen Anne's War (North American part of the War of the Spanish Succession) they were involved in some planned attacks against the French. Four delegates of the Iroquoian Confederacy, the "Indian kings", traveled to London in 1710 to meet Queen Anne in an effort to seal an alliance with the British. Queen Anne was so impressed by her visitors that she commissioned their portraits by court painter John Verelst. The portraits are believed to be some of the earliest surviving oil portraits of Aboriginal peoples taken from life.[29]
In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the Tuscarora fled north from the British colonization of North Carolina and petitioned to become the sixth nation. This was a non-voting position but placed them under the protection of the Confederacy.
In 1721 and 1722, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia concluded a new Treaty at Albany with the Iroquois, renewing the Covenant Chain and agreeing to recognize the Blue Ridge as the demarcation between Virginia Colony and the Iroquois. However, as white settlers began to move beyond the Blue Ridge and into the Shenandoah Valley in the 1730s, the Iroquois objected and were told that the agreed demarcation merely prevented them from trespassing east of the Blue Ridge, but it did not prevent English from expanding west of them. The Iroquois were on the verge of going to war with the Virginia Colony, when in 1743, Governor Gooch paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the Valley that was claimed by the Iroquois. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold Virginia all their remaining claims on the Shenandoah Valley for 200 pounds in gold.[30]
During the French and Indian War (North American part of the Seven Years' War), the Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquian allies, both traditional enemies of the Iroquois. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Practically, few Iroquois joined the campaign, and in the Battle
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of Lake George, a group of Mohawk and French ambushed a Mohawk-led British column. The British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the war, which forbade white settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains, but this was largely ignored by the settlers, and the Iroquois agreed to adjust this line again at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768), whereby they sold the British Crown all their remaining claim to the lands between the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers.
American Revolution
During the American Revolution, many Tuscarora and the Oneida sided with the Americans, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain. This marked the first major split among the Six Nations. Joseph Louis Cook offered his services to the United States and received a Congressional commission as a Lieutenant Colonel- the highest rank held by any Native American during the war.[31] However, after a series of successful operations against frontier settlements, led by the Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant, other war chiefs, and British allies; the United States reacted with vengeance. In 1779, George Washington ordered the Sullivan Campaign led by Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overrun, but destroy," the British-Indian alliance.
Post-war
After the war, the ancient central fireplace of the League was reestablished at Buffalo Creek. Captain Joseph Brant and a group of Iroquois left New York to settle in Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River. Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle nearby and named the village Brantford, Ontario. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day city at a location still favorable for launching and landing canoes.
Culture
Stone pipe (19th century engraving).
Melting pot
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The Iroquois are a melting pot. League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through the "Mourning War", raids intended to seize captives to replace lost compatriots and take vengeance on non-members. This tradition was common to native people of the northeast and was quite different from European settlers' notions of combat.
The Iroquois aimed to create an empire by incorporating conquered peoples and remolding them into Iroquois and thus naturalizing them as full citizens of the tribe. Cadwallader Colden wrote "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their nation suffers by the people they lose in war." By 1668, two-thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated Algonquians and Hurons. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven different nations and among the Seneca eleven.[32]
Food
The Iroquois were a mix of farmers, fishers, gatherers, and hunters, though their main diet came from farming. The main crops they farmed were corn, beans and squash, which were called the three sisters and were considered special gifts from the Creator. These crops are grown strategically. The cornstalks grow, the bean plants climb the stalks, and the squash grow beneath, inhibiting weeds and keeping the soil moist under the shade of their broad leaves. In this combination, the soil remained fertile for several decades. The food was stored during the winter, and it lasts for two to three years. When the soil eventually lost its fertility, the Iroquois migrated.
Gathering was the job of the women and children. Wild roots, greens, berries and nuts were gathered in the summer. During spring, maple syrup was tapped from the trees, and herbs were gathered for medicine.
The Iroquois mostly hunted deer but also other game such as wild turkey and migratory birds. Muskrat and beaver were hunted during the winter. Fishing was also a significant source of food because the Iroquois were located near a large river. They fished salmon, trout, bass, perch and whitefish. In the spring the Iroquois netted, and in the winter fishing holes were made in the ice.[33]
Wampum
Since they had no writing system, the Iroquois depended upon the spoken word to pass down their history, traditions, and rituals. As an aid to memory, the Iroquois used shells and shell beads. The Europeans called the beads wampum, from wampumpeag, a word used by Indians in the area who spoke Algonquin languages.
The type of wampum most commonly used in historic times was bead wampum, cut from various seashells, ground and polished, and then bored through the center with a small
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hand drill. The purple and white beads, made from the shell of the quahog clam, were arranged on belts in designs representing events of significance.
Certain elders were designated to memorize the various events and treaty articles represented on the belts. These men could "read" the belts and reproduce their contents with great accuracy. The belts were stored at Onondaga, the capital of the confederacy, in the care of a designated wampum keeper.
Famous wampum belts of the Iroquois include the Hiawatha Wampum, which represents the (original) Five Nations, the spatial arrangement of their individual territories, and the nature of their roles in the Confederacy. The modern Iroquois flag is a rendition of the pattern of the original Hiawatha Wampum belt. The Two Row Wampum, also known as Guswhenta, depicts the agreement made between the Iroquois league and representatives of the Dutch government in 1613, an agreement upon which all subsequent Iroquois treaties with Europeans and Americans have been based. Today, replicas of the Two Row Wampum are often displayed for ceremonial or educational purposes. Other historical wampum belts representing specific agreements or historical occurrences are known to exist, although many have been lost or stolen.
Women in society
When Americans and Canadians of European descent began to study Iroquois customs in the 18th and 19th centuries, they observed that women assumed a position in Iroquois society roughly equal in power to that of the men. Individual women could hold property including dwellings, horses and farmed land, and their property before marriage stayed in their possession without being mixed with that of their husband's. The work of a woman's hands was hers to do with as she saw fit. A husband lived in the longhouse of his wife's family. A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband was able to ask him to leave the dwelling, taking any of his possessions with him. Women had responsibility for the children of the marriage, and children were educated by members of the mother's family. The clans were matrilineal, that is, clan ties were traced through the mother's line. If a couple separated, the woman kept the children. Violence against women by men was virtually unknown.[34]
The chief of a clan could be removed at any time by a council of the mothers of that clan, and the chief's sister was responsible for nominating his successor.[34]
Spiritual beliefs
In the Iroquois belief system was a formless Great Spirit or Creator, from whom other spirits were derived.[citation needed] Spirits animated all of nature and controlled the changing of the seasons. Key festivals coincided with the major events of the agricultural calendar, including a harvest festival of thanksgiving. After the arrival of the Europeans, many Iroquois became Christians, among them Kateri Tekakwitha, a young woman of mixed birth. Traditional religion was revived to some extent in the second half of the 18th century by the teachings of the Iroquois prophet Handsome Lake.[35]
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People
*ations
The first five nations listed below formed the original Five Nations (listed from west to north); the Tuscarora became the sixth nation in 1720.
English nameIroquoianMeaning 17th/18th century location
SenecaOnondowahgah"People of the Great Hill"Seneca Lake and Genesee River
CayugaGuyohkohnyoh"People of the Great Swamp"Cayuga Lake
OnondagaOnöñda'gega'"People of the Hills"Onondaga Lake
OneidaOnayotekaono"People of Standing Stone"Oneida Lake
MohawkKanien'kehá:ka"People of the Great Flint"Mohawk River
TuscaroraSka""Hemp Gatherers"From North Carolina²
1 Not one of the original Five Nations; joined 1720. 2 Settled between Oneidas and Onondagas.
Clans
See also: Iroquois kinship
Within each of the six nations, people are divided into a number of matrilineal clans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to eight, with a total of nine different clan names.
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Current clans
SenecaCayugaOnondagaTuscarora OneidaMohawk
WolfWolfWolfWolf (Θkwarì•nę) Wolf (Thayú:ni)Wolf (Okwáho)
The total number of Iroquois today is difficult to establish. About 45,000 Iroquois lived in Canada in 1995.[citation needed] In the 2000 census, 80,822 people in the United States claimed Iroquois ethnicity, with 45,217 of them claiming only Iroquois background. However, tribal registrations in the United States in 1995 numbered about 30,000 in total.
Populations of the Haudenosaunee Members (Six *ations)
Oklahoma 2,200Source: Iroquois Population in 1995 by Doug George-Kanentiio [1]. 1 Six Nations of the Grand River Territory. 2 Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma.
Prominent individuals
• Frederick Alexcee, artist (also of Tsimshian ancestry)
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• Henry Armstrong, boxer, #2 in Ring Magazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years
• George Armstrong, hockey player, most successful captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs with five Stanley Cup victories.
• Joseph Brant or Thayendanegea, Mohawk leader • Cornplanter or Kaintwakon, Seneca chief • Deganawida or The Great Peacemaker, the traditional founder along with
Hiawatha of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy • Graham Greene, Canadian Oneida • Handsome Lake or Ganioda'yo, Seneca religious leader • Ki Longfellow, novelist • Oren Lyons, Onondaga, a traditional Faithkeeper of the Turtle clan • Ely S. Parker, Seneca, Union Army officer during American Civil War,
Commissioner of Indian Affairs during Ulysses S. Grant's first term as President. • Red Jacket, Seneca orator and chief of the Wolf clan • Robbie Robertson, Mohawk, songwriter, guitarist and singer best known for his
membership in The Band. • Joanne Shenandoah, Oneida singer, songwriter, actress and educator • Jay Silverheels, actor, of Canadian Mohawk origin • Kateri Tekakwitha, first Catholic Native American saint, patron of ecology, of
Mohawk and Algonquin ancestry • Canassatego, Tadadaho of the Iroquois Confederacy
Government
Mohawk leader John Smoke Johnson (right) with John Tutela, and Young Warner, two other Six Nations War of 1812 veterans.
Grand Council
The Grand Council of the Iroquois League is an assembly of 50 sachems (chiefs), a number that has never changed. The seats on the Council are distributed among the Six Nations as follows:
• 14 Onondaga • 10 Cayuga • 9 Oneida
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• 9 Mohawk • 8 Seneca • 0 Tuscarora
When anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan studied the Grand Council in the 19th century, he interpreted it as a central government. This interpretation became influential, but some scholars have since argued that while the Grand Council served an important ceremonial role, it was not a government in the sense that Morgan thought.[4][5][6] According to this view, Iroquois political and diplomatic decisions were made on the local level, and were based on assessments of community consensus; a central government that dictates policy to the people at large is not the Iroquois model of government.
Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855, Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was ratified by 75% of the male voters and 75% of the mothers of the nation.[37] In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two-thirds of the mothers was required.[37]
The women held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war.[37] The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers of each clan, and if any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, he could be demoted by the mothers of his clan, a process called "knocking off the horns" which removed the deer antlers emblem of leadership from his headgear and returned him to private life.[37] Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from the men's councils. Men were employed by the women as runners to send word of their decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men's council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took the initiative in suggesting legislation.[37]
Influence on the United States
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2009)
According to a controversial argument sometimes known as the Iroquois Influence Thesis, the Iroquois League was an important influence on the development of the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.[38][39] The Influence Thesis became popular in the 1980s, particularly through publications by Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen. According to these historians, the democratic ideals of the Great Law of Peace provided a significant inspiration to Benjamin Franklin, James Madison and other framers of the United States Constitution. The popularity of the Influence Thesis culminated with the United States Congress passing a resolution in October 1988, specifically recognizing the influence of the Iroquois League upon the US Constitution and Bill of Rights.[40]
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The Influence Thesis has since been rejected by many scholars, however, including experts on the Iroquois and the US Constitution. According to historian Jack Rakove, "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois."[41] Scholars of the Iroquois Confederacy who have rejected the Influence Thesis include William N. Fenton and Francis Jennings, who called it "absurd".[42] Anthropologist Dean Snow writes:
There is, however, little or no evidence that the framers of the Constitution sitting in Philadelphia drew much inspiration from the League. It can even be argued that such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government.… Yet the temptation to demonstrate that the United States Constitution was derived from a Native American form of government remains, for ephemeral political purposes, too strong for some to resist.[43]
Modern communities
Iroquois in Buffalo, New York, 1914.
• Canada o Kahnawake Mohawk in Quebec o Kanesatake Mohawk in Quebec o Mohawk Nation of Akwesasne in Ontario o Thames Oneida in Ontario o Six Nations of the Grand River Territory in Ontario o Tyendinaga Mohawk in Ontario o Wahta Mohawk in Ontario
• United States o Cayuga Nation in New York o Ganienkeh Mohawk — not federally recognized o Kanatsiohareke Mohawk o Onondaga Nation in New York o Oneida Indian Nation in New York o Oneida Tribe of Indians in Wisconsin o St. Regis Band of Mohawk Indians in New York o Seneca Nation of New York
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o Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma o Tuscarora Nation of New York
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
• Covenant Chain • David Cusick • Economy of the Iroquois• Ely S. Parker • False Face Society• Ganondagan State Historic Site• Gideon Hawley • Handsome Lake • History of New York• Iroquoian languages• Iroquois mythology
• Iroquois Nationals • Mohawk Chapel • Red Jacket • Sir William Johnson • Six Nations of the Grand River • Smoke Johnson • Sullivan Expedition • Town Destroyer • The Kahnawake Iroquois and the Rebellions of 1837• The Flying Head
References
*otes
1. ^ Haudenosaunee is pronounced /hɔːdɛnəˈʃɔːni/ in English, Akunęhsyę̀niˀ in Tuscarora (Rudes, B., Tuscarora English Dictionary, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), and Rotinonsionni in Mohawk.
2. ^ Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee pg.135. Greenwood Publishing Group. http://books.google.ca/books?id=zibNDBchPkMC&lpg=PP1&dq=encyclopedia%20haudenosaunee&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
3. ^ "First Nations Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml.
4. ^ a b c Richter, "Ordeals of the Longhouse", in Richter and Merrill, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain, 11–12.
5. ^ a b Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 4–5. 6. ^ a b Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy, 72–73. 7. ^ Peck, William (1908). History of Rochester and Monroe county, *ew York.
pp. 12. http://books.google.com/books?id=IvssAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11. Retrieved 2009-04-04.
8. ^ "The Iroquois Confederacy". The Light Party. http://www.lightparty.com/Spirituality/Iroquois.html. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
9. ^ The Iroquois. Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=P7e82KQoX6IC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=iro
10. ^ Jennings, p.43 11. ^ Hanna, The Wilderness Trail p. 97 12. ^ Louis F. Burns, "Osage" Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of
Oklahoma History and Culture, retrieved 2 March 2009 13. ^ Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 69. 14. ^ Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy, 25. 15. ^ Johansen, Bruce (1995). "Dating the Iroquois Confederacy". Akwesasne *otes
*ew Series 1 (3): 62–63. http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/DatingIC.html. Retrieved Dec 12, 2008.
16. ^ Snow, The Iroquois, 231. 17. ^ The History of Onondage'ga' 18. ^ Muir, Diana, Reflections in Bullough's Pond, University Press of New England 19. ^ Bernard G. Hoffman, 1955, Souriquois, Etechemin, and Kwedech - - A Lost
Chapter in American Ethnography 20. ^ James F. Pendergast, 1991, The Massawomeck. 21. ^ "From beads to banner". Indian Country Today.
22. ^ "Haudenosaunee Flag". First Americans. http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/kmartin/School/iroqflag.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-25.
23. ^ Reville, F. Douglas. The History of the County of Brant, p. 20. 24. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "The Hurons" 25. ^ Francis Parkman[citation needed] 26. ^ a b Jennings, p. 135 27. ^ Jennings, p.160 28. ^ Jennings, p. 111 29. ^ "The Four Indian Kings". Library and Archives Canada.
30. ^ Joseph Solomon Walton, 1900, Conrad Weiser and the Indian Policy of Colonial Pennsylvania p. 76-121.
31. ^ Oneida Nation of New York Conveyance of Lands Into Trust pg 3-159, Department of Indian Affairs
32. ^ Jennings, p. 95 33. ^ Bial, Raymond (1999). Lifeways: The Iroquois. New York: Benchmark Books.
ISBN 0761408029. 34. ^ a b Wagner, Sally Roesch (1999). "Iroquois Women Inspire 19th Century
Feminists". *ational *OW Times. National Organization for Women. http://www.now.org/nnt/summer-99/iroquois.html. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
35. ^ Wallace, Anthony (April 12, 1972). Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. Vintage. ISBN 978-0394716992.
36. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Iroquois
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37. ^ a b c d e Wagner, Sally Roesch (1993). "The Iroquois Influence on Women's Rights". in Sakolsky, Ron; Koehnline, James. Gone To Croatan: Origins of *orth American Dropout Culture. Brooklyn, New York: Autonomedia. pp. 240–247. ISBN 0936756926. http://books.google.com/books?id=B5TKKAAACAAJ. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
38. ^ "The Six Nations: Oldest Living Participatory Democracy on Earth". Ratical.com. http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
39. ^ Armstrong, Virginia Irving. I Have Spoken: American History Through the Voices of the Indians. Pocket Books. p. 14. SBN 671-78555-9.
40. ^ "H. Con. Res. 331, October 21, 1988". United States Senate. http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/hconres331.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
41. ^ "Did the Founding Fathers Really Get Many of Their Ideas of Liberty from the Iroquois?". George Mason University. http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
42. ^ Francis Jennings, Empire of fortune: crowns, colonies, and tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: Norton, 1988), p. 259 note 15.
43. ^ Snow, The Iroquois, 154.
Bibliography
• Fenton, William N. The Great Law and the Longhouse: a political history of the Iroquois Confederacy. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. ISBN 0806130032.
• Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: the Covenant Chain confederation of Indian tribes with English colonies from its beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744. New York: Norton, 1984. ISBN 0393017192.
• Jennings, Francis, ed. The History and culture of Iroquois diplomacy: an interdisciplinary guide to the treaties of the Six *ations and their league. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1985. ISBN 0815626509.
• Richter, Daniel K. The ordeal of the longhouse: the peoples of the Iroquois League in the era of European colonization. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. ISBN 0807820601.
• Richter, Daniel K., and James H. Merrell, eds. Beyond the covenant chain: the Iroquois and their neighbors in Indian *orth America, 1600–1800. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003. ISBN 027102299X.
• Shannon, Timothy J. Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier. New York: Viking, 2008. ISBN 9780670018970.
• Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994. ISBN 1557862257.
• Tooker, Elisabeth, ed. An Iroquois source book. 3 volumes. New York: Garland, 1985–1986. ISBN 0824058771.
TopicsEconomy · Languages · Mythology · Great Law of Peace · The Great PeacemakerTadodaho
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois" Categories: Iroquois | First Nations in Ontario | First Nations in Quebec | Native American tribes in Oklahoma | Native American tribes in Wisconsin | Historical legislatures
Seven *ations of Canada
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The Seven *ations of Canada were a historic confederation of Canadian First Nations living in and around the Saint Lawrence River valley beginning in the eighteenth century. They were allied to New France and often included substantial numbers of Roman Catholics. During the Seven Years War (1756-1763), they supported the French against the English. Later, they formed the northern nucleus of the British-led Aboriginal alliance that fought the United States in the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.
• Mohawk of Akwesasne • Mohawk of Kahnawake • Mohawk and Anishinaabeg (Algonquin and Nipissing) of Kanesetake
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• Abenaki of Odanak • Abenaki of Becancour (now Wôlinak) • Huron of Jeune-Lorette (now Wendake) • Onondaga of Oswegatchie
Canadian historian Jean-Pierre Sawaya has argued that the federation has existed since the seventeenth century. He does specialized research in the history of Canada's First Nations and the background to their land claims. Canadian historian John Alexander Dickinson argues that the federation was created during the Seven Years War, as the British closed in on the territories along the St Lawrence River. Dickinson is a specialist in the history of New France and its relations with the First Nations of the North East. There is little first hand evidence to support either view. Dickinson argues that the lack of evidence supports the case for a later date. [1]
Mohawk historian Darren Bonaparte has summarized what is known. After a disastrous war in 1667 when the French attacked Mohawk villages in present-day New York, some Mohawk converted to Christianity and began to relocate to Kahnawake ("near the rapids") on the St. Lawrence River opposite the small village of Montreal. By its name and location by a rapids, Kahnawake recalled the village Caughnawaga (in a variant spelling) in the Mohawk homeland. The first village faded as most of its people moved north. The relation between the Mohawk who stayed in New York and those who migrated was, in Bonaparte's words, "as ambiguous as when they were together", in part because they became differentiated by religious practices.[2]
A federation of First Nations bands formed in settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley. It included those Abenaki, Algonquin, and Huron who were more accepting of Catholicism. The Abenaki and Algonquin belonged to major families of the Algonquian language. The Mohawk and Onondaga were Iroquois, and the Huron spoke another Iroquoian language. The Mohawk of the federation continued to identify as Mohawk and as relatives of the Mohawk in traditional Iroquois territory.[3]
One of the earliest written references to the Seven Nations comes from the mid-18th century. In 1755, Seven Nations fighters and their French allies had prepared an ambush for the British army on the portage between Lake George and the Hudson River. One of
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the Mohawk from Kahnawake saw that Mohawk were marching with the British. He told them to identify themselves; they replied, they were "Mohawks and Five Nations" (the traditional name for the Iroquois Confederacy). Questioned in turn, the Mohawk with the French said, "[W]e are the 7 confederate Indian Nations of Canada." This exchange was recorded in a memoranda book by Daniel Claus, who was working as an Indian Agent for William Johnson.[4]
Geography
This map shows the Seven Nations on the eve of the Seven Years War. Native and French communities formed a patchwork along the St. Lawrence River. The French communities were a single political entity. The Native American communities each had their own governments linked to the French by geography and by formal and informal agreements.[5]The majority of the residents in the four western towns were closely related
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to the Iroquois of the Six Nations — mostly Mohawk (Kanesetake, Kahnawake, and Akwesasne) or Onondaga (Oswegatchie). There were also Anishinaabeg living at Kanesetake. The eastern towns were populated by the Abenaki (Odanak and Bécancour) and the Huron (Jeune-Lorette). [6] A main unifying concern was the relentless encroachment of British-American settlement in New England and New York that had already driven many of them from their ancestral homes.
Politics
In the 1783 Treaty of Paris following the American Revolutionary War, the British Crown ceded all its territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States (US). As the treaty made no mention of England's Native American allies, the US had to negotiate separate peace agreements with each of the nations. The important issues to be settled included not only peace, but also the ownership of vast tracts of land which the United States considered to be under its control by the British cession. By 1789, US officials realized that, in the words of Secretary of War Henry Knox, "the Indians are especially tenacious of their lands, and generally do not relinquish their right, excepting on the principle of a specific consideration, expressly given for the purchase of the same."[7] After the United States and the Seven Nations signed a treaty in 1797, its legitimacy was challenged by other Native Americans on the grounds that the signatories were unauthorized to cede land.
The challenge has continued to this day. Federal courts in the United Sates have ruled that they will not go behind a treaty "to inquire whether or not an Indian tribe was properly represented by its head men, nor determine whether a treaty has been procured by duress or fraud, and declare it inoperative for that reason." [8] The land claim and treaty issues remain controversial.
*otes
1. ^ Dickinson (2000), p. 202 2. ^ Bonaparte, "Seven Nations of Canada" 3. ^ Bonaparte, "Seven Nations of Canada" 4. ^ Memoranda Book, Claus Family Papers, National Archives of Canada, cited in
MacLeod (1999) p.xi & 71-72. A Mohawk oral tradition about this event was recorded in the Journal of Major John *orton. Norton spoke Mohawk and fought with them in the War of 1812 against the United States. In Norton's version, the reply was, "We are Caghnawagues & other Tribes." Norton, John. The Journal of Major John *orton, 1816. Carl F. Klinck and JHames Talamn, eds., Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1970. p. 266.
5. ^ MacLeod (2008), p. 72 6. ^ MacLeod (1996) pp x-xii 7. ^ American State Papers, Indian Affairs (Washington, D.C., 1832), Class II, 1:8,
cited in Campisi and Starna, p.470
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8. ^ United States v. *ew York Indians, 173 U.S. 464, 469470 (1899) cited in Campisi and Starna p 488
References
• Darren Bonaparte, "The Seven Nations of Canada: The Other Iroquois Confederacy", The Wampum Chronicles
• D. Peter MacLeod's notes on the Treaty of Kahnawake, 1760 • D. Peter McLeod, (1996) The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years' War,
Ottawa & Toronto: The Canadian War Museum & Dundurn Press. Canadian War Museum Historical Publication No. 29.
• D. Peter McLeod, *orthern Armageddon : the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2008.
• John A. Dickinson, "La federation des sept feux de la Vallee du Saint-Laurent: XVIIe-XIXe siecle by Jean-Pierre Sawaya. [review]", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 1 (Feb., 2000), pp. 202-203
• Jack Campisi and William A. Starna. "On the Road to Canandaigua: The Treaty of 1794", American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn, 1995), pp. 467-490
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Nations_of_Canada" Categories: Canada stubs | First Nations history in Ontario | First Nations history in Quebec | Seven Years War | American Revolutionary War | War of 1812
First *ations
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from First Nations of Canada) Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the indigenous peoples of Canada. For other indigenous peoples, see Indigenous peoples (disambiguation)
First *ations
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First Nation Flags
Total population
698,025[1]
Languages
Aboriginal languages
Canadian English
Canadian French
Religion
Christian
Anglican
traditional beliefs
traditional mythology
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Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
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First *ations is a term of ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis.[2] There are currently over 600[3] recognised First Nations governments or bands spread all across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia.[4] Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a designated group along with women, visible minorities, and persons with physical or mental disabilities.[5] They are not a visible minority under the Act and in the view of Statistics Canada.[6]
The term First *ations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas located in what is now Canada, except for the Arctic-situated Inuit, and peoples of mixed ancestry called Métis. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicised reserves, is the awkward First *ations person (when gender-specific, First *ations man or First *ations woman). A more recent trend is for members of various nations to refer to themselves by their tribal or national identity only, e.g. "I'm Haida," "we're Kwantlens," in recognition of the distinctiveness of First Nations ethnicities.[7]
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Although the indigenous peoples had thousands of years of cultures in North America, written documentation about them started with the arrival of European explorers and colonists.[8][9] European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture.[10] In addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples.
Although not without conflict or slavery, European-Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were peaceful compared to the history of American native peoples. Combined with later economic development, this relatively peaceful history has allowed First Nations peoples to have a strong influence on the national culture, while preserving their own identities.[11]
Contents
• 1 Terminology • 2 History
o 2.1 Post-Archaic period o 2.2 Nationhood o 2.3 European contact o 2.4 16th–18th centuries o 2.5 The Métis
� 2.5.1 French and Indian War � 2.5.2 Slavery
o 2.6 19th century � 2.6.1 Integration
o 2.7 20th century o 2.8 First and Second World Wars o 2.9 Late 20th century
� 2.9.1 1969 White Paper � 2.9.2 Health Transfer Policy � 2.9.3 Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord � 2.9.4 Women's status and Bill C-31 � 2.9.5 Erasmus-Dussault commission
o 2.10 Early 21st century • 3 Canadian Crown and First Nations Relations
o 3.1 Political organisation o 3.2 Assembly of First Nations / National Indian Brotherhood
• 4 Culture o 4.1 Languages o 4.2 Art o 4.3 Music o 4.4 Demographics
• 5 Issues • 6 See also • 7 Further reading
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• 8 References • 9 External links
Terminology
See also: Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982
The term First *ations can be confusing. Collectively, First *ations,[4] Inuit,[12] and Métis[13] peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas or first peoples.[14][15] First *ations is a legally undefined term that came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band.[16] Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s.[17] A band is a legally recognised "body of Indians for whose collective use and benefit lands have been set apart or money is held by the Canadian Crown, or declared to be a band for the purposes of the Indian Act".[15]
As individuals, First Nations people are officially recognised by the Government of Canada by the terms registered Indians or status Indians only if they are listed on the Indian Register and are thus entitled to benefits under the often controversial Indian Act,[18] or as non-status Indian if they are not so listed and thus not entitled to benefits, according to the Canadian state. Administration of the Indian Act and Indian Register is carried out by the federal government's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.[16]
While the word "Indian" is still a legal term, its use is erratic and in decline in Canada. The term may be regarded as offensive, while others prefer it over Aboriginal person/persons/people. According to the 2006 Census, there are more Canadians who identify as being of East Indian ethnicity than there are members of First Nations. The use of the term *ative Americans is not common in Canada[15] as it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples of the United States.[19] The parallel term *ative Canadian is not commonly used, but natives and autochthones (from Canadian French) are. Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the "Indian Magna Carta",[20] the Crown refers to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First *ations is capitalised, unlike alternative terms. Bands and nations may have slightly different meanings.
History
For pre-history, see: Paleo-Indians and Archaic periods (Canada)
According to archaeological and Indigenous genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation.[21] During the (Wisconsin glaciation), 50,000 — 17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people (Paleo-Indians) to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to north west North America (Alaska).[21] Alaska was ice-free due to low snowfall, allowing a small population to
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exist. The Laurentide ice sheet covered the majority of Canada, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.[22]
Post-Archaic period
See also: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
Painting of Ojibwe near Georgian Bay by Paul Kane
Among the First Nations peoples, there are eight unique stories of creation and their adaptations. These are the earth diver, world parent, emergence, conflict, robbery, rebirth of corpse, two creators and their contests, and the brother myth.[23] Canadian Aboriginal civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies.[24] Some of these civilisations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are discovered through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period recorded in historical accounts of the time.[24] When the Europeans arrived, natives of North America were semi-nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers; others were sedentary and agricultural civilisations. New tribes or confederations formed in response to European colonisation.
Hopewell Interaction Area
The Old Copper Complex ancient societies dates from 3000 BCE to 500 BCE (5,000 — 2,500 years ago) and is a manifestation of the Woodland Culture, but is pre-pottery in nature. Found in the northern Great Lakes regions, they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements.[25] The Woodland Cultural period dates from 1000 BCE — 1000 CE and is associated with Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the Archaic stage humans. Laurentian people of southern Ontario
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manufactured the oldest pottery excavated in Canada.[26] They created pointed-bottom beakers they decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology includes items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. Sedentary agricultural lifeways resulted in a population increase engendered by a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops.[26]
The Norton tradition is an archaeological culture that developed in the Western Arctic along the Alaskan shore of the Bering Strait from 1000 BCE and lasted through about 900 CE.[27] The Norton people used flake-stone tools like their predecessors, the Arctic small tool tradition, but they were more marine-oriented and brought new technologies such as oil-burning lamps and clay vessels into use. They hunted caribou and smaller mammals as well as salmon and larger marine mammals. Village sites that contained substantial dwellings showed permanent settlement.[27] The Hopewell tradition is the term used to describe common aspects of the Aboriginal culture that flourished along rivers in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States from 300 BCE to 500 CE.[28] The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a dispersed set of related populations connected by a common network of trade routes,[29] known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Local expression of the Hopewellian peoples in Canada include the Point Peninsula Complex, Saugeen Complex, and Laurel Complex.[30]
*ationhood
First *ations by linguistic-cultural area: List of First *ations peoples
First Nations had settled across Canada by 500 BCE - 1000 CE. Hundreds of tribes had developed, each with its own culture, customs, legends, and character.[31] In the northwest were the Athapaskan speaking peoples, Slavey, Tli Cho, Tutchone speaking peoples and Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast were the Haida, Salish, Kwakiutl, Nuu-chah-nulth, Nisga'a and Gitxsan. In the plains were the Blackfoot, Kainai, Sarcee and Northern Peigan. In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe, Algonquin, Mi'kmaq, Iroquois and Wyandot. Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk, Maliseet, Innu, Abenaki and Mi'kmaq.
The Blackfoot Indians — also known as the Blackfeet Indians — reside in the Great Plains of Montana and the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.[16]:5 The name 'Blackfoot' came from the colour of the peoples' leather footwear, known as moccasins. They had dyed or painted the bottoms of their moccasins black, but one story claimed that the Blackfoot Indians walked through the ashes of prairie fires, which in turn coloured the bottoms of their moccasins black.[16]:5 They had not originally come from the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but rather from the upper Northeastern area. The Blackfoot started as woodland Indians but as they made their way over to the Plains, they adapted to new ways of life and became accustomed to the land.[32] They learned the new lands that they travelled to very well and established themselves as
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Plains Indians in the late 1700s, earning themselves the name "The Lords of the Plains."[33]
Sḵwxwú7mesh woman
The Sḵwxwú7mesh history is a series of past events, both passed on through oral tradition and recent history, of the Sḵwxwú7mesh indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Prior to colonisation, they recorded their history through oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, and knowledge across generations.[34] The writing system established in the 1970s used the Latin alphabet as a base. It was a respectable responsibility of knowledgeable elders to pass historical knowledge to the next generation. People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the Great Flood. In another story, after the Flood, they would repopulate from the villages of Schenks and Chekwelp,[35] located at Gibsons. When the water lines receded, the first Sḵwxwú7mesh came to be. The first man, named Tsekánchten, built his long house in the village, and later on another man named Xelálten, appeared on his long house roof and sent by the Creator, or in the Sḵwxwú7mesh language keke7nex siyam. He called this man his brother. It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Sḵwxwú7mesh spread back through their territory.[34]:20
A traditional Iroquois long house.
The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec.[36] The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142.[37] Adept at the Three Sisters (maize/beans/squash), the Iroquois were able to spread at the expense of the Algonquians until they too adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained.
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The Assiniboine were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, engaging in wars against the Gros Ventres alongside them, and later fighting the Blackfeet.[38] A Plains people, they went no further north than the North Saskatchewan River and purchased a great deal of European trade goods through Cree middlemen from the Hudson's Bay Company. The life style of this group was semi-nomadic, and they would follow the herds of bison during the warmer months. They traded with European traders, and worked with the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes, and that factor is attached to their life style.[38]
In the earliest oral history, the Algonquins were from the Atlantic coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal.[39] While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the Saint Lawrence River, the Algonquins settled along the Kitcisìpi (Ottawa River), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation from time immemorial. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not realised until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place", estimated at about 2,000 years ago near present day Detroit.[39]
Details of Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage by Eastman Johnson
According to their tradition, and from recordings in wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls), Ojibwe came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island, and from along the east coast.[40] They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of the canoe routes west and a land route to the west coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. One of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem, the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), *ooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose), then these six miigis beings returned into the ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem.[40]
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Chief Anotklosh of the Taku Tribe.
The Nuu-chah-nulth are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. The term 'Nuu-chah-nulth' is used to describe fifteen separate but related First Nations, such as the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations, Ehattesaht First Nation and Hesquiaht First Nation whose traditional home is in the Pacific Northwest on the west coast of Vancouver Island.[41] In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are relations of the Kwakwaka'wakw, the Haisla, and the Ditidaht. The Nuu-chah-nulth language is part of the Wakashan language group.[42]
A 1999 discovery of the body of Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi has provided archaeologists with significant information on indigenous tribal life prior to extensive European contact. Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi (meaning Long Ago Person Found in Southern Tutchone), or Canadian Ice Man, is a naturally mummified body found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park in British Columbia, by a group of hunters. Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the find between 1450 AD and 1700 AD.[43][44] Genetic testing has shown he was a member of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations. An examination of the contents of his digestive system provided details about what he had eaten. He was found with a number of artifacts, including a robe made from about 95 gopher or squirrel skins sewn together with sinew, a woven hat, a walking stick, an iron bladed knife, a hand tool of unknown purpose, and an atlatl with dart. Archaeologists studied preserved samples, and cremated the remainder of Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi's remains. Local clans are considering a memorial potlatch to honour Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi.[43][44][45]
European contact
Main article: Territorial evolution of Canada See also: Hudson's Bay Company and North American fur trade
Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD,[8]:Part 1 but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in
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the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts noted friendliness on the part of the First Nations,[8]:Part 1 who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade strengthened the more organised political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation.[9]:Ch 6 The Aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000[46] and two million in the late 1400s.[47] Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in an eighty-five to ninety-five percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.[48]
There are reports of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus.[49] He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel swept off its course while on its way to England winding up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land.[49] The ship's pilot, a man from the Iberian Peninsula (Oviedo says different versions have him as Portuguese, Basque, or Andalusian), and others made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to his house for treatment. The pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in various versions, but Oviedo regarded it as myth.[50] The Icelandic Sagas documents the earliest known European explorations in Canada and the attempted Norse colonisation of the Americas.[51] According to sagas, the first European to see Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson in the summer of 985 or 986 due to an accidental re-routing from Iceland to Greenland because of strong winds.[51] He found himself in a heavily forested coast to his west, and followed the coast north to the latitude of the Greenland settlement before turning east and sailing to Greenland. Leif Ericson sailed with a crew of 35 to investigate Bjarni's discovery around the year 1000. Leif landed in three places, the first two being Helluland or "land of the flat stones" (possibly Baffin Island), and Markland or "land of forests" (possibly Labrador).[51] Leif's third landing was at a place he called Vinland, where he found grapes growing wild. Following Leif's voyage, Norse groups attempted to colonise the new land, but the native people drove them out.[52] The first European documented to set foot on North America is Erikson. Archaeological evidence of a Viking settlement was found in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, which matches the description of Leif's landing place in Vinland, except that grapes do not grow there today.[53]
The European explorer acknowledged too as landing in what is now Canada was John Cabot, an Italian who was under the patronage of Henry VII of England.[54] He sailed west from Bristol, England in an attempt to find a trade route for King Henry VII to the Orient. He ended up landing on the coast of North America (probably Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island) in 1497 and claimed it for King Henry VII of England. Cabot, confident he had found a new seaway to Asia and on a second voyage the following year, he explored and charted the east coast of North America from Baffin Island to
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Maryland.[54] His voyages gave England a claim by right of discovery to an indefinite amount of area of eastern North America, specifically Newfoundland, Cape Breton and neighbouring regions. Of great significance were Cabot's reports of immensely rich fishing waters. The Roman Catholic countries of Western Europe furnished the fishing market, and every year after 1497 an international mixture of fishing vessels staked grounds off the southeast shore of Newfoundland and east of Nova Scotia. Sometimes these ships would traverse into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, encountering native peoples on the shore who would trade their valuable furs for trinkets and other items brought by the fishers. Nine fishing outposts on Labrador and Newfoundlan showed the presence of Basque cod fishermen and whalers. The largest of these settlements was Red Bay. Basque whaling began in southern Labrador in mid-16th century. Fishermen from Brittany, Normandy and England joined Basque fishermen.
16th–18th centuries
Main articles: History of Alberta#Pre-Confederation and European colonisation of the Americas
The Portuguese Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot. In 1493, the Pope - assuming international jurisdiction - had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal.[55] The next year, in the Treaty of Tordesillas, these two kingdoms decided that the dividing line would be drawn north-south, 370 leagues (from 1,500 to 2,200 km (930 to 1,400 mi) approximately depending on league used) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Land to the west would be Spanish, to the east Portuguese. Given the uncertain geography of the day, this seemed to give the "new founde isle" to Portugal. On the 1502 Cantino map, Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line (as does Brazil).[55] An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to "resemble gypsies in colour, features, stature and aspect; are clothed in the skins of various animals ...They are very shy and gentle, but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ...." Only the captives, sent by Gaspar Corte-Real, reached Portugal. The others drowned, with Gaspar, on the return voyage. Gaspar's brother, Miguel Corte-Real, went to look for him in 1502, but also failed to return. Scholars believe that Miguel Corte-Real carved inscriptions on the controversial Dighton Rock.
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Non-Native American nations' claims over North America, 1750-2008.
In 1604, Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons received the fur trade monopoly.[56] Dugua led his first colonisation expedition to an island located near to the mouth of the St. Croix River. Samuel de Champlain, his geographer, promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. Under Samuel de Champlain, the Saint Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia), a new site across the Bay of Fundy, on the shore of the Annapolis Basin, an inlet in western Nova Scotia. Acadia was France's most successful colony to date.[57] The cancellation of de Guast's fur monopoly in 1607 ended the Port Royal settlement. Champlain was able to persuade de Guast though to allow him to take colonists and settle on the Saint Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec City. The colony of Acadia grew slowly, reaching a population of about 5,000 by 1713. New France had cod fishery coastal communities and farm economies supported communities along Saint Lawrence River. French voyageurs travelled deep into the hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, as well as what is now the American Midwest and the Mississippi Valley) trading guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs.[58] The fur trade kept the interest in Frances overseas colonies alive, yet only encouraged a small population as minimal labour was required, and also discouraged the development of agriculture, the surest foundation of a colony in the New World.[59]
The Métis
Main article: Métis people (Canada)
The Métis (from French métis - "mixed") are descended of marriages of Cree, Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and other First Nations[60] to Europeans,[61] mainly French.[62] According to Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, the Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Northern Dene women (Anglo-Métis). The Métis spoke or still speak either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak English, with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada, Michif in the United States, notably in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of North Dakota, where Michif is the official language of the Métis that reside on this Chippewa reservation. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif is growing due to outreach within the provincial Métis councils after at least a generation of steep decline. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs define Métis to be those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry.[63]
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French and Indian War
Main article: French and Indian War
Conference between the French and First Nations leaders.
French and Indian War or referred as part of the larger conflict known as the Seven Years' War. The name French and Indian War refers to the two main enemies of the British: the royal French forces and the various Native American forces allied with them. The conflict, the fourth such colonial war between the nations of France and Great Britain, resulted in the British conquest of Canada. In British America etymology, the sitting British monarch became the war's namesake, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War. Because there had already been a King George's War in the 1740s, British colonists named the second war in King George's reign after their opponents so it became the French and Indian War.[64]
The Franco-Indian alliance was an alliance between American and Canadian First Nations and the French, centred on the Great Lakes and the Illinois Country.[65] The alliance involved French settlers on the one side, and on the other sie were the Abenaki, Odawa, Menominee, Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Mississaugas, Illiniwek, Huron-Petun, Potawatomi etc.[65] It allowed the French and the Indians to form a haven in the middle-Ohio valley before the open conflict between the European powers erupted.[66]
Slavery
See also: Slavery in Canada
First Nations routinely captured slaves from neighbouring tribes. The conditions under which such slaves lived were much more humane than the conditions endured by African peoples forcibly brought as chattel by Europeans to the Americas. Slave-owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California.[67] Fierce warrior indigenous slave-traders of the Pacific Northwest Coast raided as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Among Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves.[68]
The first documented cases of slavery in Canada are from 1501.[69] Approximately 50 First Nations peoples (Beothuks) were forcibly kidnapped, from the shores of Labrador, and taken to Lisbon the capital of Portugal, by Alberto Cantino.[69] It was reported that their upper bodies were built for hard labour and the Portuguese found a new source of
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slaves. Most of the group died en-route and those who survived and landed in Lisbon died soon afterwards from various European diseases.[69] Another second ship was sent captained by Gaspar Corte-Real and was believed to be carrying another 50 or more 'slaves', but was lost at sea on the return trip.[69] The citizens of New France received slaves as gifts from their allies among First Nations peoples. Slaves were prisoners taken in raids against the villages of the Fox nation, a tribe that was an ancient rival of the Miami people and their Algonquian allies.[70] Native (or "pani", a corruption of Pawnee) slaves were much easier to obtain and thus more numerous than African slaves in New France, but were less valued. The average native slave died at 18, and the average African slave died at 25[68] (the average European could expect to live until the age of 35[71]). 1790, the abolition movement was gaining credence in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States.[68] The Act Against Slavery of 1793 legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into Upper Canada, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25.[68] The Act remained in force until 1833 when the British Parliament's Slavery Abolition Act finally abolished slavery in all parts of the British Empire.[72] Historian Marcel Trudel has documented 4,092 recorded slaves throughout Canadian history, of which 2,692 were Aboriginal people, owned by the French, and 1,400 blacks owned by the British, together owned by approximately 1,400 masters.[68] Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves.[68]
19th century
See also: North-West Rebellion and Red River Rebellion
Assiniboine hunting buffalo, ca 1851
Living conditions for Indigenous people in the prairie regions deteriorated quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, settlers and hunters of European descent contributed to hunting the North American Bison almost to extinction; the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought large numbers of European settlers west who encroached on former Indigenous territory. European Canadians established governments, police forces, and courts of law with different foundations than indigenous practices. Various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from the plains who had relied heavily on bison for food and clothing. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food and help to begin farming.[73] Just as the bison disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), Lieutenant-Governor Edgar Dewdney cut rations to indigenous people in an attempt to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885,
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approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in the North-Western Territory/Northwest Territories.[73]
Pitikwahanapiwiyin (Poundmaker)
Offended by the concepts of the treaties, Cree chiefs resisted them. Big Bear refused to sign Treaty 6 until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882.[73] His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made progress. In 1884 the Métis (including the Anglo-Métis) asked Louis Riel to return from the United States, where he had fled after the Red River Rebellion, to appeal to the government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response. In March 1885, Riel, Gabriel Dumont, Honoré Jackson (a.k.a. Will Jackson), Crowfoot, Chief of the Blackfoot First Nation and Chief Poundmaker, who after the 1876 negotiations of Treaty 6 split off to form his band.[74] Together, they set up the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan, believing that they could influence the federal government in the same way as they had in 1869.[75] The North-West Rebellion of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the Métis people of the District of Saskatchewan under Louis Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people.[76] In 1884, 2,000 Cree from reserves met near Battleford to organise into a large, cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Métis at armed rebellion, Wandering Spirit and other young militant Cree attacked the small town of Frog Lake, killing Thomas Quinn, the hated Indian Agent and eight others.[73] Although Big Bear actively opposed the attacks, he was charged and tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison. After the Red River Rebellion of 1869-1870, Métis moved from Manitoba to the District of Saskatchewan, where they founded a settlement at Batoche on the South Saskatchewan River.[77] In Manitoba settlers from Ontario began to arrive. They pushed for land to be allotted in the square concession system of English Canada, rather than the seigneurial system of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their French-Canadian culture. The buffalo were being hunted to extinction by the Hudson's Bay Company and other hunters, as for generations the Métis had depended on them as a chief source of food.
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Integration
Main articles: Canadian Indian residential school system and Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission
St. Paul's Indian Industrial School, Manitoba, 1901
From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged First Nations to assimilate into their own culture, referred to as "Canadian culture". The assumption was that it was the correct one because the Canadians of European descent saw themselves as dominant, and technologically, politically and culturally more advanced.[78] These attempts reached a climax in the late nineteenth and early Twentieth centuries
Founded in the 19th century, the Canadian Indian residential school system was intended to force the assimilation of Canadian Aboriginal and First Nations people into European-Canadian society.[79] The purpose of the schools, which separated children from their families, has been described by commentators as "killing the Indian in the child."[80][81]
Funded under the Indian Act by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, a branch of the federal government, the schools were run by churches of various denominations — about 60% by Roman Catholics, and 30% by the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of Canada, along with its pre-1925 predecessors, Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Methodist churches.
The attempt to force assimilation involved punishing children for speaking their own languages or practicing their own faiths, leading to allegations in the Twentieth century of cultural genocide and ethnocide. There was widespread physical and sexual abuse. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of tuberculosis, and death rates of up to 69%.[82] Details of the mistreatment of students had been published numerous times throughout the 20th century, but following the closure of the schools in the 1960s, the work of indigenous activists and historians led to a change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement.[83]
As Canadian ideas of progress evolved at the turn of the century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their communal lands and encouraging assimilation.[73] Amendments to the Indian Act in 1905 and 1911 made it easier for the government to expropriate reserve lands from First Nations. The government sold nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta to settlers.
When the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept the sale of their lands in 1916 and 1917, the Department of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented.[73] In British Columbia, the McKenna-McBride Royal Commission was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands (reserves) for First Nations.[73]
Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near the Cowichan and Fraser rivers, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests.[73] Since 1881, those First Nations people living in the prairie provinces required permits from Indian Agents to sell any of their produce. Later the government created a pass system in the old Northwest Territories that required indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian Agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time.[73] Indigenous people regularly defied those laws, as well as bans on Sun Dances and potlatches, in an attempt to practice their culture.[84]
The 1930 Constitution Act or Natural Resources Transfer Acts was part of a shift acknowledging indigenous rights. It enabled provincial control of Crown land and allowed Provincial laws regulating game to apply to Indians, but it also ensured that "Indians shall have the right ... of hunting, trapping and fishing game and fish for food at all seasons of the year on all unoccupied Crown lands and on any other lands to which the said Indians may have a right of access."[85]
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First and Second World Wars
Aboriginal War Veterans monument
More than 6,000 Canadian First Nations, Inuit and Métis served with British forces during First World War and Second World War. A generation of young native Canadian men fought on the battlefields of Europe during the Great War and approximately 300 of them died there. When Canada declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939, the native community quickly responded to volunteer. Four years later, in May 1943, the government declared that, as British subjects, all able Indian men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas.
Late 20th century
Following the end of the Second World War, laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951. Provincial governments began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. In June 1956, section 9 of the Citizenship Act was amended to grant formal citizenship to Status Indians and Inuit, retroactively as of January 1947.
In 1960, First Nations people received the right to vote in federal elections. By comparison, Native Americans in the United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s.[86]
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1969 White Paper
Main article: 1969 White Paper
In his 1969 White Paper, then-Minister of Indian Affairs, Jean Chrétien, proposed the abolition of the Indian Act of Canada, the rejection of Aboriginal land claims, and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than as a distinct group.[87]
Harold Cardinal and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta responded with a document entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper". In it, they explained Status Indians' widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and the Liberals began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the Calder case decision in 1973.[88]
Health Transfer Policy
Main article: Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)
In 1970, severe mercury poisoning, called Ontario Minamata disease, was discovered among Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation and Wabaseemoong Independent Nations people, who lived near Dryden, Ontario. There was extensive mercury pollution caused by Dryden Chemicals Company's waste water effluent in the Wabigoon-English River system.[89][90] Because local fish were no longer safe to eat, the Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish. Previously it had made up the majority of their diet.[91] In addition to the acute mercury poisoning in northwestern Ontario, Aamjiwnaang First Nation people near Sarnia, Ontario experienced a wide range of chemical effects, including severe mercury poisoning. They suffered low birth rates, skewed birth-gender ratio, and health effects among the population.[92][93][94] This led to legislation and eventually the Indian Health Transfer Policy that provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by First Nations people, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on the concept of self-determination in health.[95] Through this process, the decision to enter into transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities are able to take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.[96]
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Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord
Main article: Meech Lake Accord
In 1981, Elijah Harper, a Cree from Red Sucker Lake, Manitoba, became the first "Treaty Indian" in Manitoba to be elected as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba. In 1990, Harper achieved national fame by holding an eagle feather as he took his stand in the Manitoba legislature and refused to accept the Meech Lake Accord, a constitutional amendment package negotiated to gain Quebec's acceptance of the Constitution Act, 1982. The accord was negotiated in 1987 without the input of Canada's Aboriginal peoples.[97][98][99] The third, final constitutional conference on Aboriginal peoples was also unsuccessful. The Manitoba assembly was required to unanimously consent to a motion allowing it to hold a vote on the accord, because of a procedural rule. Twelve days before the ratification deadline for the Accord, Harper began a filibuster that prevented the assembly from ratifying the accord. Because Meech Lake failed in Manitoba, the proposed constitutional amendment failed.[100] Harper also opposed the Charlottetown Accord in 1992, even though Assembly of First Nations Chief Ovide Mercredi supported it.[87]
Women's status and Bill C-31
Main article: Indian Act
According to the Indian Act, indigenous women who married white men lost their treaty status, and their children would not get status. In the reverse situation (indigenous men married to white women), men could keep their status, and their children would get treaty status. In the 1970s, the Indian Rights for Indian Women and Native Women's Association of Canada groups campaigned against this policy because it discriminated against women and failed to fulfill treaty promises.[73] They successfully convinced the federal government to change the section of the act with the adoption of Bill C-31 on June 28, 1985. Women who had lost their status and children who had been excluded were then able to register and gain official Indian status. Despite these changes, First Nations women who married white men could only pass their status on one generation, their children would gain status, but (without a marriage to a full status Indian) their grandchildren would not. A First Nations male who married a white woman retained status as did his children, but his wife did not gain status, nor did his grandchildren.
Bill C-31 also gave elected bands the power to regulate who was allowed to reside on their reserves and to control development on their reserves. It abolished the concept of "enfranchisement" by which First Nations people could gain certain rights by renouncing their Indian status.[101]
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Erasmus-Dussault commission
Main article: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Six Nations protesters at the Grand River land dispute
In 1991, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney created the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples chaired by René Dussault and Georges Erasmus. Their 1996 report proposed the creation of a government for (and by) the First Nations that would be responsible within its own jurisdiction, and with which the federal government would speak on a "Nation-to-Nation" basis.[102] This proposal offered a far different way of doing politics than the traditional policy of assigning First Nations matters under the jurisdiction of the Indian and Northern Affairs, managed by one minister of the federal cabinet. The report also recommended providing the governments of the First Nations with up to $2 billion every year until 2010, in order to reduce the economic gap between the First Nations and the rest of the Canadian citizenry.[102] The money would represent an increase of at least 50% to the budget of Indian and Northern Affairs.[102] The report engaged First Nations leaders to think of ways to cope with the challenging issues their people were facing, so the First Nations could take their destiny into their own hands.[102]
The federal government, then headed by Jean Chrétien, responded to the report a year later by officially presenting its apologies for the forced acculturation the federal government had imposed on the First Nations, and by offering an "initial" provision of $350 million.[102]
In the spirit of the Eramus-Dussault commission, tripartite (federal, provincial, and First Nations) accords have been signed since the report was issued. Several political crises between different provincial governments and different bands of the First Nations also occurred in the late 20th century, notably the Oka Crisis, Ipperwash Crisis, Burnt Church Crisis, and the Gustafsen Lake Standoff.[102]
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Early 21st century
See also: Grand River land dispute and Kelowna Accord
In 2001, the Quebec government, the federal government, and the Cree Nation signed "La Paix des Braves" (The Peace of the Braves, a reference to the 1701 peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois League). The agreement allowed Hydro-Québec to exploit the province's hydroelectric resources in exchange for an allocation of $3.5 billion to be given to the government of the Cree Nation. Later, the Inuit of northern Quebec (Nunavik) joined in the agreement.
The Defence of Cree Rights
In 2005, the leaders of the First Nations, various provincial governments, and the federal government produced an agreement called the Kelowna Accord, which would have yielded $5 billion over 10 years, but the new federal government of Stephen Harper (2006) did not follow through on the working paper.
First Nations, along with the Métis and the Inuit, have claimed to receive inadequate funding for education, and allege their rights have been overlooked. James Bartleman, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities. During his term that began in 2002, he has launched initiatives to promote literacy and bridge building. Bartleman himself is the first Aboriginal person to hold the Lieutenant Governor's position in Ontario.
As of 2006, over 75 First Nations communities exist in boil-water advisory conditions.[103] In late 2005, the drinking water crisis of the Kashechewan First Nation received national media attention when E. coli was discovered in their water supply system, following two years of living under a boil-water advisory. The drinking water was supplied by a new treatment plant built in March 1998. The cause of the tainted water was a plugged chlorine injector that was not discovered by local operators, who were not qualified to be running the treatment plant. When officials arrived and fixed the problem, chlorine levels were around 1.7 mg/l, which was blamed for chronic skin disorders such as impetigo and scabies. An investigation led by Health Canada revealed that the skin disorders were likely due to living in squalor. The evacuation of Kashechewan is largely viewed by Canadians as a cry for help for other underlying social and economic issues which Aboriginal people in Canada face.
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On June 29, 2007, Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty, dubbed the Aboriginal Day of Action. The demonstrations were largely peaceful, although groups disrupted transportation with blockades or bonfires; a stretch of the Highway 401 was shut down, as was the Canadian National Railway's line between Toronto and Montreal.[104]
Canadian Crown and First *ations Relations
Main article: The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples
Honourable David Laird explaining terms of Treaty #8, Fort Vermilion, 1899
The relationship between the Canadian Crown and the First *ations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of Canada stretches back to the first interactions between European colonialists and North American indigenous people. Over centuries of interaction, treaties were established, and Canada's First Nations have, like the Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand, come to generally view these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada, and not the ever-changing governments.[105][106]
The associations exist between the Aboriginal peoples of Canada and the reigning monarch of Canada; as was stated in the proposed First *ations – Federal Crown Political Accord: "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.[107] These relations are governed by the established treaties; the Supreme Court stated that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights,"[107] and the First Nations saw these agreements as meant to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."
Political organisation
Main articles: First Nations government (Canada) and List of First Nations governments
At contact, First Nations organisations ranged in size from band societies of a few people to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois. First Nations leaders from across the country formed the Assembly of First Nations, which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968.
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Today's political organisations are largely the by-product of interaction with European-style methods of government. First Nations political organisations throughout Canada vary in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for forming. First Nations political organisations arise to have a united voice and express their opinions. First Nations negotiate with the Canadian Government through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights. Independent First Nation groups do not belong to these groups.
Assembly of First *ations / *ational Indian Brotherhood
Ovide Mercredi, former national chief of the Assembly of First Nations Main article: Assembly of First Nations
The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is a body of First Nations leaders in Canada. The aims of the organisation are to protect the rights, treaty obligations, ceremonies, and claims of citizens of the First Nations in Canada.
After the failures of the League of Indians in Canada in the Interwar period and the *orth American Indian Brotherhood in two decades following the Second World War, the Aboriginal peoples of Canada organised themselves once again in the early 1960s. The *ational Indian Council was created in 1961 to represent Indigenous people, including Treaty/Status Indians, non-status people, the Métis people, though not the Inuit.[108] This organisation also collapsed in 1968 as the three groups failed to act as one, so the non-status and Métis groups formed the *ative Council of Canada and Treaty/Status groups formed the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), an umbrella group for provincial and territorial First Nations organisations.
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Culture
See also: Notable Aboriginal people of Canada and Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Languages
Main articles: First *ations Aboriginal languages
Linguistic families in Northern America at the time of European contact
Today, there are over thirty different languages spoken by indigenous people, most of which are spoken only in Canada and are in decline. Among those with the most speakers include Anishinaabe and Cree, together totalling up to 150,000 speakers; Inuktitut, with about 29,000 speakers in the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik (Northern Quebec), and Nunatsiavut (Northern Labrador); and Mi'kmaq, with around 8,500 speakers, mostly in Eastern Canada. Aboriginal peoples have lost their native languages and often all but surviving elders, speak English or French as their first language.[109]
Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in government. In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act[110] declares that there are eleven different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłįchǫ. Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.[109]
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Art
Main articles: Indigenous art of the Americas and Northwest Coast art
Petroglyph from Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
First Nations were producing art for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the peoples that produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories that extended across the current national boundaries between Canada and the United States. Indigenous art traditions are often organised by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups, the most common regional distinctions being: Northwest Coast, Plateau, Plains, Eastern Woodlands, Subactic, and Arctic.[111] As might be expected, art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. One thing that distinguishes Indigenous art from European traditions is a focus on art that tends to be portable and made for the body rather than for architecture, although even this is only a general tendency and not an absolute rule. Indigenous visual art is also often made to be used in conjunction with other arts, for example the shaman's masks and rattles play an important role in ceremonialism that also involves dance, storytelling and music.[111]
Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads. The distinct Métis cultures from inter-cultural relationships with Europeans contribute new culturally hybrid art forms. During the 19th and the first half of the Twentieth century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of assimilation, both forced and cultural, toward indigenous peoples and one of the
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instruments of this policy was the Indian Act, which banned manifestations of traditional religion and governance, such as the Sun Dance and the Potlatch,[112] including the works of art associated with them. While First Nations illegally continued their practices in secret, their art was continuously confiscated, stolen, and sold to museums. Ironically, there was an overwhelming demand from Northwest Coast art at this time in Europe and other non-aboriginal markets. This awkward double standard was common. First Nations people had no political rights or freedoms, but their heritage of totem pole sculptures were used to symbolise British Columbia on tourism brochures. The authorities allowed souvenirs of totem poles to be sold in gift shops and use the “exoticism” of aboriginal culture for their own capitalist gain but the actual practice of First Nations art remained against the law.[113]
In another case in 1924, during the height of potlatch ban enforcement, BC luminaries held a mock “Royal Tyee Potlatch” to celebrate the visit of the British Royal Navy. This just three years after the police disbanded Dan Cranmer’s potlatch on Village Island, with 45 attendees arrested, with 22 given suspended sentences.[114]
When the potlatch ban disappeared from the revised Indian Act in 1951, the whole culture was able to come to life once more. As Doreen Jensen writes, “For our painting and sculpture, our performance, oratory and song are our history, law political and philosophical discourse, sacred ceremony and land registry.” Art was and continues to be deeply embedded in the sense of aboriginal identity.[113]
It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin, Bill Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re-invent indigenous art traditions. Currently there are indigenous artists practicing in media across Canada and two indigenous artists, Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore, who have represented Canada at the prestigious Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively.[111]
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Music
Pow-wow at Eel Ground First Nation Main article: First Nations music See also: Blackfoot music, Iroquois music, and Kwakwaka'wakw music
The First Nations peoples of Canada comprise diverse ethnic groups, each with their own musical traditions. There are general similarities in the music, but is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion, used to mark occasions like Midewiwin ceremonies and Sun Dances.
Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.[115] First Nations people made gourds and animal horns into rattles, which were elaborately carved and beautifully painted.[116] In woodland areas, they made horns of birch bark and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides.[117] These musical instruments provide the background for songs, and songs are the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.[112][115]
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Demographics
Further information: List of First Nations peoples and List of Indian reserves in Canada
Cultural areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European contact.
In the 20th century, the First Nations population of Canada increased tenfold.[118] Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew only by 29% but after the 1960s the infant mortality level on reserves dropped and the population grew by 161%. Since the 1980s, the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25. As a result, the First Nations population of Canada is expected to increase in the coming decades.[118]
The 2006 census counted a total Aboriginal population of 1,172,790 (3.75%) which includes 698,025 North American Indians (2.23%).[119]
BC AB SK MB O* QC *B PE *S *L YT *T *U
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There are distinct First Nations in Canada, originating across the country. Indian reserves, established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7, are the very limited contemporary lands of First Nations recognised by the non-indigenous governments. Reserves exist hin cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Wendake in Quebec City or Stony Plain 135 in the Edmonton Capital Region. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, as First Nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.
People who self-identify as having North American Indian ancestors are the plurality in large areas of Canada (areas coloured in brown).
First Nations can be grouped into cultural areas based on their ancestors' primary lifeway, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with physical and ecological regions of Canada.[3]
Ethnographers commonly classify indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits (called cultural areas).[120] The following list groups peoples by their region of origin, followed by the current location. See the individual article on each tribe, band society or First Nation for a history of their movements. See the Federally recognised tribes for the United States' official list of recognised Native American tribes. The Canadian (in whole or in part) regions are Arctic, Subarctic, Northeast Woodlands, Plains, and Plateau.
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The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast communities centred around ocean and river fishing; in the interior of British Columbia, hunting and gathering and river fishing. In both of these areas, salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, bison hunting was the primary activity. In the subarctic forest, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence river, shifting agriculture was practised, including the raising of maize, beans, and squash.[3]
Today, Aboriginal people work in a variety of occupations and live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on their culture, from spirituality to political attitudes.[3]
Issues
First Nations peoples face a number of problems to a greater degree than Canadians overall. They have higher unemployment,[121] rates of crime and incarceration,[122] substance abuse,[123] health problems, fetal alcohol syndrome,[124] lower levels of education and poverty.[125][126][127] Suicide rates are more than twice the sex-specific rate and three times the age-specific rates of non-Aboriginal Canadians.[128]
Life expectancy at birth is significantly lower for First Nations babies than for babies in the Canadian population as a whole. As of 2001, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada estimates First Nations life expectancy to be 8.1 years shorter for males and 5.5 years shorter for females.[129]
Gangs consisting of Aboriginals are becoming an increasing problem, across Canada, due to the poor living conditions. Most are found in Winnipeg, Manitoba.[130].
See also
Main article: Index of Aboriginal Canadian-related articles
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
• Anishinaabe/Tribal Political Organizations • Battle of the Belly River • Bloody Falls Massacre • Burnt Church Crisis • Douglas Treaties • Exovedate • Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations • First Nations Summit • First Nations Technical Institute • First Nations University of Canada • First Nations University Students' Association • Fraser Canyon War
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• Gradual Civilization Act • Grand River land dispute • Great Peace of Montreal • Gustafsen Lake Standoff • History of Canada • Indian Reserve (1763) • James Bay Cree hydroelectric conflict • Nisga'a Final Agreement • Royal Proclamation of 1763 • Seven Nations of Canada • Saugeen Tract Agreement • Treaty of Fort Niagara
Further reading
1. ^ "Aboriginal Identity (2006 Census)". Statistics Canada. Government of Canada. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89122&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&Theme=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
2. ^ "Canada's System of Justice Rights and Freedoms in Canada". Department of Justice Canada. 2009-07-31. http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/dept-min/pub/just/06.html. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
3. ^ a b c d "Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage". Canadian Museum of Civilization. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
4. ^ a b "Assembly of First Nations - The Story". The Assembly of First *ations. http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
5. ^ "Canadian Human Rights Commission :: Resources :: Frequently Asked Questions :: About Employment Equity". Employment Equity FAQ at the Canadian Human Rights Commission. Government of Canada. 2009-08-27. http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/publications/ee_faq_ee-en.asp#1. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
6. ^ "Visible Minority". Definitions, data sources and methods Variables. Statistics Canada, Government of Canada. 2008-07-25. http://www.statcan.ca/english/concepts/definitions/vis-minorit.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
7. ^ Mandel, Michael (1994). The Charter of Rights and the Legalization of Politics in Canada (Revised, Updated and Expanded Edition. ed.). Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc.. pp. 354–356.
8. ^ a b c George Woodcock (January 25, 1990). A Social History of Canada. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0140105360,978-0140105360.
9. ^ a b Eric Wolf (December 3, 1982). Europe and the People Without History. University of California Press. ISBN 0520048989, 978-0520048980.
127
10. ^ "Introduction - Codex canadiensis - Library and Archives Canada". Government of Canada. 2006-08-01. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/codex/index-e.html. Retrieved 2009-10-07.
11. ^ A Dialogue on Foreign Policy. Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade. 2003-01. pp. 15–16.
13. ^ "final Written Submissions of Federal Crown In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court" (pdf). Factum of the Federal Crown Canada; University of Manitoba, Faculty of Law. 2007. http://www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
14. ^ "The Canadian Atlas Online First Peoples". Candian Geographic. http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=first&lang=En. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
15. ^ a b c "Terminology". Aboriginal Peoples & Communities. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 2009-06-03. http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ap/tln-eng.asp. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
16. ^ a b c d Gibson, Gordon (2009). A *ew Look at Canadian Indian Policy: Respect the Collective - Promote the Individual. ISBN 0889752436.
17. ^ Assembly of First Nations, p. 74. 18. ^ "Indian Act". Justice Canada. Government of Canada. 2009-10-05.
19. ^ Hill, Liz (2007). "National Museum of the American Indian". Smithsonian Institution. http://www.americanindian.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=shop&second=books&third=DoAllIndiansLiveInTipis. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
20. ^ Wilson, W.R. (2004). "The Royal Proclamation of 1763". http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/pp/ppa.html. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
21. ^ a b "Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project". National Geographic Society.. 1996-2008. https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?era=e003. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
22. ^ Pielou, E.C. (1991). After the Ice Age : The Return of Life to Glaciated *orth America. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-66812-6.
23. ^ Dickason, Olive, ed (1995). The *ative Imprint: The Contribution of First Peoples to Canada's Character. 1. Athabasca: Athabasca University Educational Enterprises.
24. ^ a b Peter Turchin, Leonid Grinin, Andrey Korotayev, and Victor C. de Munck., ed (2006). History & Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies. Moscow: KomKniga/URSS. ISBN 5484010020.
25. ^ Winchell, N.H. (1881). Ancient Copper Mines of Isle Royale. 19. New York: Popular Science Monthly. pp. 601–2.
26. ^ a b Fagan, Brian M (1992). People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory. University of California: Harper Collins.
27. ^ a b Fagan, Brian (2005). Ancient *orth America.. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 191–93.
28. ^ "Hopewell Culture - Ohio History Central - A product of the Ohio Historical Society". Ohio Historical Society. 2009. http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1283. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
29. ^ Price, Douglas T; Gary M Feinman (2008). Images of the Past (5 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 274–277. ISBN 978-0-07-340520-9.
30. ^ "A History of the Native People of Canada". Dr. James V. Wright. Canadian Museum of Civilization. 2009. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/hnpc/npvol25e.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
31. ^ Joe, Rita; Lesley Choyce (2005). The *ative Canadian Anthology. Nimbus Publishing. ISBN 1-895900-04-2.
32. ^ Tylor, Colin (1993). Jayne Booth. ed. What do we know about the Plains Indians?. New York City: Peter Bedrick Books. pp. 9.
33. ^ Johnston, Alex (Jul. - Sep., 1970). "Blackfoot Indian Utilisation of the Flora of the Northwestern Great Plains". Economic Botany. pp. 301–324. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4253161. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
34. ^ a b Khatsahlano, August Jack; Charlie, Dominic. (June 1966). Squamish Legends: The First People. Oliver N. Wells. pp. 16.
35. ^ Clark, Ella E (2003). Indian Legends of the Pacific *orthwest. University of California Press. pp. INSERT p.19. ISBN 0520239261.
36. ^ "Iroquois". Historica-Dominion. Canadian Encyclopedia. 2009. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC877040. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
37. ^ Johanson, Bruce E. "Dating the Iroquois Confederacy" (First printed: Akwesasne Notes New Series, Fall—October/November/December—1995, Volume 1 #3 & 4, pp. 62-63.). http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/DatingIC.html. Retrieved 209-10-09.
38. ^ a b Denig, Edwin Thompson; J. N. B. Hewitt (2000). The Assiniboine. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 080613235.
39. ^ a b Bright, William (2004). *ative American Place *ames of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 32.
40. ^ a b Johnston, B (1976). Ojibway heritage. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. 41. ^ McMillan, Alan D. (1999). Since the time of the transformers: The ancient
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See Bibliography of Canadian History for an extensive list of sources.
• Morton, Desmond (2001). A Short History of Canada (5 ed.). ISBN 7215019683. • Flanagan, Thomas (2008). First *ations? : Second Thoughts (2 ed.).
ISBN 0773534431. • Gibson, Karen Bush (2000). The Blackfeet: People of the Dark Moccasins..
Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press,. ISBN 978-0736848244.
External links
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• Aboriginal Canada Portal • Aboriginal Perspectives A National Film Board of Canada website with
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Northern Affairs • First Nations News Wire Service • A History of Aboriginal Treaties and Relations in Canada • First Nations - Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia • Maple Leaf Web: Native Social Issues in Canada • Map of historical territory treaties with Aboriginal peoples in Canada • Museum of Anthropology at UBC • Native Women's Association of Canada • Union of BC Indian Chiefs • Path of the Elders - Explore Treaty 9, Aboriginal Cree & First Nations history.
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Wabash Confederacy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Wabash Confederacy, also referred to as the Wabash Indians or the Wabash
tribes, is a term used to describe a number of 18th century Native American villagers in the area of the Wabash River in what are now the U.S. states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The Wabash Indians were primarily Weas and Piankashaws, but also included Kickapoos, Mascoutens, and others. In that time and place, Native American tribes were not political units, and the villages along the Wabash were multi-tribal settlements with no centralized government. The confederacy, then, was a loose alliance of influential village leaders (sometimes called headmen or chiefs).
In the 1780s, headmen of the Wabash Confederacy allied themselves with a larger, loose confederacy of Native American leaders in the Ohio Country and Illinois Country, in order to collectively resist U.S. expansion after the American Revolutionary War. In 1786, a Wyandot Chief named Half-King warned Congress that the Wabash, Twightwee, and Miami Nations would disrupt U.S. surveyors, and Congress promised reprisals if that occurred.[1] This resistance movement culminated with the Northwest Indian War.
*otes
1. ^ Journals of the Continental Congress. Monday, July 24, 1786, pg 429.
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1800
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1817Statehood · Polly v. Lasselle · Treaty of St. Mary's · Indian RemovalsIndiana · 2nd Indiana Canal Company · Whitewater Canal · Wabash and Erie Canal
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Public Works and Bankruptcy · Underground Railroad · Mexican-American WarConstitution · Civil War · Golden Age · Eli Lilly & Company · Reno GangBoom · Black Day of the General Assembly · Indiana Pi Bill
1900
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Indianapolis Strike and Riots · Samuel Woodfill · Indiana Klan · Great DepresJohn Dillinger · World War II · Freeman Field Mutiny · Shipp & Smith lynchingsFlood of 1937 · Supreme Court Reorganization
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabash_Confederacy" Categories: Native American history | Northwest Indian War | Native Americans in Indiana | Indiana in the Northwest Indian War | Indigenous peoples of North America stubs
Illinois Confederation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Illinois confederacy) Jump to: navigation, search For the former mascot/symbol of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, see Chief Illiniwek.
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The Illinois Confederation,[1] sometimes referred to as the Illiniwek or Illini, were a group of twelve to thirteen Native American tribes in the upper Mississippi River valley of North America. The tribes were the Kaskaskia, the Cahokia, the Peoria, the Tamaroa, Moingwena, Michigamea, Albiui, Amonokoa, Chepoussa, Chinkoa, Coiracoentanon, Espeminkia, Maroa, Matchinkoa, Michibousa, Negawichi, and Tapouara. At the time of European contact in the 17th century, they were believed to number several thousand people.
Contents
• 1 History • 2 Culture • 3 Present day
o 3.1 Popular culture• 4 References • 5 External links
History
When French explorers first journeyed to the region from Canada in the early 17th century, they found the area inhabited by a vigorous, populous Algonquian-speaking nation. What we know today about the Illinois is based on the historical account Jesuit Relations, written by French Jesuit priests. The Relations were the reports written by missionaries who lived among the various native nations and sent back to their superiors in France.
The Illinois spoke various dialects of the Miami-Illinois language, one of the Algonquian language family.
Among the earliest renditions of the modernized, Anglicized term "Illiniwek" were Liniouek (1656), "Aliniouek" (1658), "Alimiwec" (1660), "irini8ak" (1662), and "Ilinioüek" (1667). In 1670 Claude Allouez referred to a band of natives as "IlimoucK" (the editor added an alternative spelling "Iliniouek") in one sentence and "Ilinioüetz" in the next. The English translation changed the latter spelling to "Iliniouetz."[2] In the variable spelling of the times, the name of Allouez was also spelled "Alloues," "Alloez," Aloes," "Aloez," "Aloues," and "Daloes" in these early records. Theorizing great cultural or linguistic significance of minute details of the spellings used in these documents is seen in many circles as an exercise of highly dubious validity.
The name Iliniwek is an old Ojibwe word borrowed into French as "Illinois." The modern Ojibwe word is ininiweg, from /inin/ meaning "regular, ordinary, plain," /we/ meaning "to speak," joined with a connector vowel /i/, and an animate plural suffix /g/, which when combined means "those who speak in the ordinary way, regular way." In turn, this word was borrowed by Ojibwe from the Illinois language, from an original verb irenweewaki,
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which means "they speak in the regular way" or "they speak Illinois." However, due to a similar-sounding word in old Ojibwe—iliniwak (singular as ilini; modern words ininiwag and inini respectively) meaning "men"—the name has been commonly mistranslated as "men," "proud men," "people," etc. This is according to etymological theory based on spelling.
The historical record presents a different view. A 1864 history states that "Erinouek," "Alimouek," "Ilinimouek," "Liniouek," and "Illinoets" are all synonyms of "Illinois," all mean the men.[3] An oft-cited 1674 quote from Marquette follows:
"WHEN one speaks the word “Ilinois,” it is as if one said in their language, “the men,“ — As if the other Savages were looked upon by them merely as animals."[4]
In 1697 Hennepin observed:
"The etymology of this word Illinois comes, as we have said, from the term Illini, which in the language of that Nation signifies a man finished or complete".[5]
"The Lake of the Illinois signifies in the language of these Barbarians, the Lake of the Men. The word Illinois signifies a grown man, who is in the prime of his age and vigor."[6]
The use of "Illinois" to mean "men," "proud men," or "tribe of superor men" is soundly warranted by history. Indeed, an 1871 study offered the Illinois use of "Illinois" as quintessential textbook evidence that the "conviction of personal and tribal excellence stamps itself on every savage language."[7]
Some sources state that the Illinois Tribes' autonym (name for themselves) was Inoka, as documented in the French Jesuit dictionaries of the Illinois language. But that is incorrect.[8] Inoka is a "reconstructed or hypothetical phonemicized form" that a theorist formulated in 2000.[9] It never appeared in any literature until that time. "Illinois," on the other hand, as used by the Illinois people to refer to themselves and by others to refer to the Illinois, was recorded in hundreds of pages of dozens of volumes published before 1800.[10][11]
In the seventeenth century, the Illinois suffered from a combination of exposure to Eurasian infectious diseases, to which they had no natural immunity, and warfare by the expansion of the Iroquois into the eastern Great Lakes region. The Iroquois had hunted out their traditional lands and sought more productive hunting and trapping areas. They sought furs to purchase European goods in the fur trade.
When a Peoria warrior murdered the Ottawa war chief Pontiac in 1769, the northern tribes retaliated against the Illiniwek. They suffered more losses. Many of the Illinois migrated to present-day eastern Kansas to escape the pressure from other tribes and Europeans.
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Culture
The Illini lived in a seasonal cycle related to cultivation of domestic plants and hunting, with movement from semi-permanent villages to hunting camps. They planted crops of maize (corn), beans, and squash, known as the "Three Sisters". They prepared dishes such as sagamite. They also gathered wild foods such as nuts, fruit, roots and tubers. In the hunting season, the men hunted bison, deer, elk, bear, cougar, lynx, turkey, geese and duck. Women prepared the meat for preservation and the hides for equipment and clothing. They tapped maple trees made the sap into a drink or boiled it for syrup and sugar. [12]
Present day
As a consequence of the Indian Removal Act, in the 1830s the Illinois were relocated from where they had migrated to eastern Kansas to northeastern Indian Territory. Today they chiefly reside in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, as the Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma.
Popular culture
The Illinois Confederacy's name inspired the nickname for the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the "Fighting Illini", and the school's symbol "Chief Illiniwek". Due to the Native American mascot controversy, the university retired this symbol on February 21, 2007.
References
1. ^ The Indian Tribes of *orth America, by John R. Swanton. Bulletin (Smithsonian Institution; Bureau of American Ethnology), 145.
2. ^ Thwaites, R.G. (1899) The Jesuit relations and allied documents travels and explorations of the Jesuit missionaries in *ew France, 1610-1791, 236. The English translation is on the next page.
3. ^ Perrot, N. (1864). Mémoire sur les moeurs, coustumes, et relligion des sauvages de l'Amérique Septentrionale, 220.
4. ^ Marquette, J. (1674). Travel and discovery of some countries and nations of *orth America, 20.
5. ^ Hennepin, L. (1697). *ew Discovery of a Vast Country situated in America, between *ew Mexico and the Frozen Ocean, 196.
6. ^ Hennepin, Discovery, 53. 7. ^ Trumbull, J. Hammod (1871), "On Algonkin Names for Man"], 2, 142 8. ^ Fay, J. (2009) Inoka. Retrieved October 21, 2009 from
http://www.illinoisprairie.info/inoka.htm. 9. ^ Costa, David J. 2000. "Miami-Illinois Tribe Names", Papers of the 31st
Algonquian Conference, University of Manitoba Press, p. 46.
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10. ^ Early Canada Online Search Results: 511 pages in 54 documents. (n.d.). Retrieved October 21, 2002 from http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/SearchResults?id=7b37a89949b590f9&query=illinois&range=text&bool=all&subset=all&pubfrom=1600&pubto=1800
11. ^ Fay, J. (2009) Eriniouaj. Retrieved October 21, 2009 from http://www.illinoisprairie.info/Eriniouaj.htm.
12. ^ "The Illiniwek", The Lewis and Clark Journey of Discovery, National Park Service, accessed 29 Sep 2009
Costa, David J. 2000. "Miami-Illinois Tribe Names". In John Nichols, ed., Papers of the Thirty-first Algonquian Conference 30-53. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
External links
• NPS Site on the Illiniwek • Illinois Confederacy • The Illinois • Tribes of the Illinois/Missouri Region at First • The Tribes of The Illinois Confederacy • Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma • "Eye Witness Descriptions of the Contact Generation, 1667 - 1700", Inoca
Ethnohistory Project, Parkland College • Catholic Encyclopedia, "Illinois Indians"
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Confederation" Categories: Algonquian peoples | Native American tribes in Illinois | Native American history
Wyandot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search "Huron" redirects here. For other uses, see Huron (disambiguation).
Wendat
(Huron, Wyandot, Wyandotte)
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Total population
circa 2001: 8,000[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
Canada – Quebec, southwest Ontario
United States – Ohio, Oklahoma, Michigan, Kansas
Languages
French, English, revival of Wendat
Religion
Animism, Roman Catholicism, Other
Related ethnic groups
Petun, other Iroquoian peoples
The Wyandot (also called Huron) are indigenous peoples of North America, known in their native language of the Iroquoian family as the Wendat. The pre-contact people formed in the area of the north shore of present-day Lake Ontario, before migrating to Georgian Bay. It was in their later location that they first encountered explorer Samuel de Champlain in 1615.
The modern Wyandot emerged in the late 17th century from the remnants of two earlier groups, the Huron Confederacy and the Tionontate, called the Petun (tobacco people) by the French because of their cultivation of the crop. They were located in the southern part of what is now the Canadian province of Ontario around Georgian Bay. They were drastically reduced by epidemic diseases after 1634 and dispersed by war in 1649 from the Iroquois of the Haudenosaunee.
Today the Wyandot have a reserve in Quebec, Canada. In addition, they have three major settlements and independently governed, federally recognized tribes in the United States.[1]
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Contents
• 1 Before 1650: Hurons and Petuns o 1.1 Origin, names and organization o 1.2 Culture o 1.3 European contact and Wendat dispersal
• 2 Emergence of the Wyandot o 2.1 20th century to present
Huron-Wendat group - Spencerwood, Quebec City, QC, 1880
While early theories placed Huron origin in the St. Lawrence Valley, with some arguing for a presence near Montreal, archeological findings since the 1950s have demonstrated conclusively they had no habitation there. As historian James F. Pendergast states,
"Indeed, there is now every indication that the late precontact Huron and their immediate antecedents developed in a distinct Huron homeland in southern Ontario along the north shore of Lake Ontario. Subsequently they moved from there to their historic territory on Georgian Bay where they were encountered by Champlain in 1615."
In the early seventeenth century, this Iroquoian people called themselves the autonym Wendat, which means "Dwellers of the Peninsula" or "Islanders". The Wendat historic territory was bordered on three sides by the waters of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe.[3] Early French explorers referred to these natives as the Huron, either from the French huron ("ruffian", "rustic"), or from hure ("boar's head"). According to tradition, French sailors thought that the bristly hairstyle of Wendat warriors resembled that of a boar.[3]
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The Wendat were not a tribe, but a confederacy of four or more tribes with a mutually intelligible language.[4] According to tradition, this Wendat (or Huron) Confederacy was initiated by the Attignawantans (People of the Bear) and the Attigneenongnahacs (People of the Cord), who confederated in the 15th century.[4] They were joined by the Arendarhonons (People of the Rock) about 1590, and the Tahontaenrats (People of the Deer) around 1610.[4] A fifth group, the Ataronchronons (People of the Marshes or Bog), may not have attained full membership in the confederacy,[4] and may have been a division of the Attignawantan.[5]
The largest Wendat settlement, and capital of the confederacy, was located at Ossossane, near modern-day Elmvale, Ontario. They called their traditional territory Wendake.[6]
Closely related to the people of the Huron Confederacy were the Tionontate[7], a group whom the French called the Petun (Tobacco People), for their cultivation of that crop. They lived further south and were divided into two groups: the Deer and the Wolves.[8] Considering that they formed the nucleus of the tribe later known as the Wyandot, they too may have called themselves Wendat.[9]
Culture
Like other Iroquoian people, the Huron were farmers who supplemented their diet with hunting and fishing.[4] Maize (corn) was the mainstay of their diet, which was supplemented primarily by fish, although they hunted and ate some venison and other meats available during the game seasons.[10] Women did most of the agricultural work, although men helped in the heaviest work of clearing the fields. This was usually done by the slash and burn method of clearing trees and brush. [11] Men did most of the fishing and hunting, and constructed the houses, canoes, and tools.[12] Each family owned a plot of land which they farmed; this land reverted to the common property of the tribe when the family no longer used it.[13]
Huron lived in villages spanning from one to ten acres (40,000 m²), most of which were fortified in defense against enemy attack. They lived in long houses, similar to other Iroquoian cultural groups. The typical village had 900 to 1600 people organized into 30 or 40 longhouses.[7] Villages were moved about every ten years as the soil became less fertile and the nearby forest, which provided firewood, grew thin.[14] The Huron engaged in trade with neighboring tribes, notably for tobacco with the neighboring Petun and Neutral nations.[15]
Tuberculosis (TB) was endemic among the Huron, aggravated by the close and smoky living conditions in the longhouses.[16] Huron on the whole were healthy, however; the Jesuits wrote that the Huron were "more healthy than we."[17]
European contact and Wendat dispersal
See also: Jesuit missions in North America
147
Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, Gabriel Sagard, 1632.
The earliest written accounts of the Huron were made by the French, who began exploring North America in the 16th century. News of the Europeans reached the Huron, particularly when Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River in the early 1600s. Some Huron decided to go and meet the Europeans. Atironta, the principal headman of the Arendarhonon tribe, went to Quebec and made an alliance with the French in 1609.
The total population of the Huron at the time of European contact has been estimated at about 20,000 to 40,000 people.[18] From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by Eurasian infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Epidemiological studies have shown that beginning in 1634, more European children immigrated with their families to the New World from cities in France, England, and the Netherlands that had endemic smallpox. Historians believe the disease spread from the children to the Huron and other nations.[7] Numerous Huron villages and areas were permanently abandoned. About two-thirds of the population died in the epidemics,[18] decreasing the population to about 12,000.[7]
Before the French arrived, the Huron had already been in conflict with the Iroquois nations to the south. Several thousand Huron lived as far south as present-day central West Virginia along the Kanawha River by the late 1500s, but they were driven out by the Iroquois' invading from present-day New York in the 1600s.[19] Once the European powers became involved in trading, the conflict among natives intensified significantly as they struggled to control the trade. The French allied with the Huron, because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time.[citation needed] The Iroquois tended to ally with
148
the English, who used their longstanding competition with the Huron and new French allies.
Introduction of European weapons and the fur trade increased the severity of inter-tribal warfare. On March 16th, 1649, an Iroquois war party of about 1000 burned the Huron mission villages of St. Ignace and St. Louis in present-day Simcoe County Ontario, Canada, killing about 300 people. They also killed many of the Jesuit missionaries (see North American Martyrs). Surviving Jesuits burned the mission after abandoning it to prevent its capture. The Iroquois attack shocked the Huron. By May 1, 1649, the Huron burned 15 of their villages to prevent their stores from being taken and fled as refugees to surrounding tribes. About 10,000 fled to Gahoendoe (Christian Island). Most who fled to the island starved over the winter, as it was a non-productive settlement and could not provide for them. Those who survived were believed to have resorted to cannibalism to do so. After spending the bitter winter of 1649-50 on Gahoendoe, surviving Huron relocated near Quebec City, where they settled at Wendake. Absorbing other refugees, they became the Huron-Wendat Nation.
Emergence of the Wyandot
In the late 17th century, elements of the Huron Confederacy and the Petun joined together and became known as the Wyandot (or Wyandotte), a variation of Wendat.[4] The western Wyandot eventually re-formed across the border in the area of present-day Ohio and southern Michigan in the United States. Some descendants of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon still live in Ohio and Michigan. In 1819, the Methodist Church established its first mission to Native Americans with a mission to the Wyandot in Ohio.[20]
In the 1840s, most of the surviving Wyandot people were displaced to Kansas through the US federal policy of forced Indian removal. In 1867 after the American Civil War, additional members removed from the Midwest to Oklahoma. Today more than 4,000 Wyandot can be found in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma.
In June 1853, Big Turtle, a chief of the Wyandot tribe, wrote to the Ohio State Journal regarding the current condition of his tribe. The Wyandot received nearly $127,000 for their lands in 1845. Big Turtle noted that, in the spring of 1850, the tribal chiefs retroceded the granted land to the government. $100,000 of the proceeds was invested in 5% government stock.[21]
Removed from Ohio to the Indian Territory, the Wyandot tribe had founded good libraries along with two thriving Sabbath Schools. They were in the process of organizing a division of the Sons of Temperance and maintained a sizable Temperance Society. Big Turtle commented on the agricultural yield, which produced an annual surplus for market. He said that the thrift of the Wyandot exceeded that of any tribe north of the Arkansas line. According to an 1853 *ew York Times article, the Wyandot nation was "contented and happy", and enjoyed better living conditions in the Indian Territory than formerly in Ohio.[21]
149
A United States government treaty ceded the Wyandot Nation a small portion of fertile land located in an acute angle of the Missouri River and Kansas River. In addition, the government granted thirty-two "floating sections", located on public lands west of the Mississippi River. By 1855 the number of Wyandot had diminished to 600 or 700. On August 14 of that year the Wyandot nation elected a chief. The Kansas correspondent of the Missouri Republican reported that the judges of the election were three elderly braves who were trusted by their peers. Some of the floating sections of land were offered for sale on the same day at a price of $800. A section was composed of 640 acres (2.6 km2). Altogether 20,480 acres (82.9 km2) were sold for $25,600. They were located in Kansas, Nebraska, and unspecified sites. Surveys were not required, with the title becoming complete at the time of location.[22]
An October 1855 article in The *ew York Times reported that the Wyandot were free (that is, they had been accepted as US citizens) and without the restrictions placed on other tribes. Their leaders were unanimously pro-slavery, which meant 900 or 1,000 additional votes in opposition to the Free State movement of Kansas.[23]
The last of the original Wyandot of Ohio was Margaret "Grey Eyes" Solomon, a.k.a. "Mother Solomon". The daughter of Chief John Grey Eyes, she was born in 1816 and departed Ohio in 1843. By 1889 she had returned to Ohio, when she was recorded as a spectator to the restoration of the Wyandot's "Old Mission Church", a Wyandot Mission Church at Upper Sandusky. She died in Upper Sandusky on August 17, 1890.[24] For photograph see this reference site.
[edit] 20th century to present
In February 1985 the U.S. government agreed to pay descendants of the Wyandot $5.5 million. The decision settled the 143-year-old treaty, which in 1842 forced the tribe to sell their Ohio lands for less than fair value. A spokesman for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) said that the government would pay $1,600 each, in July 1985, to 3,600 people in Kansas and Oklahoma who could prove they were Wyandot descendants.[25]
A program founded in the 1940s to address grievances filed by various Native American tribes allocated $800 million to rectify promises broken by settlers who invaded their territories. The Wyandot settlement was based on the 1830 Indian Removal law, which required Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River. Originally the Wyandot were paid 75 cents per acre for land that was worth $1.50 an acre.[25]
In 1999, representatives of the far-flung Wyandot bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario. They formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy.
Each modern Wyandot community is an autonomous band:
• Huron-Wendat Nation, at Wendake, now within the Quebec City limits, approximately 3,000 members
150
• Wyandot Nation of Anderdon, in Michigan, with headquarters in Trenton, Michigan, perhaps 800 members
• Wyandot Nation of Kansas, with headquarters in Kansas City, Kansas, perhaps 400 members
• Wyandotte Nation,[26] a federally recognized tribe headquartered in Wyandotte, Oklahoma, with 4,300 members.[27]
The Wyandot Nation of Kansas has had legal battles with the Wyandotte Nationa of Oklahoma over the Huron Cemetery in Kansas City, Kansas. It has been a point of contention for more than 100 years. Because of complications from the Indian removal process, the land was legally under control of the Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma, who wanted to redevelop it for the benefit of its people. Members of the local Kansas Wyandot strongly opposed most such proposals, which would have required reinterment of Indian remains, including many of their direct ancestors. In 1998 the two nations finally agreed to preserve the cemetery for religious, cultural and other uses appropriate to its sacred history and use.
The approximately 3,000 Wyandot in Quebec are primarily Catholic and speak French as a first language. They have begun to promote the study and use of the Wyandot language among their children. For many decades, a leading source of income for the Wyandot of Quebec has been selling pottery and other locally produced crafts.
[edit] *otes
1. ^ "First Nations Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml.
2. ^ James F. Pendergast, "The Confusing Identities Attributed to Stadacona and Hochelaga", Journal of Canadian Studies, Winter 1998, pp. 3-4, accessed 3 Feb 2010
3. ^ a b Trigger, Children of Aataentsic, 27. 4. ^ a b c d e f Dickason, "Huron/Wyandot", 263–65. 5. ^ Trigger, Children of Aataentsic, 30. 6. ^ Huron 7. ^ a b c d Gary Warrick, "European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the
Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun)", World Archaeology 35 (October 2003), 258–275.
8. ^ Garrad and Heidenreich, "Khionontateronon (Petun)", Handbook of *orth American Indians, Smithsonian Institution, 394.
9. ^ Steckley, Wendat Dialects 10. ^ Heidenreich, "Huron", Handbook of the *orth American Indian, Smithsonian
16. ^ P. C. Hartney, "Tuberculosis lesions in a prehistoric population sample from southern Ontario", in Jane E. Buikstra, ed., Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas, Northwestern University Archaeological Program Scientific Papers No. 5, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. 1981, 141-160. OCLC 7197014
17. ^ Heidenreich, Huron, 379. 18. ^ a b Heidenreich, Huron, 369. 19. ^ Dr. Robert J. Dilger and James Marshall, "Kanawha County History", Institute
for Public Affairs, West Virginia University, 21 Feb 2002, accessed 31 Oct 2009 20. ^ "United Methodist Church Timeline", General Archives, Methodist Church,
accessed 25 Apr 2010 21. ^ a b "Civilization of the Wyandot Indians"], *ew York Times, June 1, 1853, Page
3. 22. ^ "Wyandot Indians holding an Election-Their Land Claims", *ew York Times,
August 24, 1855, Page 2. 23. ^ "Affairs In Kansas", *ew York Times, October 2, 1855, Page 2. 24. ^ Howe, Henry. Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio. Volume 2. pp. 900-902. 25. ^ a b "Wyandot Indians Win $5.5 Million Settlement", *ew York Times, February
11, 1985, Page A10 26. ^ Federal Register, Volume 73, Number 66 dated April 4, 2008 (73 FR 18553).
pdf file (retrieved 26 Feb 2009) 27. ^ Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. Oklahoma Indian *ations Pocket
Pictorial Directory, 2008: 38 (retrieved 26 Feb 2009)
References
• Dickason, Olive Patricia. "Huron/Wyandot". Encyclopedia of *orth American Indians, 263–65, Ed. Frederick E. Hoxie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. ISBN 0-395-66921-9.
• Steckley, John. "Wendat Dialects and the Development of the Huron Alliance" • Trigger, Bruce G. The Huron: Farmers of the *orth, New York: Holt, 1969.
ISBN 0-03-079550-8. • Trigger, Bruce G. The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to
1660. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. 1987. ISBN 0-7735-0627-6
• Gabriel Sagard, Le grand voyage au pays des Hurons (Paris, 1632)
Further reading
• Clarke, Peter Dooyentate. Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandotts, and Sketches of Other Indian Tribes of *orth America, True Traditional Stories of Tecumseh and His League, Global Language Press, 2006. Reprint of 1870 history written by a Wyandot. ISBN 0-9738924-9-8
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Official tribal websites
• Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma • Wyandot Nation of Kansas • Wyandot of Anderdon Nation, Michigan • Huron-Wendat Nation, Wendake, Quebec
Other
• Sagard’s Dictionary of Huron - The earliest and one of the most complete dictionaries of the Huron language
• Huron Indian Cemetery in Kansas City • Kanata: Legacy of the Children of Aataentsic, 1999 documentary • Indian Mill State Park - displays examples of the written version of the Wyandot
language.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyandot" Categories: First Nations in Ontario | First Nations in Quebec | Indigenous peoples of North America | Native American tribes in Oklahoma | Wyandot people
Mississaugas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search For the city, see Mississauga.
The Mississaugas are a subtribe of the Anishinaabe-speaking First Nations people located in southern Ontario, Canada. They are closely related to the Ojibwa. The name "Mississauga" comes from the Anishinaabe word Misi-zaagiing, meaning "[Those at the] Great River-mouth."
Contents
• 1 History • 2 Legacy • 3 Today • 4 References
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History
According to the oral histories of the Anishinaabe, after departing the "Second Stopping Place" near Niagara Falls, the core Anishinaabe peoples migrated along the shores of Lake Erie to what is now southern Michigan. They became "lost" both physically and spiritually. The Mississaugas migrated along a northern route by the Credit River, to Georgian Bay. These were considered their historic traditional lands on the shores of Lake Superior and northern Lake Huron around the Mississagi River. The Mississaugas called for the core Anishinaabe to Midewiwin (return to the path of the good life). The core Anishinaabe peoples formed the Council of Three Fires and migrated from their "Third Stopping Place" near the present city of Detroit to their "Fourth Stopping Place" on Manitoulin Island, along the eastern shores of Georgian Bay.
By the time the French explorers arrived in 1634, the Mississaugas were a distinct tribe of Anishinaabe peoples, living along the Mississagi River and on Manitoulin Island. They had moved from the Mississagi River area southward into the Kawartha lakes region. From this location, a smaller contingent moved southwest to an area along the Credit River, just west of modern-day Toronto. The French identified the peoples as Mississauga.
Alternate spellings of the name are Mississaga, Massassauga and Missisauga, plural forms of these three, and "Mississauga Indians". Before the Anishinaabe language replaced the Wyandot language in mid-17th century as the lingua franca of the Great Lakes region, the Mississaugas were also known by the name (exonym) which the Wendat called them.
When Conrad Weiser conducted a census in Logstown in 1748, he identified the people as Tisagechroamis, his attempt at conveying the sound of their exonym, name in Wendat. Other variants of the spelling were Tisagechroamis, Tisaghechroamis, Tisagechroan, Tisagechroanu and Zisaugeghroanu. "The Tisagechroanu were the Mississagas from Lake Huron, a large tribe and French Indians, or under French influences. The name Tisagechroanue here is probably a misprint, for it is most often found Zisaugeghroanu."[1]
In the waning years of the American Revolution, starting in 1781, the British Crown purchased land from the Mississauga in a series of transactions that encompassed much of present-day southern Ontario. They wanted to make land grants to Loyalists who left property in the Thirteen Colonies to reward them for loyalty, and the Crown also wanted to develop this area of the country with farms and towns. In the 21st century, the Canadian government awarded the Mississisaugas First Nation nearly $145 million in settlement of a land claim because of the Crown's underpayment in the 18th century.
Legacy
• The city of Mississauga is named after them. • Western and Eastern Massassauga rattlesnake are named after them.
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Today
Historically, there were five First Nations that made up the Mississauga *ations. Today, the six Mississauga nations are the following (listed under their historical counterpart, if applicable):
• Mississauga First Nation — Mississagi River 8 Reserve o Mississaugas of Chibaouinani (historical)
• Alderville First Nation (formerly: Mississaugas of Alnwick) — Alderville First Nation Reserve, Sugar Island 37A Reserve
• Mississaugas of Credit (historical) o Mississaugas of Beldom (historical) o Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation — New Credit 40A Reserve
• Mississaugas of Matchedash (historical) • Mississaugas of Rice Lake, Mud Lake and Scugog Lake (historical)
o Curve Lake First Nation (formerly: Mississaugas of Mud Lake) — Curve Lake First Nation 35 Reserve, Curve Lake 35A Reserve and Islands in the Trent Waters Indian Reserve 36A
o Mississaugas of Grape Island (historical) o Hiawatha First Nation (formerly: Mississaugas of Rice Lake) — Hiawatha
First Nation Indian Reserve, Islands in the Trent Waters Indian Reserve 36A
o Mississaugas of Scugog Island First Nation — Mississaugas of Scugog Island Reserve, Islands in the Trent Waters Indian Reserve 36A
One of the largest is the Mississaugas of the *ew Credit First *ations. As of 2005, the Mississaugas of New Credit have a population of 1,375. All the Mississisaugas are a small part of the Ojibwa nation of 200,000 people.
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
1. ^ George Thornton Fleming, Vol. 1, History of Pittsburgh and environs, from prehistoric days to the beginning of the American revolution, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Digital Research Library, 1999
• Mississaugas of Alderville First Nation • United Anishnaabeg Council • Ogemawahj Tribal Council • Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nations
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• Mississuagas of the New Credit First Nations
[hide] v • d • e
Anishinaabe
Tribes
Council of Three FiresOjibwe · Ottawa · Potawatomi
CultureOjibwe language · Anishinaabe traditional beliefs · Midewiwin · system · Wiigwaasabak
Political organizations
Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs · Chiefs of Ontario · Grand Council of Treaty 3Council of Treaty 8
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Menominee
Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Menominee (disambiguation).
Some placenames use other spellings, see also Menomonee and Menomonie.
Menominee
Total population
5,000–10,000
Regions with significant populations
United States (Wisconsin)
Languages
English, Menominee
Religion
Christianity, Animism
Related ethnic groups
Fox, Kickapoo and other Algonquian peoples
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The Menominee (also spelled Menomini; known as Mamaceqtaw, "the people" in their own language) are a nation of Native Americans living in Wisconsin. The Menominee, along with the Ho-Chunk, are the only tribes that are indigenous to what is now Wisconsin. The name "Menominee" comes from the Ojibwe name manoominii, meaning "wild rice people",[1] as wild rice is one of their most important traditional staples.
Contents
• 1 Menominee Indian Reservation o 1.1 History of the Reservation o 1.2 Communities
• 2 History of the Menominee o 2.1 The Menominee Tribe and the Termination Era
The Menominee Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation located in northeastern Wisconsin. For the most part, it is conterminous with Menominee County and the town of Menominee. However, there are many small pockets of territory within the county (and its geographically equivalent town) that are not considered to be part of the reservation. These pockets amount to a fairly small 1.14 percent of the county's area, so that, essentially, the reservation is only about 98.86 percent of the county's area. The largest of these pockets is in the western part of the community of Keshena. Furthermore, the reservation has a plot of off-reservation trust land of 10.22 acres (41,400 m2) in Winnebago County, to the south, west of the city of Oshkosh. The reservation's total land area is 353.894 sq mi (916.581 km²), while Menominee County's land area is 357.960 sq mi (927.111 km²). The non-reservation parts of the county are actually much more densely populated than the reservation, with 1,337 (29.3%) of the county's 4,562 total population, as opposed to the reservation's 3,225 (70.7%) population in the 2000 census.[2] (The plot of land in Winnebago County is unpopulated.) The most populous communities are Legend Lake and Keshena. They operate a number of gambling facilities and speak the Menominee language.[3]
History of the Reservation
The reservation was created in a treaty signed on May 12, 1854 in which the Menominee relinquished all claims to the lands given to them under previous treaties, and were assigned 432 square miles (1,120 km2) on the Wolf River. An additional treaty signed on February 11, 1856 carved out the southwestern corner of this area, creating a separate reservation for the Stockbridge and Munsee tribes. These are the same boundaries in existence today.
Communities
• Keshena (most, population 1,168) • Legend Lake (most, population 853) • Middle Village (part, population 106) • Neopit (most, population 637) • Zoar (most, population 35)
History of the Menominee
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Amiskquew, a mid-19th century Menominee warrior, painted by Charles Bird King.
Spearing Salmon By Torchlight, an oil painting by Paul Kane depicting Menominees spearfishing at night by torchlight and canoe on Fox River.
Dan Waupoose, a Menomini chief; Algiers, La. U.S. Navy photograph, August 24, 1943.
The tribe formerly lived in what is now upper Michigan around Mackinac. John Reed Swanton records in his The Indian Tribes of *orth America under the "Wisconsin" section listing "Menominee" a band named "Misi'nimäk Kimiko Wini'niwuk, 'Michilimackinac People,' near the old fort at Mackinac, Mich."[4] Father Frederic Baraga in his dictionary records "Mishinimakinago; pl.-g.—This name is given to some strange Indians, (according to the sayings of the Otchipwes,) who are rowing through the woods, and who are sometimes heard shooting, but never seen. And from this word, the name of the village of Mackinac, or Michillimackinac, is derived."[5] After selling their lands to the U.S. government through seven treaties from 1821 to 1848, they were moved to their
160
present reservation. Although their customs are quite similar to those of the Chippewa (Ojibwa), their language has a closer affinity to those of the Fox and Kickapoo tribes.
An Eastern Woodlands tribe, the Menominee belong to the Algonquian language branch of North America. They were known as "folles avoines" (wild or foolish oats) by the early French. The Menominees formerly subsisted on a wide variety of plants and animals, with wild rice and sturgeon being two of the most important foods; feasts are still held annually at which each of these is served. The five principal Menominee clans are the Bear, the Eagle, the Wolf, the Crane, and the Moose.
The Menominee Tribe and the Termination Era
During the 1940s, the Menominee were identified for a U.S. program of termination, legally ending the Menominee's status as a sovereign nation. The Klamath in Oregon were the only other tribal group also identified for termination. The Menominee were chosen for termination because it was believed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs they were economically self-reliant from the timber industry to be free of federal oversight.
In 1954, Congress passed a law which phased out the Menominee reservation, effectively terminating its tribal status on April 30, 1961. Commonly held tribal property was transferred to a corporation, Menominee Enterprises, Inc. (MEI). The area of the former reservation became a new county.
The plan was a failure, resulting in diminished standards of living for the members of the tribe, and forcing the closure of the hospital and some schools. Menominee County, Wisconsin, was the poorest and least populated Wisconsin county during this time, and termination further devastated the region. The tribal industry alone could not sustain the community, and the tax base could not fund basic services for the Menominee. MEI funds, which totaled $10 million in 1954, dwindled to $300,000 in 1964.[6] A 1967 plan by MEI to raise money by selling off former tribal lands to non-Native Americans resulted in a fierce backlash.
Community members began an organizing campaign to restore political sovereignty to the Menominee. Former tribe members, among them Ada Deer, an organizer who would later go on to a career as an advocate for Native Americans at the federal level, formed a group called the Determination of Rights and Unity for Menominee Stockholders (DRUMS) in 1970. The organization was successful at blocking the sale of tribal land to non-Indian developers. They successfully fought for control of the MEI board of directors and lobbied Congress to restore their status as a federally recognized sovereign tribe.[7]
The lobbying was successful, resulting in a bill signed by Richard Nixon on December 22, 1973, which recognized the tribe again and started them on the path towards reforming a reservation. The reservation was reformed in 1975, a tribal constitution was signed in 1976, and the new tribal government took over in 1979.
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Culture
Menominee mythology is rich with ethical meaning and interrelated in complex ways with the sacred literature of Native American people.
The Menominee believed that the earth was separating the upper and lower worlds. The upper world represented good and the lower world represented evil. These two worlds were divided into several layers, the furthest being the most powerful. The sun was at the highest level in the upper world, followed by the Thunderbird and the Morning Star; the Golden Eagles (symbols of war); and other birds led by the Bald Eagle. The first level below the earth in the lower world was occupied by the Horned Serpent. The next level was the home of the White Deer, which contributed to the origins of the Medicine Dance. The next level was the Underwater Panther. The lowest level was ruled by the Great White Bear.
The Menominee used dreaming as a way of connecting with a guardian spirit in order to gain power. During puberty, both boys and girls would fast for days, living in a small isolated wigwam. Medicine men would then interpret their dreams of spirits in animal form and would inform the youngster what responsibilities he or she owed to the guardian spirit.[8]
Current tribal activities
The Menominee have a community college called the College of the Menominee Nation, which contains a Sustainable Development Institute.[9]
The tribe also owns and operates a Las Vegas style casino, bingo and hotel that has been in operation since June 5, 1987. Approximately 79 percent of the Menominee Casino-Bingo-Hotel's 500 employees are of Native American descent or are spouses of Native Americans.[10]The nation also has a notable forestry resource and ably manages a timber program. [11]
*otable Menominees
• Chief Oshkosh (1795–1858) • Chrystos, a Two-Spirit identified poet • Ada Deer—Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs, 1993–1997 • Ingrid Washinawatok—Co-Founder, Fund for the Four Directions, indigenous
1. ^ Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of *ative America. Oxford: Oxford University Press., pg. 401, n. 134.
2. ^ Menominee Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land, Wisconsin United States Census Bureau
3. ^ Menominee Language and the Menominee Indian Tribe (Menomini, Mamaceqtaw)
4. ^ Swanton, John R. (1952). Indian Tribes of *orth America. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Reprinted by the Smithsonian Institution, 1974, 1979, 1984.
5. ^ Baraga, Frederic (1878). A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language. Montreal: Beauchemin & Valois, v. 2, p. 248.
6. ^ Tiller, Veronica. Tiller's Guide to Indian Country: Economic Profiles of American Indian Reservations. Bowarrow Publishing Company, 1996. ISBN 1-885931-01-8.
7. ^ Milwaukee Public Museum - Indian Country Wisconsin. http://www.mpm.edu/wirp/ICW-97.html. Last accessed 06/30/2008. See also: Nancy O. Lurie, (1971) “Menominee Termination,” Indian Historian, 4(4): 31-43. (1972) “Menominee Termination: From Reservation to Colony,” Human Organization, 31: 257-269; (1987) “Menominee Termination and Restoration,” in Donald L.Fixico, ed., An Anthology of Western Great Lakes Indians Hisory (Milwaukee: American Indian Studies Program): 439-478.
8. ^ Menominee Culture - Indian Country Wisconsin 9. ^ http://www.sustainabledevelopmentinstitute.org/ 10. ^ About Us 11. ^ Alan McQuillan, "American Indian Timber Management Policy: Its Evolution
in the Context o fU. S. Forest History," in Trusteeship in Change: Toward Tribal Autonomy in Resource Management, eds. R. L. Clow and I Sutton (University Press of Colorado, 2001): 73–102.
References
• Beck, David R. M. (2005) The Struggle for Self-Determination: History of the Menominee Indians Since 1854. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
• Davis, Thomas (2000). Sustaining the Forest, the People, and the Spirit. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York.
• Nichols, Phebe Jewell (Mrs. Angus F. Lookaround). Oshkosh The Brave: Chief of the Menominees, and His Family. Menominee Indian Reservation, 1954.
External links
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• Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin • The Menominee Myth of the Flood – in Relation to Life Today • Excerpt of "Wisconsin" entry in Swanton's works • Information regarding Menominee clans at University of Wisconsin, Stevens
Point • "Menominee Indians". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
• Information on treaties between the United States and the Menominee • "Menominee Termination and Restoration" from the Milwaukee Public Museum
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Other topicsBlack Hawk Purchase • Black Hawk Tree • Keokuk's Reserve • Warrior
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Shawnee
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Native American tribe. For other uses, see Shawnee
(disambiguation).
Shawnee
Shawnee portraits
Total population
14,000 (7584 enrolled)[1]
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Regions with significant populations
Oklahoma[1]
Languages
Shawnee, English
Religion
traditional beliefs and Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Sac and Fox
The Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki, [2] are an Algonquian-speaking people native to North America. Historically they inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. Today there are three federally recognized Shawnee tribes: Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma, and Shawnee Tribe, all of which are headquartered in Oklahoma.
Contents
• 1 History o 1.1 Early historyo 1.2 Sixty Years' Waro 1.3 After the war
• 2 Groups • 3 Flags of the Shawnee• 4 Coins of the Shawnee• 5 Famous Shawnee • 6 See also • 7 Notes • 8 References • 9 External links
History
Early history
The prehistoric origins of the Shawnees are uncertain. The other Algonquian nations regarded the Shawnee as their southernmost branch. The Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas. Algonquian languages have words similar to the
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archaic shawano (now: shaawanwa) meaning "south". However, the stem shaawa- does not mean "south" in Shawnee, but "moderate, warm (of weather)". In one Shawnee tale, Shaawaki is the deity of the south. Some scholars have speculated that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the prehistoric Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio country, although no definitive proof has been established.[3]
Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a widespread geographic area. The earliest mention of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing the Sawwanew just east of the Delaware River. Later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in this same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where they encountered them on forays from Canada and the Illinois Country.[4]
According to one legend, the Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618-1644, to settle in the Shenandoah Valley. The party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee, for whom they were named. [5] Edward Bland, an explorer who accompanied Abraham Wood's expedition in 1650, wrote that in Opechancanough's day, there had been a falling-out between the "Chawan" chief and the weroance of the Powhatan (also a relative of Opechancanough's family). He said the latter had murdered the former.[6] Explorers Batts and Fallam in 1671 reported that the Shawnee were contesting the Shenandoah Valley with Iroquois in that year, and were losing. By the time European-American settlers began to arrive in the Valley (c. 1730), the Iroquois had departed. The Shawnee were then the sole residents of the northern part.
Sometime before 1670, a group of Shawnee migrated to the Savannah River area. The English based in Charles Town, South Carolina were contacted by these Shawnees in 1674. They forged a long-lasting alliance. The Savannah River Shawnee were known to the Carolina English as "Savannah Indians". Around the same time, other Shawnee groups migrated to Florida, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other regions south and east of the Ohio country.
Historian Alan Gallay speculates that the Shawnee migrations of the middle to late 17th century were probably driven by the Iroquois Wars that began in the 1640s. The Shawnee became known for their widespread settlements from modern Illinois and New York to Georgia. Among their known villages were Eskippakithiki, Sonnionto, and Suwanee, Georgia. Their language became a lingua franca for trade among numerous tribes. They became leaders among the tribes, initiating and sustaining pan-Indian resistance to European and Euro-American expansion.[7]
Prior to 1754, the Shawnee had a headquarters at Shawnee Springs at modern-day Cross Junction, Virginia near Winchester. The father of the later Chief Cornstalk held his court there. Two other Shawnee villages existed in the Shenandoah Valley: one at Moorefield, West Virginia, and one on the North River. In 1753, messengers came from Shawnees to the west, inviting the Virginia people to leave the Shenandoah Valley and cross the
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Alleghenies. The Shawnee migrated west the following year,[8][9] joining Shawnee on the Scioto River in the Ohio country.
The Iroquois later claimed the Ohio Country by right of conquest and treated the Shawnee and Delaware who resettled there as dependent tribes. Some independent Iroquois bands from various tribes also migrated westward, where they became known in Ohio as the Mingo. These three tribes — the Shawnee, the Delaware, and the Mingo — then became closely associated with one another, despite the differences in their languages.
Sixty Years' War
After the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755, many Shawnee fought as allies of their trading partners the French during the early years of the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). In 1758 they settled with the British colonists, signing the Treaty of Easton in 1758. When the British defeated the French in 1763, other Shawnee joined Pontiac's Rebellion against the British, which failed a year later.
The British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 during Pontiac's Rebellion, to draw a boundary line between the British colonies in the east and the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains. They were trying to settle points of conflict with the Indians and establish a reserve for them. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, however, extended that line westwards, giving the British a claim to what is now West Virginia and Kentucky. The Shawnee did not agree to this treaty: it was negotiated between British officials and the Iroquois, who claimed sovereignty over the land, although Shawnee and other Native American tribes also hunted there.
After the Stanwix treaty, Anglo-Americans began pouring into the Ohio River Valley for settlement. Violent incidents between settlers and Indians escalated into Dunmore's War in 1774. British diplomats managed to isolate the Shawnee during the conflict: the Iroquois and the Delaware stayed neutral. The Shawnee faced the British colony of Virginia with only a few Mingo allies. Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, launched a two-pronged invasion into the Ohio Country. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk attacked one wing but fought to a draw in the only major battle of the war, the Battle of Point Pleasant.
In the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, Cornstalk and the Shawnee were compelled to recognize the Ohio River boundary established by the 1768 Stanwix treaty. Many other Shawnee leaders refused to recognize this boundary, however. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, several Shawnee chiefs advocated joining the war as British allies to drive the colonists back across the mountains. The Shawnee were divided: Cornstalk led those who wished to remain neutral, while war leaders such as Chief Blackfish and Blue Jacket fought as British allies.
After the Revolution, in the Northwest Indian War between the United States and a confederation of Native American tribes, the Shawnee combined with the Miami into a
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great fighting force. After the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, most of the Shawnee bands signed the Treaty of Greenville the next year. They were forced to cede large parts of their homeland to the United States. Other Shawnee groups rejected this treaty and migrated to Missouri, where they settled near Cape Girardeau.
By 1800, only the Chillicothe and Mequachake tribes remained in Ohio, while the Hathawekela, Kispokotha, and Piqua had migrated to Missouri. From 1805, a minority of Shawnee joined the pan-tribal movement of Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa. This led to Tecumseh's War and his death at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. This was the last attempt by the Shawnee nation to defend the Ohio country from European-American expansion.
“[Governor William Harrison,] you have the liberty to return to your own country ... you wish to prevent the Indians from doing as we wish them, to unite and let them consider their lands as common property of the whole ... You never see an Indian endeavor to make the white people do this ... Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the great sea, as well as the earth? Did not the Great Spirit make them all for the use of his children? How can we have confidence in the white people?”
—— Tecumseh, 1810[10]
After the war
The Shawnee in Missouri became known as the "Absentee Shawnee." Several hundred members of this tribe left the United States together with some Delaware to settle in the eastern part of Spanish Texas. Although closely allied with the Cherokee led by The Bowl, their chief John Linney remained neutral during the 1839 Cherokee War. In appreciation, Texan president Mirabeau Lamar fully compensated the Shawnee for their improvements and crops when funding their removal north to Arkansaw Territory.[11] The Shawnee settled close to present-day Shawnee, Oklahoma. They were joined by Shawnee from Kansas who shared their traditionalist views and beliefs.
In 1817, the Ohio Shawnee signed the Treaty of Fort Meigs, ceding their remaining lands in exchange for three reservations in Wapaughkonetta, Hog Creek (near Lima) and Lewistown, Ohio. They shared these lands with the Seneca.
Missouri joined the Union in 1821. After the Treaty of St. Louis in 1825, the 1,400 Missouri Shawnees were forcibly relocated from Cape Girardeau to southeastern Kansas, close to the Neosho River.
During 1833, only Black Bob's band of Shawnee resisted removal. They settled in northeastern Kansas near Olathe and along the Kansas (Kaw) River in Monticello near Gum Springs. The Shawnee Methodist Mission was built nearby to minister to the tribe. About 200 of the Ohio Shawnee followed the Prophet Tenskwatawa and joined their Kansas brothers and sisters in 1826.
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The main body followed Black Hoof, who fought every effort to force the Shawnee to give up the Ohio homeland. In 1831, the Lewistown group of Seneca-Shawnee left for the Indian territory (present-day Oklahoma). After the death of Black Hoof, the remaining 400 Ohio Shawnee in Wapaughkonetta and Hog Creek surrendered their land and moved to the Shawnee Reserve in Kansas.
During the American Civil War, Black Bob's band fled from Kansas and joined the "Absentee Shawnee" in Oklahoma to escape the war. After the Civil War, the Shawnee in Kansas were expelled and forced to move to northeastern Oklahoma. The Shawnee members of the former Lewistown group became known as the "Eastern Shawnee".
The former Kansas Shawnee became known as the "Loyal Shawnee" (some say this is because of their allegiance with the Union during the war; others say this is because they were the last group to leave their Ohio homelands). The latter group was regarded as part of the Cherokee Nation by the United States because they were also known as the "Cherokee Shawnee". In 2000 the "Loyal" or "Cherokee" Shawnee finally received federal recognition independent of the Cherokee Nation. They are now known as the "Shawnee Tribe". Today, most of the members of the Shawnee nation still reside in Oklahoma.
Groups
Before contact with Europeans, the Shawnee tribe consisted of a loose confederacy of five divisions which shared a common language and culture. The division names have been spelled in a variety of ways, but the phonetic spelling is added after each, following the work of C. F. Voegelin.
Membership in a division was inherited from the father, unlike the matrilineal descent often associated with other tribes. Each division had a primary village where the chief of the division lived. This village was usually named after the division. By tradition, each Shawnee division had certain roles it performed on behalf of the entire tribe. By the time they were recorded in writing by European-Americans, these strong social traditions were fading. They remain poorly understood. Because of the scattering of the Shawnee people from the 17th century through the 19th century, the roles of the divisions changed.
Today there are three federally recognized tribes in the United States, all of which are located in Oklahoma:
• The Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, consisting mainly of Hathawekela, Kispokotha, and Pekuwe;
170
• The Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma, mostly of the Mekoche division; and • The Shawnee Tribe, formerly an official part of the Cherokee Nation, mostly of
the Chaalakatha and Mekoche divisions.
As of 2008, there were 7584 enrolled Shawnee, with most living in Oklahoma.[12] At least four bands of Shawnee: the Blue Creek Band, the East of the River Shawnee, the Piqua Sept of Ohio Shawnee, and the United Remnant Band of the Shawnee Nation[13][14][15][16] reside in Ohio but are not federally recognized, nor has the state granted them legal recognition. The Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band was recognized by the state of Ohio in 1980 by way of Sub-Am House Joint Resolution 8, the Ohio 113th general assembly.
[edit] Flags of the Shawnee
Flag of the Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of OklahomaFlag of the Eastern Shawnee Tribe of OklahomaFlag of the Shawnee Tribe
Flag of the United Remnant Band of the Shawnee Nati
Coins of the Shawnee
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First coin issue of 2002 - one dollar Tecumseh commemorative dollar
Famous Shawnee
• Cornstalk (1720-1777), led the Shawnee in Dunmore's War, • Blue Jacket (1743-1810), also known as Weyapiersenwah, was an important
predecessor to Tecumseh and a leader in the Northwest Indian War. • Black Hoof (1740-1831), also known as Catecahassa, was a respected Shawnee
chief who believed the Shawnee had to adapt to European-American culture to survive.
• Chiksika (1760-1792), Kispoko war chief and older brother of Tecumseh • Tecumseh (1768-1813), outstanding Shawnee leader, and his brother
Tenskwatawa attempted to unite the Eastern tribes against the expansion of European-American settlement.\
• Tenskwatawa (1775-1836), Shawnee prophet and younger brother of Tecumseh • Black Bob, 19th c. leader and warrior • Tall Eagle (Sat-Okh) (1920-2003), Polish-Shawnee Canadian, fought in WWII,
novelist • Nas'Naga (1941- ), American Shawnee novelist and poet.
See also
• Shawnee language
*otes
1. ^ a b Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. Oklahoma Indian *ations Pocket Pictorial. 2008.
2. ^ Shawano was an archaic name for the tribes bearing this generic name Shaawanwa lenaki. Reference: Shawnee Traditions.
3. ^ O'Donnell, James H. Ohio's First Peoples, p. 31. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8214-1525-5 (paperback), ISBN 0-8214-1524-7 (hardcover), also: Howard, James H. Shawnee!: The Ceremonialism of a *ative Indian Tribe and its Cultural Background, p. 1. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-8214-0417-2; ISBN 0-8214-0614-0 (pbk.), and the unpublished dissertation Schutz, Noel W. Jr.: The Study of Shawnee Myth in an Ethnographic
172
and Ethnohistorical Perspective, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, 1975.
4. ^ Charles Augustus Hanna, 1911 The Wilderness Trail, esp. chap. IV, "The Shawnees", pp. 119-160.
5. ^ Carrie Hunter Willis and Etta Belle Walker, Legends of the Skyline Drive and the Great Valley of Virginia, 1937, pp. 15-16.
6. ^ Edward Bland, The Discoverie of *ew Brittaine, 7. ^ Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the
American South, 1670-1717, p. 55. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-300-10193-7
8. ^ Legends of the Skyline Drive and the Great Valley of Virginia, pp. 16-17. 9. ^ Joseph Doddridge, 1850, A History of the Valley of Virginia, p. 44 10. ^ Turner III, Frederick. "Poetry and Oratory". The Portable *orth American
Indian Reader. Penguin Book. p. 245–246. ISBN 0-14-015077-3. 11. ^ Lipscomb, Carol A.: "SHAWNEE INDIANS" from the Handbook of Texas
Online. Retrieved 21 Feb 2010. 12. ^ Oklahoma Indian Commission. Oklahoma Indian *ations Pocket Pictorial.
2008 13. ^ "Joint Resolution to recognize the Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band" as
adopted by the [Ohio] Senate, 113th General Assembly, Regular Session, Am. Sub. H.J.R. No. 8, 1979-1980
14. ^ "American Indians in Ohio", Ohio Memory: An Online Scrapbook of Ohio History, The Ohio Historical Society, retrieved September 30, 2007
15. ^ Koenig, Alexa; Jonathan Stein. [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=alexa_koenig "Federalism and the State Recognition of Native American Tribes: A Survey of State-Recognized Tribes and State Recognition Processes Across the United States"]. Santa Clara Law Review Volume 48 (forthcoming). pp. Section 12. Ohio. http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=alexa_koenig. Retrieved 2007-09-30. "Ohio recognizes one state tribe, the United Remnant Band. . . . Ohio does not have a detailed scheme for regulating tribal-state relations."
16. ^ Watson, Blake A.. "Indian Gambling in Ohio:What are the Odds?" (PDF). Capital University Law Review 237 (2003) (excerpts). http://www.westgov.org/wga/meetings/gaming/watson-ohio.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-30. "Ohio in any event does not officially recognize Indian tribes." Watson cites legal opinions that the resolution by the Ohio Legislature recognizing the United Remnant Band of the Shawnee Nation was ceremonial and did not grant legal status as a tribe.
References
• Callender, Charles. "Shawnee", in *ortheast: Handbook of *orth American Indians, vol. 15, ed. Bruce Trigger. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ISBN 0-16-072300-0
173
• Clifton, James A. Star Woman and Other Shawnee Tales. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984. ISBN 0-8191-3712-X; ISBN 0-8191-3713-8 (pbk.)
• Edmunds, R. David. The Shawnee Prophet. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8032-1850-8.
• Edmunds, R. David. Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership. Originally published 1984. 2nd edition, New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. ISBN 0-321-04371-5
• Edmunds, R. David. "Forgotten Allies: The Loyal Shawnees and the War of 1812" in David Curtis Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson, eds., The Sixty Years' War for the Great Lakes, 1754–1814, pp. 337-51. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-87013-569-4.
• Howard, James H. Shawnee!: The Ceremonialism of a *ative Indian Tribe and its Cultural Background. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-8214-0417-2; ISBN 0-8214-0614-0 (pbk.)
• O'Donnell, James H. Ohio's First Peoples. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8214-1525-5 (paperback), ISBN 0-8214-1524-7 (hardcover).
• Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4138-9 (hardcover); ISBN 0-8050-6121-5 (1999 paperback).
• Sugden, John. Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8032-4288-3.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Category:Shawnee
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
• Absentee Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma • East Of The River Shawnee • Shawnee History • Shawnee Indian Mission • Shawnee Nation URB • "Shawnee Indian Tribe", Access Genealogy • Treaty of Fort Meigs, 1817, Central Michigan State University • Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma • The Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma • BlueJacket
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Lenape
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map depicting approximately where different Lenape languages were spoken
The Lenape (pronounced /lɛnəpi/, /lɛnapeɪ/, or /ləˈnɑpi/) are a group of several organized bands of Native American peoples with shared cultural and linguistic characteristics. Their name for themselves (autonym), sometimes spelled Lennape or Lenapi, means "the people." They are also known as the Lenni Lenape (the "true people") or as the Delaware Indians. English settlers named the Delaware River after Lord De La Warr, the governor of the Jamestown settlement. They used the exonym above for almost all the Lenape people living along this river and its tributaries.
At the time of European contact in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Lenape lived in the area called Lenapehoking, roughly the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson Rivers. This encompassed what are now known as the U.S. state of New Jersey; eastern Pennsylvania around the Delaware and Lehigh valleys; the north shore of Delaware; and southeastern New York, particularly the lower Hudson Valley and New York Harbor. They spoke two related languages in the Algonquian subfamily, collectively known as the Delaware languages: Unami and Munsee.
Lenape society was organized into clans determined by matrilineal descent. Territory was collective, but divided by clan. At the time of European contact, the Lenape practiced
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large-scale agriculture, their primary crop being varieties of maize. They also practiced hunting and the harvesting of seafood. They were primarily sedentary, moving to different established campsites by season.
After the arrival of Dutch settlers and traders in the 17th century, the Lenape and other tribes became heavily involved in the North American fur trade. This depleted the beaver population in the area, proving disastrous for both the Lenape and the Dutch settlers. The Lenape were further weakened by new infectious diseases, and by conflict with both Europeans and traditional Lenape enemies, the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock. Over the next centuries, they were pushed out of their lands by Iroquoian enemies, treaties and by overcrowding by settlers, and moved west into the Ohio River valley. In the 1860s, most Lenape remaining in the Eastern United States were sent to the Oklahoma Territory. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the U.S. state of Oklahoma, with some communities living also in Kansas, Wisconsin, Ontario, and in their traditional homelands.
Contents
• 1 Society • 2 History
o 2.1 European contacto 2.2 European settlemento 2.3 18th century o 2.4 19th and 20th centuries
• 3 Lenape communities today• 4 Notable Lenape • 5 Literature • 6 See also • 7 References
o 7.1 Bibliography o 7.2 Notes
• 8 External links
Society
Early Indian "tribes" are perhaps better understood as language groups, rather than as "nations." At the time of first European contact, a Lenape individual would likely have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and friends, or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units; next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, while often fitfully, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the Mahican. Among other Algonquian peoples, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom all the other Algonquian peoples originated. Consequently, in inter-tribal councils, the Lenape were given respect as one would to elders.
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Those of a different language stock – such as the Iroquois (or, in the Lenape language, the Minqua) – were regarded as foreigners. As in the case of the Iroquois, the animosity of difference and competition spanned many generations, and tribes became traditional enemies. Ethnicity seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes". Archaeological excavations have found Munsee burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains interred along with those of ethnic-Algonquian Munsee. The two groups were bitter enemies since before recorded history. Intermarriage clearly occurred. In addition, both tribes practiced adopting captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them.
Overlaying these relationships was a phratry system, a division into clans. Clan membership was matrilineal; children inherited membership in a clan from their mother. On reaching adulthood, a Lenape traditionally married outside the clan, a practice known by ethnographers as, "exogamy". The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.
Early Europeans who first wrote about Indians found matrilineal social organization to be unfamiliar and perplexing. Because of this, Europeans often tried to interpret Lenape society through more familiar European arrangements. As a result, the early records are full of clues about early Lenape society, but were usually written by observers who did not fully understand what they were seeing. For example, a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother), and not his father, was usually considered to be his closest male ancestor, since his father belonged to a different clan. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father. Such a concept was often unfathomable to early European chroniclers.
Land was assigned to a particular clan for hunting, fishing, and cultivation. Individual private ownership of land was unknown, but rather the land belonged to the clan collectively while they inhabited it.[1] Clans lived in fixed settlements, using the surrounding areas for communal hunting and planting until the land was exhausted. In a common practice known as "agricultural shifting", the group then moved to found a new settlement within their territories.
The Lenape practiced large-scale agriculture to augment a mobile hunter-gatherer society in the region around the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape were largely a sedentary people who occupied campsites seasonally, which gave them relatively easy access to the small game that inhabited the region: fish, birds, shellfish and deer. They developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources.
By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique. This extended the productive life of planted fields.[2][3][4][5][6][7] They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,[8] and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round .[9] The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than nomadic hunter-gatherers could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement,
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there may have been about 15,000 Lenape total in approximately 80 settlement sites around much of the New York City area, alone.[10] In 1524 Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor.
History
European contact
Benjamin West's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the Lenape
The first recorded contact with Europeans and people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Native Americans arriving by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay. The Lenape occupied coastal areas throughout the mid-Atlantic and New York.
The early interaction between the Lenape and Dutch traders in the 17th century was primarily through the fur trade, specifically, the Lenape trapped and traded beaver pelts for European-made goods. According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres, who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was maize, which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task.
In May, the Lenape planted kidney beans near the maize plants; the latter served as props for the climbing bean vines. The summers were devoted to field work and the crops were harvested in August. Women cultivated varieties of maize and beans, and did most of the field work, processing and cooking of food. The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year. Dutch settler David de Vries, who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack," the Hackensack River), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire.
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European settlement
Dutch settlers founded a colony at present-day Lewes, Delaware on June 3, 1631 and named it Zwaanendael (Swan Valley).[11] The colony had a short existence, as in 1632 a local tribe of Lenape Indians killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding over defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company escalated.[12] In 1634, the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at Manhattan. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock.[13] Afterward the warfare the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles." The Lenape were added to the Covenant Chain by the Iroquois in 1676, remaining tributary to the Five (later Six) Nations until 1753.
The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods and their need for furs to meet high European demand resulted in disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur source exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day Upstate New York. The Lenape population fell, due mostly to infectious diseases carried by Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity.
Differences in conceptions of property rights between the Europeans and the Lenape resulted in widespread confusion among the Lenape and the loss of their lands. After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson until the 1660s. The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen, allowing settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherlands.
18th century
Beginning in the 18th century, the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape.[14] The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism, as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.[15] Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British authorities, who sought aid against the French and their Native American allies during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups. The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as "Christian Munsee", as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Delaware language.
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Lapowinsa, Chief of the Lenape, Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius in 1735.
The Treaty of Easton, signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists in 1758, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area.
During the French and Indian War, the Lenape initially sided with the French. However, such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh made the shift to building alliances with the English. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to kill Lenape, often to such an extent that people claimed the dead since the wars outnumbered those during the war.[16]
In 1763 the Lenape known as Bill Hickman warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in Pontiac's War, and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.[17] In April 1763 Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company.[18]
The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government, with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. The Lenape, by then living mostly in the Ohio Country, supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security. They may have been misled by an undocumented promise of a role at the head of a future Native American state.[citation needed]
19th and 20th centuries
In the early 19th century, the naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque claimed to have found the Walam Olum, an alleged religious history of the Lenape, which he published in 1836. However, only Rafinesque's manuscript exists; the tablets upon which his writings
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were allegedly based either were never found, or never existed. Most authorities and scholars now consider the document a hoax.[19]
Amateur anthropologist Silas Wood published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to Long Island, New York. Historians had understood them to be part of the Lenape. He collectively called them the Metoac. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that two linguistic groups represented two Algonquian cultural identities on the island, not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were affiliated with the Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes in New England.[20][21] Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted Indian use of place names for identity as indicating that was their name for "tribes."
The Lenape were progressively crowded out of the East Coast and Ohio by European settlers and pressed to move over a period of 176 years. Most members of the Munsee-language branch of the Lenape live on three Indian reserves in Western Ontario, Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at Moraviantown, Ontario, where the Turtle clan settled in 1792 following the war.
The main body of Lenape arrived in the northeast region of Oklahoma in the 1860s. Along the way many smaller groups left, or were told to stay where they were. Consequently today, from New Jersey to Wisconsin to southwest Oklahoma, there are groups who retain a sense of connection with ancestors who lived in the Delaware Valley in the 17th century and with cousins in the Lenape diaspora.
The two largest groups are the Delaware Nation (Anadarko, Oklahoma), and the Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville, Oklahoma), the only two federally recognized Delaware tribes in the United States.[22] The Oklahoma branches were established in 1867. The Delaware were required to purchase land from the reservation of the Cherokee Nation; they made two payments totaling $438,000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware as citizens within the Cherokee Nation.
While the dispute was unsettled, the Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of tribal lands to individual members of tribes. The Lenape fought the act in the courts but lost, and in 18?? (date? if this is in response to Curtis Act, it can't be 1867) the courts ruled that the Delaware had only purchased rights to the land in Oklahoma for the lifetimes of the owners. After the lands were allotted in 160-acre (650,000 m²) lots to tribal members in 1907, the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians. It soon became obvious that the land was not suitable for subsistence farming on such small plots.
In 1979, the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Delaware as Cherokee. The Delaware had this decision overturned in 1996, when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.
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The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the recognition of the Delaware. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation, but regained it on 28 July 2009.[23] After recognition, the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. Members approved a constitution and bylaws in a May 26, 2009 vote. Jerry Douglas is serving as tribal chief.[22]
In 2004 the Delaware of Oklahoma sued the state of Pennsylvania over land lost in 1800. This was related to the Walking Purchase of 1737, an agreement of doubtful legal standing.[24][25]
Lenape communities today
Lenni Lenapes in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are not officially recognized as tribes by the United States. This means they do not have reservation land or their own government system, though they still practice the Lenape culture. A small, unrecognized Native American community known as Lenapehoking for Lenni-Lenape Indians is in West Philadelphia.
Sticker by the Delaware Valley's Lenape Indians in 2008 claiming West Philadelphia is their home.
Oklahoma:
• Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville, Oklahoma), US federally recognized • Delaware Nation (Anadarko, Oklahoma), US federally recognized
Ontario, Canada:
• Moravian of the Thames First Nation, Canadian reserve • Delaware of Six Nations (at Six Nations of the Grand River), two Canadian
reserves
Wisconsin:
• Stockbridge-Munsee Community, US federally recognized
New Jersey:
• Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians, state recognized
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• Ramapough Mountain Indians, state recognized • Allegheny-Lenape Indian Tribe of Ohio, unrecognized
*otable Lenape
• Buckongahelas, Wolf clan war leader • Captain Jacobs, War Chief • Captain Pipe, Wolf clan war chief • Charles Journeycake, Chief of the Wolf Clan from 1855 and principal chief from
1861. Visited Washington, D.C. 24 times on his tribe's behalf.[26] • Killbuck (Gelelemend), Turtle clan leader • Oratam, sachem of the Hackensack • Neolin, the "Delaware Prophet" • Shingas, Turkey clan war leader • Tamanend, leader who, according to tradition, negotiated treaty with William
Penn • Tamaqua, Turkey clan civil leader, aka "King Beaver" • Teedyuscung, "King" of the eastern Delawares • White Eyes, Turtle clan civil leader • John Johnson, the father of Gambino crime family associate, Wilfred Johnson • Chief Newcomer, who founded the village of Gekelmukpechunk in Ohio in the
1760s, which white settlers and traders later named after him as Newcomerstown. • Dan Barker, founder of the Freedom From Religion Foundation
Literature
The Delaware feature prominently in The Last of the Mohicans and the other Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper.
The Delaware are the subject of a legend which inspired the Boy Scouts of America honor society known as the Order of the Arrow.
The Walam Olum, which purported to be an account of the Delaware's migration to the lands around the Delaware River, emerged through the works of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in the nineteenth century. For many decades, scholars believed it was genuine. In the 1980s and 1990s, newer textual analysis suggested it was a hoax. Nonetheless, some Delaware, upon hearing of it for the first time, found the account to be plausible.
In Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian, the group of American scalphunters are aided by an unspecified number of Delaware Indians (5-6 minimum), who serve as scouts and guides through the western deserts.
In The Light in the Forest, True Son is adopted by a band of Lenape.
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In the 1938 Mark Raymond Harrington book Dickon Among the Indians, a group of Lenape find a young white child. This proceed to raise him as their own. The book goes into detail of Lenape life, society, weaponry, and beliefs, and includes a glossary for many Lenape terms used throughout the book.
Trouble's Daughter: The Story of Susanna Hutchinson, Indian Captive is a young adult novel of a fictional account of the kidnapping by the Lenape Turtle Clan of a daughter of Anne Hutchinson, the religious reformer and founder of the Rhode Island colony.
Moon of Two Dark Horses is a novel of the friendship between a white settler and a Lenape boy at the time of the Revolutionary War.
Standing in the Light: The Captive Diary of Catharine Carey Logan, part of the Dear America series of fictional diaries, is a novel by Mary Pope Osborne. It tells the story of the capture of a teenage girl and her brother by a band of Lenape, and the youths' gradual assimilation into Lenape culture.
Peter Lindestrom's Geographia America with an Account of the Delaware Indians is one of the few sympathetic contemporary accounts (and most reliable) of Lenape life in the lower Delaware River valley during the 17th century.
Moravian missionary John Heckewelder published a sympathetic account of the Lenape in exile in the Ohio Valley. His account, published in 1818, provides some alternate Lenape tribal history disputing the tributary relationship with the Susquehannock.
See also
• Ramapough Mountain Indians • Walking Purchase • Unalachtigo Lenape • Museum of Indian Culture
References
Bibliography
• Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a brief history, Hope Farm Press (Saugerties, NY 1995) [originally published by Government Printing Office, (Washington, DC 1909)]
• Bierhorst, John. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape. New York: W. Morrow, 1995. ISBN 0688129005
• Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds. Long Journey Home ISBN 978-0-253-34968-2 Indiana University Press (2007).
• Burrows, Edward G. and Wallace, Mike, Gotham: A History of *ew York City to 1989 ISBN 0-19-514049-4 Oxford Univ. Press (1999).
184
• Dreibelbis, Dana E., "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden, Tuckerton, New Jersey," thesis, Princeton University, 1978.
• Jackson, Kenneth T. (editor) The Encyclopedia of *ew York City ISBN 0-300-05536-6 Yale University Press (1995).
• Jennings, Francis, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 2000, ISBN 0393017192 • Kraft, Herbert C. (ed.) A Delaware Indian Symposium [Proceedings].
Anthropological Series no. 4. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Historical Society Museum Commission, 1974.
• Kraft, Herbert C. (ed.) The Lenape Indian: A Symposium. South Orange, NJ: Archaeological Research Center, Seton Hall University, 1984.
• Kraft, Herbert C., The Lenape: archaeology, history and ethnography, New Jersey Historical Society, (Newark, NJ 1986)
• Kraft, Herbert C. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: 10,000 B.C. to A.D. 2000. [Elizabeth, NJ?]: Lenape Books, 2001.
• Kurlansky, Mark. The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. Random House Trade Paperbacks (January 9, 2007). ISBN 978-0345476395
• Mitchell, S. H. The Indian Chief, Journeycake. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society (1895). Available on the Internet Archive
• O'Meara, John, Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary, University of Toronto Press (Toronto, 1996) ISBN 0-8020-0670-1.
• Oestreicher, David. "Unmasking the Walam Olum: A 19th-Century Hoax," in Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey, #49, 1994, p. 10-44.
• Otto, Paul, The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006). ISBN 1-57181-672-0
• Pritchard, Evan T., *ative *ew Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of *ew York. Council Oak Books: San Francisco, 2002, 2007, ISBN 1-57178-107-2.
• Richter, Conrad, The Light In The Forest, (New York, NY 1953) • Weslager, Clinton Alfred, The Delaware Indians: A history, Rutgers University
Press, (New Brunswick, NJ 1972). • Wick, Steve. "The First Long Islanders." Newsday.com [Accessed July 30, 2008]
*otes
1. ^ see New Amsterdam for discussion of the Dutch "purchase" of Manhattan 2. ^ Stevenson W. Fletcher, Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life 1640-1840
(Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 2, 35-37, 63-65, 124.
3. ^ Day, Gordon M. “The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests.” Ecology, Vol. 34, #2 (April): 329-346. *ew England and *ew York areas 1580-1800. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953
4. ^ Russell, Emily W.B. Vegetational Change in *orthern *ew Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological, Vegetational and Historical Synthesis Ph.D. dissertation.
185
New Brunswick, PA: Rutgers University. Author notes on page 8 that Indians often augmented lightning fires. 1979
5. ^ Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." Ecology, Vol. 64, #1 (Feb): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas, but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire.
6. ^ "A Brief Description of New York, Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining, Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There." New York, NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society, Columbia University Press, New York. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey used fire in ecosystems.
7. ^ Smithsonian Institution - Handbook of North American Indians series: Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15 - Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquins, Virginia Algonquins, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples.
8. ^ Mark Kurlansky, 2006. 9. ^ D. Dreibelbis, 1978. 10. ^ Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, 1999. 11. ^ Munroe, John A.: Colonial Delaware: A History: Millwood, New York: KTO
Press; 1978; P.9-12. 12. ^ Cook, Albert Myers. *arratives of Early Pennsylvania, West *ew Jersey and
Delaware 1630-1707. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. p. 9 13. ^ F. Jennings, p. 117 14. ^ Gray, Elma. Wilderness Christians: Moravian Missions to the Delaware
Indians. Ithaca. 1956 15. ^ Olmstead, Earl P. Blackcoats among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the
Ohio frontier. Kent, Ohio. 1991 16. ^ Amy C. Schutt. Peoples of the Rivers. p. 118 17. ^ Schutt. People of the River, p. 118 18. ^ Schutt. People of the River, p. 119 19. ^ Oestreicher, David, 1994 20. ^ Strong, John A. Algonquian Peoples of Long Island Heart of the Lakes
Publishing (March 1997). ISBN 978-1557871480 21. ^ Bragdon, Kathleen. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the *ortheast.
Columbia University Press (January 15, 2002). ISBN 978-0231114523. 22. ^ a b "Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition" *ewsOk. 4 Aug 2009 (retrieved
5 August 2009) 23. ^ Delaware Tribe of Indians’ federal recognition restored. Indian Country Today.
7 Aug 2009 (retrieved 11 August 2009) 24. ^ http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1074259221938 25. ^ http://www.delawaretribeofindians.nsn.us/walking_purchase.html 26. ^ S. H. Mitchell (1895)
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External links
• Delaware Nation (Anadarko, Oklahoma) • Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville, OK) • http://www.freewebs.com/delawarein/ • Lenape/English dictionary • Lenni Lenape Historical Society • Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary • The Indigenous Maps and Mapping of North American Indians
The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about the pre-contact agricultural practices of the Lenape people, as well as the size of the pre
population.. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page before making changes.(December 2008)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenape" Categories: First Nations in Ontario | Lenape people | Native American tribes in New Jersey | Native American tribes in Pennsylvania | Native American tribes in New York | Native American tribes in Delaware | Native American tribes in Ohio | Algonquian ethnonyms | People of New Netherland
Miami tribe
(Redirected from Miami Confederacy) Jump to: navigation, search This article is about Miami People. For other uses, see Miami tribe (disambiguation).
Miami
Myaamiaki
Total population
7,500 (3553 enrolled)
Regions with significant populations
United States (Indiana and Oklahoma)
Languages
English
Religion
Christianity, Traditional tribal religion
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Related ethnic groups
Peoria, Kaskaskia, Piankashaw, Wea, Illinois, and other Algonquian
The Miami are a Native American tribe originally found in Indiana, southwest Michigan and Ohio. Two Miami tribes are recognized by government bodies: the first is the federally recognized Miami Tribe of Oklahoma and the second is the Miami Nation of Indians in Indiana, which is recognized by the state, but not by the Federal government.
Contents
• 1 Name • 2 History
o 2.1 Prehistory o 2.2 European contact
� 2.2.1 Locations o 2.3 United States
� 2.3.1 Locations • 3 Places named for the Miami • 4 Notable Miami • 5 Notes
o 5.1 References o 5.2 External links
*ame
The name 'Miami' derives from the tribe's autonym (name for themselves) in their Algonquian language, Myaamia (plural Myaamiaki); it appears to have come from an older term meaning 'downstream people’. Some scholars contended the Miami called themselves the Twightwee (also spelled Twatwa), an onomatopoeic reference to their sacred bird, the Sandhill crane. However, Twightwee is the Delaware language exonym name for the Miamis. Some Miamis have stated that this was only a name used by other tribes for the Miamis, and not the autonym which the Miamis used for themselves.
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Another common term was Mihtohseeniaki, "the people." The Miami continue to employ this autonym today.
*ame Source *ame Source
Maiama Maumeelater French
Meames MemilouniqueFrench
Metouseceprinioueks Myamicks
Naked Indians Nation de la GrueFrench
Omameeg OmaumegChippewa
Oumami Oumamik1st French
Piankashaw Quikties
Tawatawas Titwa
Tuihtuihronoons Twechtweys
Twightwees Iroquois/English Wea band
History
Prehistory
Known locations of the Miami during the Iroquois War years
1654Fox River, southwest of Lake Winnebago
1670Wisconsin River, below the Portage to the Fox River
1673Niles, Michigan
1679Fort Miamis, at St. Joseph, Michigan
1680Fort Chicago
1682Fort St. Louis, at Starved Rock, Illinois
1687Calumet River, at Blue Island, Illinois
c. 1691Wabash River, at the mouth of the Tippecanoe River
v • d • e
[2][3]
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Early Miami people are considered to belong to the Fischer Tradition of Mississippian culture.[4] Mississippian societies were characterized by maize-based agriculture, chiefdom-level social organization, extensive regional trade networks, hierarchical settlement patterns, and other factors. The historical Miami engaged in hunting, as did other Mississippian peoples.
During historic times, the Miami were known to have migrated south from Wisconsin from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century, by which time they had settled on the Wabash River. The migration was likely a result of their being invaded by the more powerful Iroquois, who traveled far from their territory of New York for better hunting during the beaver fur trade.
Historic Locations[1]
YearLocation
1658Northeast of Lake Winnebago, WI (Fr)
1667Mississippi Valley of Wisconsin
1670Head of the Fox River, WI; Chicago village
1673St. Joseph River Village, MI (River of the Miamis) (Fr),
Kalamazo River village, MI
1703Detroit village, MI
1720Miami River locations, OH;
Scioto River village (nr Columbus), OH
1764Wabash River villages
European contact
When French missionaries first encountered the Miami in the mid-17th century; the indigenous people were living around the western shores of Lake Michigan. The Miami had reportedly moved there because of pressure from the Iroquois further east. Early French explorers noticed many linguistic and cultural similarities between the Miami bands and the Illiniwek, a loose confederacy of Algonquian-speaking peoples.
At this time, the major divisions of the Miami were:
In 1696, the Comte de Frontenac appointed Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes as commander of the French outposts in northeast Indiana and southwest Michigan. He befriended the Miami people, settling first at the St. Joseph River, and, in 1704, establishing a trading post and fort at Kekionga, present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana.[6]
By the 18th century, the Miami had for the most part returned to their homeland in present-day Indiana and Ohio. The eventual victory of the British in the French and Indian War (Seven Years War)led to an increased British presence in traditional Miami areas.
Shifting alliances and the gradual encroachment of European-American settlement led to some Miami bands merging. Native Americans created larger tribal confederacies led by Chief Little Turtle; their alliances were for waging war against Europeans and to fight advancing white settlement. By the end of the century, the tribal divisions were three: the Miami, Piankeshaw, and Wea.
The latter two groups were closely aligned with some of the Illini tribes. The US government later included them with the Illini for administrative purposes. The Eel River band maintained a somewhat separate status, which proved beneficial in the removals of the 19th century. The nation's traditional capital was Kekionga.
Locations
French Years[2][3]
• 1718-94 Kekionga, Portage of the Maumee and Wabash Rivers, Fort Wayne, Indiana
• 1720-49 Portage of the Miami River, St. Joseph and Kankakee Rivers • unknown - 1733 Tepicon of the Wabash, Fort Ouiatenon, Lafayette, Indiana • 1733-51 Tepicon of the Tippecanoe, headwaters of the Tippecanoe River near
Warsaw • 1748-52 Pickawillany, Piqua on the Great Miami River in Ohio • 1752 Headwaters of the Eel River, southwest of Columbia City, Indiana • 1752 Le Gris, Maumee River (Miami River), east of Fort Wayne○
British Years[2][3]
• 1763 Captured British at Fort Miami (1760-63) as a part of the Pontiac’s Rebellion
• 1774 Warriors participated in Lord Dunmore's War in Ohio • 1778 Kenapacomaqua, Wabash at the mouth of the Eel River, Logansport,
Indiana • 1780 October - Agustin Mottin de La Balme (Spanish, from St. Louis) headed a
raid of Detroit. Stopped and destroyed Kekionga. La Balme withdrew to the west,
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where Little Turtle destroyed the raiders, killing one third of them, on the 5th of November.
United States
Miami treaties in Indiana.
The Miami had mixed relations with the United States. Some villages of the Piankeshaw openly supported the American rebel colonists during the American Revolution, while the villages around Ouiatenon were openly hostile. The Miami of Kekionga remained allies of the British, but were not openly hostile to the United States (US) (except when attacked by Augustin de La Balme in 1780).
The U.S. government did not trust their neutrality, however. US forces attacked Kekionga several times during the Northwest Indian War shortly after the American Revolution. Each attack was repulsed, including the battle known as St. Clair's Defeat. This was the worst defeat of an American army by Native Americans in U.S. history.[7] The Northwest Indian War ended with the Battle of Fallen Timbers and Treaty of Greenville. Those Miami who still resented the United States gathered around Ouiatenon and Prophetstown, where Shawnee Chief Tecumseh led a coalition of Native American nations. Territorial governor William Henry Harrison and his forces destroyed Prophetstown in 1811, having used the War of 1812 as pretext for attacks on Miami villages throughout the Indiana Territory.
The Treaty of Mississinwas, signed in 1826, forced the Miami to cede most of their land to the US government. It also allowed Miami lands to be held as private property by
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individuals, where the tribe had formerly held the land in common. At the time of Indian Removal in 1846, those Miami who held separate allotments of land were allowed to stay as citizens in Indiana. Those who affiliated with the tribe were moved to reservations west of the Mississippi River, first to Kansas, then to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
The divide in the tribe exists to this day. The U.S. government has recognized the Western Miami as the official tribal government since the forced divide in 1846. Migration between the tribes has made it difficult to track affiliations and power for bureaucrats and historians alike.[8] Today the western tribe is federally recognized as the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, with 3553 enrolled members.
The Eastern Miami (or Indiana Miami) has its own tribal government, but lacks federal recognition. Although they were recognized by the US in an 1854 treaty, that recognition was stripped in 1897. In 1980, the Indiana legislature recognized the Eastern Miami and voted to support federal recognition.[9]
In the late 20th century, US Senator Richard Lugar introduced a bill to recognize the Eastern Miami. He withdrew support due to constituent concerns over gambling rights. In recent decades, numerous federally recognized tribes in other states have established gambling casinos and related facilities on their sovereign lands.[10] Such establishments have helped some tribes raise revenues to devote to economic development, health and education.
On 26 July 1993, a federal judge ruled that the Eastern Miami were recognized by the US in the 1854 treaty, and that the federal government had no right to strip them of their status in 1897. However, he also ruled that the statute of limitations on appealing their status had expired. The Miami no longer had any right to sue.[11]
Locations
United States Years[2][3]
• 1785 Delaware Villages located near Kekionga (refugees from American Settlements)
• 1790 Pickawillany Miami join Kekionga (refugees from American Settlements) • 1790 Gen. Harmar marches on Kekionga to punish the Miami, Delaware, and
Shawnee villages. On the 17th of October, Harmar found the seven villages deserted. The rear guard, left to destroy the returning villagers, was defeated by Little Turtle’s warriors.
• 1790 Mississinewa (Missississinewa River below the Wabash, southeast of Peru, Indiana)
• 1791 Gen. Arthur St. Clair moves on Kekionga. Little Turtle destroys the US Army (1400) near the future Fort Recovery.
• Kentucky Militia destroy Eel River villages. • 1793 December - General Anthony Wayne moves to Fort Recovery to prepare to
destroy Kekionga.
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• 1794 August - Fort Defiance (Defiance, Ohio) built on the Maumee River site of deserted Shawnee Village of Blue Jacket. 20 August battle of Fallen Timbers, Blue Jacket loses to Wayne.
• 1794 Kekionga site abandoned • Mississinewa towns become the center of the nation. • 1809 Gov. William Henry Harrison orders destruction of all villages within two-
day's march of Fort Wayne. Villages near Columbia City and Huntington destroyed.
• 17 December, Lt. Col. John B. Campbell ordered to destroy the Mississinewa villages. Campbell destroys villages and kills women and children.
• 18 December, At 2nd village, Americans repulsed and return to Greenville. • 1810 July, US Army returns and burns deserted town and crops. • 1817 Maumee Treaty - loose Ft. Wayne area (1400 Miami counted) • 1818 Treaty of St. Mary’s (New Purchase Treaty) - lose south of the Wabash -
Big Miami Reservation created. Grants on the Mississinewa & Wabash given to Josetta Beaubien, Anotoine Bondie, Peter Labadie, Francois Lafontaine, Peter Langlois, Joseph Richardville, and Antoine Rivarre. Miami National Reserve (875,000) created.
• 1818 Eel River Miami settle at Thorntown, northeast of Lebanon). • 1825 1073 Miami, including the Eel River Miami • 1826 Mississinewa Treaty - loose between the Eel and the Wabash to create a
right of way for the canal. Eel River Miami leave Thorntown, northeast of Lebanon, for Logansport Area.
• 1834 Western part of the Big Reservation sold (208,000 acres) • 1838 Potawatomi removed from Indiana. No other Indian tribes in the state.
Treaty of 1838 made 43 grants and sold the western portion of the Big Reserve. Richardville exempted from any future removal treaties. Richardsville, Godfroy, Metocina received grants, plus family reserves for Ozahshiquah, Maconzeqyuah (Wife of Benjamin), Osandian, Tahconong, and Wapapincha.
• 1840 Remainder of the Big Reservation (500,000 acres) sold for lands in Kansas. Godfroy descendants and Meshingomesia (s/o Metocina), sister, brothers and their families exempted from the removal. 800 Miami
• 1846 1 October, removal was supposed to begin. Began October 6 by canal boat. By ship to Kansas Landing Kansas City and 50 miles (80 km) overland to the reservation . Reached by 9 November.
• 1847 Godfroy Reserve, between the Wabash and Mississinewa • Wife of Benjamin Reserve, east edge of Godfroy • Osandian Reserve, on the Mississinewa, southeast boundary of Godfroy • Wapapincha Reserve, south of Mississinewa at Godfroy/Osandian juncture • Tahkonong Reserve, southeast of Wapapincha south of Mississinewa • Ozahshinquah Reserve, on the Mississinewa River, southeast of Peoria • Meshingomesa Reserve, north side of Mississinewa from Somerset to Jalapa
(northwest Grant County) • 1872 Most reserves were partially sold to non-Indians. • 1922 All reserves were sold for debt or taxes for the Miamis.
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Places named for the Miami
A number of places have been named for the Miami nation:
• Miami, Oklahoma • Fort Miami (Indiana), Michigan, and Ohio• Great Miami River in Ohio • Miami Valley, Ohio
• Little Miami River in Ohio• Maumee River • Miami County, Indiana
Kansas • Miami University in Oxford, Ohio
It should be noted that Miami, Florida, is not named for the Miami nation, but rather for the Mayaimi tribe of Florida.
The state soil of Indiana is called Miami, giving unexpected depth to the phrase Land of the Indians.
*otable Miami
Miami chief Pacanne
• Little Turtle (Mishikinakwa), 18th -entury war chief • Pacanne, 18th-century chief • Francis La Fontaine, last principal chief of the united Miami tribe • Jean Baptiste de Richardville (Peshewa), 19th-century chief
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• Frances Slocum (Maconaquah), adopted member of the Miami tribe • William Wells (Apekonit), adopted member of the Miami tribe
*otes
1. ^ a b c Great Lakes Indians; A Pictorial Guide; Kubiak, William J.; Baker Book House Company, 1970
2. ^ a b c d Tanner, Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History 3. ^ a b c d Rafert, The Miami Indians of Indiana 4. ^ Emerson, Thomas E. and R. Barry Lewis. Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle
Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2000:17. ISBN 978-0-252-06878-2.
5. ^ Anson, pg 13 6. ^ "Vincennes, Sieur de (Jean Baptiste Bissot)," The Encyclopedia Americana
(Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1990), 28:130. 7. ^ Sisson, Richard; Zacher, Christian; and Cayton, Andrew (eds.) (2007). The
American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia, p. 1749. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-2533-4886-2
• Anson, Bert (2000). The Miami Indians. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3197-7.
• Magnin, Frédéric (2005).Mottin de la Balme, cavalier des deux mondes et de la liberté, Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7475-9080-1.
• Rafert, Stewart (1996). The Miami Indians of Indiana; A Persistent People 1654-1994. Indiana Historical Society.
• Tanner, Helen Horbeck (1987). Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Miami (tribe)
• Miami Indian Collection (MSS 004) • Guide to Native American Resources
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• "Miami Indians". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Miami_Indians.
• "Miami (tribe)". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_tribe" Categories: Algonquian peoples | Miami tribe | Native American tribes in Indiana | Native American tribes in Ohio | Algonquian ethnonyms
Kickapoo
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Native American people. For other uses, see Kickapoo (disambiguation).
Kickapoo
Total population
5,000 (3,000 enrolled members)
Regions with significant populations
USA (Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas,
Mexico (Coahuila)
Languages
English, Spanish, Kickapoo
Religion
Native American Church, Christianity (many Catholic, some Protestant) and Tribal religious practices;
Related ethnic groups
Sauk, Fox, other Algonquian peoples
The Kickapoo (Kickapoo: Kiikaapoa or Kiikaapoi) are an Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe. According to the Anishinaabeg, the name "Kickapoo" (Giiwigaabaw in the Anishinaabe language and its Kickapoo cognate Kiwikapawa) means "Stands here and there". It referred to the tribe's migratory patterns. The name can also mean
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"wanderer". This interpretation is contested and generally believed to be a folk etymology.
Today there are three federally recognized Kickapoo tribes in the United States: Kickapoo Tribe of Indians of the Kickapoo Reservation in Kansas, the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, and the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas. The former two groups are politically associated with the Texas band. Others live in small groups throughout the western United States. Around 3,000 people claim to be tribal members. There is also a small community in Douglas, Arizona.
Another band resides in the Mexican state of Coahuila.
Contents
• 1 History • 2 Language • 3 Kickapoo tribes and communities
o 3.1 Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Kansaso 3.2 Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texaso 3.3 Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma
The earliest European contact with the Kickapoo tribe occurred during the La Salle Expeditions into the Illinois Country in the late 17th century, as the French set up remote fur trading posts throughout the region, including on Wabash River. The Kickapoo at that time inhabited a large territory along the Wabash in the area of modern Terre Haute, Indiana. They were confederated with the larger Wabash Confederacy, that included the Piankeshaw to their south, the Wea to their north, and the powerful Miami Tribe, to their east.
As white settlers moved into the region beginning in the early 19th century, the Kickapoo participated in several treaties, including the Treaty of Vincennes, the Treaty of Grouseland, and the Treaty of Fort Wayne. They sold most of their lands to the United States and moved north to settle among the Wea. Rising tensions between the regional tribes and the United States led to Tecumseh's War in 1811. The Kickapoo were one of Tecumseh's closest allies. Many Kickapoo warriors participated in the Battle of Tippecanoe and the subsequent War of 1812.
The close of the war led to a change of Indian policy in the Indiana Territory, and later the state of Indiana. American leaders began to advocate the removal of the tribes to land
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west of the Mississippi River. The Kickapoo were among the first tribes to leave Indiana. They accepted land in Kansas and an annual subsidy in exchange for leaving the state.
Language
Kickapoo people building a Winter House in the town of Nacimiento Coahuila, México, 2008
Kickapoo speak an Algonquian language closely related to that of the Sauk and Fox. They were classified with the Central Algonquians, and were also related to the Illiniwek.
Kickapoo tribes and communities
There are three federally recognized Kickapoo communities in the United States: one in Kansas, one in Texas, and the third in Oklahoma.
[edit] Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Kansas
The Kickapoo Indian Reservation is located at 39°40′51″N 95°36′41″W / 39.68083°N 95.61139°W in the northeastern part of the state in parts of three counties, Brown, Jackson, and Atchison. It has a land area of 612.203 square kilometres (236.373 sq mi) and a resident population of 4,419 as of the 2000 census. The largest community on the reservation is the city of Horton. The other communities are:
• Muscotah • Netawaka (most of the city, with all of the population) • Powhattan • Whiting • Willis
Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texas
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The Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texas is located at 28°36′37″N 100°26′19″W / 28.61028°N 100.43861°W on the Rio Grande River on the U.S.-Mexico border in western Maverick County, just south of the city of Eagle Pass, as part of the community of Rosita South. It has a land area of 0.4799 square kilometres (118.6 acres) and a 2000 census population of 420 persons. The Texas Indian Commission officially recognized the tribe in 1977.[1]
There are undetermined numbers of other Kickapoo in Maverick County, Texas, who constitute the "South Texas Subgroup of the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma". That band owns 917.79 acres (3.7142 km2) of non-reservation land in Maverick County, primarily to the north of Eagle Pass. It has an office in that city.[2]
Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma
A Kickapoo wickiup, Sac and Fox Agency, Oklahoma, ca. 1880.
After being expelled from the Republic of Texas, many Kickapoo moved south to Mexico, but the population of two villages settled in Indian Territory. One village settled within the Chickasaw Nation and the other within the Muscogee Creek Nation. These Kickapoo were granted their own reservation in 1883.
The reservation was short-lived, because in 1893 their communal tribal lands were broken up and assigned to separate households in allotments under the Dawes Act. The tribe's government was dismantled by the Curtis Act of 1898, which encouraged assimilation by Native Americans. Tribal members struggled under these conditions.
In 1936, the tribe reorganized as the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act.[3]
Today the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in McLoud, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is in Oklahoma, Pottawatomie, and Lincoln Counties. They have 2,719 enrolled tribal members.[4]
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References
1. ^ Miller, Tom. On the Border: Portraits of America’s Southwestern Frontier, pp. 67.
2. ^ Maverick County Appraisal District property tax appraisals, 2007 3. ^ Annette Kuhlman, "Kickapoo", Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture,
Oklahoma Historical Society, 2009 (accessed 21 February 2009) 4. ^ Oklahoma Indian Affairs. Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory.
2008:21
Further reading
• Grant Foreman, The Last Trek of the Indians: An Account of the Removal of the Indians from *orth of the Ohio River, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946
• Arrell M. Gibson, The Kickapoo: Lords of the Middle Border, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963
• M. Christopher Nunley, "Kickapoo Indians," in The *ew Handbook of Texas, Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1996.
• Muriel H. Wright, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986
External links
• First nations - Kickapoo from Lee Sultzman • The Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas • Kickapoo Reservation, Kansas and Kickapoo Reservation, Texas United States
Census Bureau • "Kickapoo Indians". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
• Kickapoo State Park • Matthew R. Garrett, Kickapoo Foreign Policy, 1650-1830. PhD dissertation,
University of Nebraska, 2006 • Kickapoo, The Novel
[hide] v • d • e
Black Hawk War (1832)
FactionsBritish Band • Fox • Ho-Chunk • Illinois Militia • Kickapoo • SiouxMichigan Territory Militia • Potawatomi • Sauk • United States Army
PeopleJohn Giles Adams • Milton Alexander • Henry Apple • Elizabeth ArmstrongAtkinson • David Bailey • Black Hawk • Hugh Brady • Ebenezer BrighamBrown • Thomas P. Burnett • Chakeepashipaho • Checokalako • George Davenport
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Jefferson Davis • John Dement • Augustus C. Dodge • Henry DodgeMike Girty • Henry Gratiot • Rachel Hall • Sylvia Hall • William S. HamiltonHenry • Ioway • George W. Jones • Keewassee • Keokuk • Antoine LeClaireLincoln • Stephen Mack, Jr. • Meommuse • Neapope • Oshkosh • PamahoAdam Payne • Elijah Phillips • Alexander Posey • John Hawkins RountreeSample • Lucy Sample • James Semple • Winfield Scott • ShabbonaSnyder • James W. Stephenson • Isaiah Stillman • Clack Stone • Joseph M. StreetJames M. Strode • Felix St. Vrain • Joseph Throckmorton • Zachary TaylorTowaunonne • Wabokieshiek • John Allen Wakefield • Wapasha IIWaubonsee • Weesheet • Samuel Whiteside •
Places
Illinois: Apple River Fort • Buffalo Grove • Dixon's Ferry • Fort Armstrong• Galena • Indian Creek • Kellogg's Grove • Plum River • Saukenuk Stillman's Run Battle Site • Waddams Grove • Michigan Territory (Wisconsin): Bad Axe River • Blue Mounds FortFort Defiance • Fort Hamilton • Fort Jackson • Fort Koshkonong • Fort UnionGrove • Helena • Hamilton's Diggings • Pecatonica River • Roxbury • • Soldiers Grove • Victory • Wisconsin Heights Battlefield • Wisconsin River
Engagements
Minor engagements • Battle of Stillman's Run • Buffalo Grove ambush• Indian Creek massacre • St. Vrain massacre • Attacks at Fort Blue MoundsFarm massacre • Battle of Horseshoe Bend • Battle of Waddams GroveKellogg's Grove • Attack at Ament's Cabin • Battle of Apple River FortMound raid • Battle of Wisconsin Heights • Bad Axe Massacre
Other topicsBlack Hawk Purchase • Black Hawk Tree • Keokuk's Reserve • Warrior
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kickapoo" Categories: Algonquian languages | Algonquian peoples | Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands | Languages of Mexico | Languages of the United States | Native American tribes in Oklahoma | Algonquian ethnonyms | Native American tribes in Indiana
Kaskaskia
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the tribe. For the village in Illinois, see Kaskaskia, Illinois. This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain unclear
because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improveintroducing more precise citations where appropriate. (August 2008)
The Kaskaskia were one of about a dozen cognate tribes that made up the Illiniwek Confederation or Illinois Confederation. Their first contact with Europeans reportedly
202
occurred near present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin in 1667 at a Jesuit mission station. The Illinois are reported to have asked the French to send a missionary to them in their home country.
Contents
1 History
• 2 In popular culture • 3 References • 4 External links
History
In 1673, Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette and French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet became the first Europeans known to have descended the Mississipi River. The record of their trip is our earliest, best record of contact between Europeans and the Illinois Indians. Marquette and Jolliet, with five other men, left the mission of St. Ignace at Michilimackinac in two bark canoes on May 17. They travelled to the Mississippi River across Lake Michigan into Green Bay, up the Fox River and down the Wisconsin River. Descending the Mississippi, in June, they met the Peoria and Moingwena bands of Illinois at the Haas/Hagerman Site near the mouth of the Des Moines River in Clark County, northeastern Missouri. They met another Illinois band, the Michigamea, when they reached present-day Arkansas. They began their return trip from this Michigamea village about July 17, following the Illinois River eastward to Lake Michigan rather than taking the more northern route along the Wisconsin River. Near modern Utica in LaSalle County, Illinois, across from Starved Rock, they met the Kaskaskia at the Grand Village of the Illinois (now a State Historic Site, also known as the Zimmerman Site). The land controlled by the allied Illinois groups extended north from modern Arkansas, through Eastern Missouri and most of Illinois, and west into Iowa, where [[Des Moines, Iowa]Des Moines]] was named after the Moingwena[1]
In 1703, the French followed up the Marquette/Joliet expedition with the establishment of a permanent mission and settlement at Kaskaskia.[2] French settlers moved in to farm and to exploit the lead mines on the Missouri side of the river. Kaskaskia became the capital of Upper Louisiana and Fort de Chartes was built in 1718. In the same year Black slaves were brought in from Santo Domingo to work in the lead mines.[3] From its beginning, Kaskaskia was a French/Indian settlement, consisting of a few French men and a large number of Kaskaskia and other Illinois Indians. In 1707, the population of the community was estimated at 2,200, the majority of them Illinois Indians who lived somewhat apart. A visitor, writing of Kaskaskia about 1715, said that the village consisted of 400 Illinois men, "very good people," two Jesuit missionaries, and "about twenty French voyageurs who have settled there and married Indian woman."[4] Of twenty-one children whose birth
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and baptism was recorded in Kaskaskia before 1714 eighteen mothers were Indian and twenty fathers were French. The offspring of these mixed marriages could become either French or Indian. One devout Catholic full-blooded Indian woman disowned her half-breed son for living "among the savage nations."[5]
From the French, the Indians, and the mixed bloods at Kaskaskia came the voyageurs and coureur des bois who would explore and exploit the Missouri River country. The French had the goal of trading with all the prairie tribes and beyond with the Spanish colony in New Mexico -- a prospect which horrified the Spanish. French goals stimulated the expedition of Claude Charles Du Tisne to establish trade relations with the Plains Indians in 1719. The fate of the Kaskaskia, and the rest of the Illiniwek/Illinois, was irrevocably tied up with that of France. Until their dissolution in France, French Jesuits built missions and ministered to the Kaskaskia. When the Seven Years' War (called the French and Indian War in North America) ended, the Kaskaskia and other Illinois tribes were greatly in decline. The original population estimate reported by early French explorers varied from 6,000 to more than 20,000. By the conclusion of the French and Indian War, the number was a fraction of the original. Contemporary historians believe the greatest fatalities were due to infectious diseases to which the Native Americans had no immunity.
The causes of decline are many and varied (See the work of Emily Blasingham, M.A. Indiana University, published in Ethnohistory journal). The Illinois made war with their French allies against the most formidable native nations: to the east, the Iroquois; to the northwest, the Sioux and the Fox; to the south, the Chickasaw and Cherokee; to the west, the Osage Nation. Add to combat losses the great losses to epidemics of European diseases. In 1769, a Peoria warrior killed Pontiac, which brought down upon the Kaskaskia and other Illinois tribes, the wrath of the Great Lakes tribes. (This legendary retaliation may not have happened in fact; see the article on Pontiac.) The Ottawa, Sauk, Fox, Miami, Kickapoo and Potawatomi devastated the Illiniwek and occupied their old tribal range along the Illinois River.
The descendants of the Kaskaskia live in Oklahoma under the banner of the Confederated Peoria Tribe of Oklahoma.
The British arrived in 1766 and build Fort Gage.
On July 4, 1778 George Rogers Clark captured the town and Fort Gage[6].
In popular culture
The term "Kaskaskia" lives on in Illinois. The Kaskaskia River, whose headwaters are near Champaign in central Illinois, and whose mouth is near Ellis Grove, Illinois, still carries the name of this native nation who once settled throughout its estuarial plain. Kaskaskia College is located near Centralia, Illinois, in rural Clinton County. The city of DuQuoin, Illinois, carries the name of Jean Baptiste DuQuoin (sometimes DuQuoigne), a notable Kaskaskia chieftain of their later history. Kaskaskia, Illinois was the first capital
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of Illinois. Also the Kaskaskia Baptist Association located in Patoka, Illinois carries this name. The USS Kaskaskia (AO-27) also carries the name.
References
1. ^ Stelle, Lenville J. "2005 Inoca Ethnohistory Project: Eye Witness Descriptions of the Contact Generation, 1673 -1700." Center For Social Research, Parkland College. http://virtual.parkland.edu/lstelle1/len/center_for_social_research/inoca_ethnohistory_project/inoca_ethnohistory.htm, accessed Apr 14, 2010
3. ^ http://www.kansasgenealogy.com/history/du_tisne.htm, accessed Apr 14, 2010 4. ^ Norall, Frank. Bourgmont, Explorer of the Missouri, 1698-1725. Lincoln: U of
Neb Press, 1988, 107 5. ^ Ekberg, Carl J. French Roots in the Illinois Country: The Mississippi Frontier
in Colonial Times. Chicage: U of Ill Press, 2000, 153-154 6. ^ Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site
External links
• Kaskaskia entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia • USS Kaskaskia • Inoca Ethnohistory Project: Eye Witness Descriptions of the Contact Generation,
1667 - 1700
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaskaskia" Categories: Native American tribes in Illinois | Native American tribes in Oklahoma | Algonquian ethnonyms | Algonquian peoples
Classification of indigenous peoples of the
Americas
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Cultural regions of North American people at the time of European contact.
Early Indian languages in the US
206
Early Indian languages in Alaska
The following classification scheme groups the indigenous peoples of the Americas by their regions of origin, followed by the current regions occupied by these peoples. See the individual article on each people, nation, First Nation, tribe, clan, clade, or phratry for a history of their movements. These regions of origin are:
Contents
• 1 Canada, Greenland, and United Stateso 1.1 Arctic o 1.2 Subarctic o 1.3 California o 1.4 Northeast Woodlands o 1.5 Great Basin o 1.6 Plateau o 1.7 Northwest Coast o 1.8 Plains o 1.9 Southeast o 1.10 Southwest
• 2 Mexico, Central America and the Caribbeano 2.1 Caribbean o 2.2 Mesoamerica o 2.3 Aridoamerica
• 3 South America o 3.1 Andean o 3.2 Sub-Andean o 3.3 Western Amazon o 3.4 Central Amazon o 3.5 Eastern and Southern Amazono 3.6 Gran Chaco o 3.7 Southern Cone
In the United States and Canada, ethnographers commonly classify indigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits (called cultural areas).[1] These ten geographical regions are:
Arctic
Inuktitut dialect map
• Aleut • Inuit o Kalaallit o Inuvialuit o Inupiat
• Yupik
Subarctic
Distribution of Cree peoples
208
• Ahtna (Ahtena, Nabesna) • Anishinaabe (see also Northeast Woodlands, Plains
o Oji-Cree (Anishinini, Severn Ojibwa) Ontario, o Ojibwa (Chippewa, Ojibwe) Ontario, Manitoba, Minnesota
• Abenaki o Eastern Abenaki: Quebec, Maine, and New Hampshire[2]
� Kennebec (Caniba) o Western Abenaki: Quebec, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and
Vermont[2] • Accohannock see *anticoke • Algonquian lower Saint Lawrence River • Anishinaabe (Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see also Subarctic,
Plains) o Algonquin Quebec, Ontario o Nipissing Ontario[2] o Ojibwa, (Chippewa, Ojibwe) Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, and
Wisconsin[2] � Mississaugas, Ontario
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� Saulteaux (Nakawē), Ontario o Ottawa, (Odawa), Ontario,[2] Michigan, later Oklahoma o Potawatomi, Michigan,[2] Ontario, Indiana, Wisconsin, later Oklahoma
• Assateague, Maryland[3] • Beothuk, Newfoundland[2] • Choptank Indian Tribe, Maryland[3] • Conoy, Virginia[3] • Erie, Pennsylvania, New York[2] • Etchemin Quebec (Maliseet) • Fox, Michigan,[2] later Iowa, Oklahoma • Hatteras • Ho-Chunk, Wisconsin, later Nebraska
o Winnebago, Wisconsin near Green Bay, Illinois,[2] later Nebraska • Honniasont, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia • Hopewell Ohio and Black River region • Huron/Wyandot Ontario south of Georgian Bay, now Oklahoma and Wendake,
Quebec • Illinois, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri[2]
o Miami, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan,[2] later Oklahoma o Peoria Illinois, later Oklahoma o Wea
• Iroquois, Ontario, Quebec, and New York[2] o Cayuga, New York,[2] later Oklahoma o Mohawk – New York[2] and Kahnawake, Quebec o Oneida, New York[2] o Onondaga, New York[2] o Seneca, New York,[2] later Oklahoma o Tuscarora, formerly North Carolina
• Kickapoo, Michigan,[2] Illinois, Missouri, later Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Mexico • Laurentian/St. Lawrence Iroquoians • Lenni-Lenape Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, now Ontario and Oklahoma
o Munsee linguistic group, (person from Minisink); originally resided in the greater Manhattan area, and drainage of Lower Hudson R. valley and upper Delaware R.
� Esopus west of the Hudson River in the Hudson River watershed � Waoranecks � Warranawankongs
� Minisink above the Delaware Water Gap � Ramapough Mountain Indians, New Jersey
o Unami linguistic group � Acquackanonk Passaic River in northern New Jersey � Hackensack south of Hudson Highlands west of Hudson River � Navasink to the east along the north shore of New Jersey � Raritan on Staten Island/Raritan Bay, originally on the lower
Raritan River, subsequently moving inland
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� Rumachenanck (aka Haverstraw), south of Hudson Highlands west of Hudson River
� Tappan radiating from Palisades in New York and New Jersey � Unalachtigo � Wiechquaeskecks from east of the Hudson migrated to the lower
Raritan after 1649 • Maliseet, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Maine[2] • Mascouten, Michigan[2] • Massachusett, Massachusetts
o Ponkapoag • Mattaponi, Virginia[4] • Menominee, Michigan and Wisconsin[2] • Mingo, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia • Mahican Confederacy, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont[2]
o Housatonic, Massachusetts, New York[5] o Mahican, Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont[2][5] o Wappani (Wappinger), New York[5]east of upper Hudson R. in Dutchess
County, ranging south to Manhattan & east into parts of Connecticut. � Wappinger proper, sachemship on the east side of the Hudson
River, in present-day Dutchess Co., New York � Hammonasset, eastern sachemship at the mouth of the Connecticut
R., in present-day Middlesex Co., Connecticut � Kitchawank or Kichtawanks or Kichtawank, northern Westchester
County, New York � Mattabesset, present-day New Haven County, Connecticut � Massaco, along the Farmington River in Connecticut � Menunkatuck, along the coast in present-day New Haven County,
Connecticut � Nochpeem, in southern portions of present-day Dutchess County,
New York � Paugusset, along the Housatonic River, present-day eastern
Fairfield Co. and western New Haven Co., Connecticut � Podunk, east of the Connecticut River in eastern Hartford County,
Connecticut � Poquonock, western present-day Hartford County, Connecticut � Quinnipiac, in central New Haven County, Connecticut � Rechgawawanc or Recgawawanc � Sicaog, in present-day Hartford County, Connecticut � Sintsink, or Sinsinks east of the Hudson River in present-day
Westchester County, New York � Siwanoy, coastal Westchester County, New York, into
southwestern Fairfield County, Connecticut � Tankiteke, central coastal Fairfield County, Connecticut north into
Putnam County and Dutchess County, New York � Tunxis, southwestern Hartford County, Connecticut � Wecquaesgeek, southwestern Westchester County, New York
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• o Wyachtonok, Connecticut, New York[5]
• Massachusett, Massachusetts[6] • Mi'kmaq (Micmac), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec[2] • Mohegan, Connecticut • Montauk, New York • Nanticoke, Delaware and Maryland[2] • Narragansett, Rhode Island • Neutral, Ontario[2] • Niantic, coastal Connecticut[6] • Nipmuck, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island[6] • Ocaneechee, Virginia[7] • Pamlico • Pasquotank • Passamaquoddy, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Maine[2] • Patuxent, Maryland[3] • Penobscot, Maine • Pequot • Petun, Ontario[2] • Piscataway Indian Nation, Maryland[3] • Pocumtuc, western Massachusetts[6] • Pokanoket (Pokanoket Tribe of the Wampanoag Nation), Rhode Island and
Massachusetts[6] • Poospatuck, New York • Potawatomi, Michigan • Powhatan, Virginia[3] • Quinnipiac Connecticut, eastern New York, northern New Jersey, Long Island
o Hammonasset o Mattabesec o Mattatuck o Menunkatuck o Meriden (tribe) o Mioonkhtuck o Naugatuck, New York[6] o Nehantic o Paugusset, New York[6] o Podunk, New York[6] o Potatuck, New York[6] o Totoket o Tunxis, New York[6] o Wangunk, New York[6] o Wepawaug, New York[6]
• Rappahannock, Virginia[4] • Sauk, Michigan,[2] later Iowa, Oklahoma • Schaghticoke, western Connecticut • Secotan
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• Shawnee Ohio,[2] West Virginia, Pennsylvania, later Oklahoma • Shinnecock, Long Island, New York[6] • Sissipahaw • Souriquoian • Susquehannock, Maryland and Pennsylvania[2] • Tarrantine (Tarranteen), see Abenaki, Micmac • Tauxenent, Virginia[4] • Unquachog, Long Island, New York[6] • Wampanoag, Massachusetts • Wawenoc • Wenro, New York[2] • Wenrohronon, Pennsylvania and New York • Wyandot, Huron, Ontario south of Georgian Bay, now Oklahoma and Wendake,
Quebec
Great Basin
• Bannock, Idaho[8] • Colorado River tribes
o Chemehuevi, southeastern California o Southern Paiute, Arizona, Nevada, Utah
o Western Shoshone, eastern California, Nevada, north Utah, southeastern Idaho[8]
� Duckwater Shoshone Tribe or Tsaidüka, Railroad Valley, Nevada[11]
� Goshute, Nevada and Utah � Te-Moak Tribe, made up of the Tonomudza band, Nevada � Yomba Western Shoshone Tribe,Nevada
o Northern Shoshone, Idaho[8] � Agaideka (Salmon Eaters), Snake River and Lemhi, Idaho[12]
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� Kammedeka (Jackrabbit Eaters), Snake River, Idaho to the Great Salt Lake, Utah[12]
� Lemhi Shoshone, Lemhi River Valley, Idaho[12] � Pohogwe (People of the Sagebrush Butte) or Fort Hall Shoshone,
Idaho[12] � Tukudeka (Mountain Sheep Eaters), central Idaho, southern
Montana, and Yellowstone, Wyoming � Yahandeka (Groundhog Eaters), Boise, Payette, and Weiser
Rivers, Idaho[12] o Eastern Shoshone, Wyoming[8]
� Kuccuntikka (Buffalo Eaters)[13] � Tukkutikka or Tukudeka (Mountain Sheep Eaters), joined the
Northern Shoshone[13] • Timbisha or Panamint or Koso, southeastern California • Ute, Colorado, Utah, northern New Mexico[8]
o Capote, southeastern Colorado and New Mexico[14] o Moanunts, Salina, Utah[15] o Muache, south and central Colorado[14] o Pahvant, western Utah[15] o Sanpits, central Utah[15] o Timpanogots, north cenral Utah[15] o Uintah, Utah[14] o Uncompahgre or Taviwach, central and northern Colorado[14] o Weeminuche, western Colorado, eastern Utah, northwestern New
Mexico[14] o White River Utes (Parusanuch and Yampa), Colorado and eastern Utah[14]
• Molala (Molale), Oregon • Nez Perce, Idaho • Nicola Athapaskans (extinct) • Nicola people (confederacy) • Nlaka'pamux, British Columbia, formerly known as the
Thompson people • Okanagan (Syilx), British Columbia and Washington
Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast • Ahantchuyuk - see Kalapuya • Alsea • Applegate • Atfalati - see Kalapuya • Bella Bella - see Heiltsuk • Bella Coola - see *uxalk • Burrard - see Tsleil-waututh • Calapooia - see Kalapuya • Calapuya - see Kalapuya • Central Kalapuya - see Kalapuya • Chasta Costa - see Rogue River • Chehalis (Upper and Lower) Washington• Chehalis (BC), Fraser Valley • Chemakum Washington (extinct) • Chetco - see Tolowa • Chinook Dialects: (Lower Chinook,
• Abihka, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16] • Acolapissa (Colapissa), Louisiana and Mississippi[17] • Ais, eastern coastal Florida[18] • Alabama, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16], southwestern Tennessee, northwestern
Mississippi[17][19] • Alafay (Alafia, Pojoy, Pohoy, Costas Alafeyes, Alafaya Costas), Florida[20] • Amacano, Florida west coast[21] • Apalachee, northwestern Florida[19] • Apalachicola, Creek Confederacy, Alabama, Florida, Georgia and South
Carolina[16] • Atakapa (Attacapa), Louisiana west coast and Texas southwestern coast[19]
o Akokisa, Texas southeast coast[16] o Bidai, Texas southeast coast[16] o Deadose, eastern Texas o Eastern Atakapa, western coastal Louisiana o Orcoquiza, southeast Texas o Patiri, eastern Texas o Tlacopsel, southeast Texas
o Adai (Adaizan, Adaizi, Adaise, Adahi, Adaes, Adees, Atayos), Louisiana and Texas[17]
o Cahinnio, southern Arkansas[24] o Doustioni, north central Lousiana[24] o Eyeish (Hais), eastern Texas[24] o Hainai, eastern Texas[24] o Hasinai, eastern Texas[24] o Kadohadacho, northeastern Texas, southwestern Arkansas, northwestern
Louisiana[24] o Nabedache, eastern Texas[24] o Nabiti, eastern Texas[24] o Nacogdoche, eastern Texas[24] o Nacono, eastern Texas[24] o Nadaco, eastern Texas[24] o Nanatsoho, northeastern Texas[24] o Nasoni, eastern Texas[24] o Natchitoches, Lower: central Louisiana, Upper: northeastern Texas[24]
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o Neche, eastern Texas[24] o Nechaui, eastern Texas[24] o Ouachita, northern Louisiana[24] o Tula, western Arkansas[24] o Yatasi, northwestern Louisiana[24]
• Calusa, southwestern Florida[19][20] • Cape Fear Indians, North Carolina southern coast[17] • Catawba (Esaw, Usheree, Ushery, Yssa),[23] North Carolina, South Carolina[19] • Chacato, Florida panhandle and southern Alabama[17] • Chakchiuma, Alabama and Mississippi[19] • Chatot (tribe) (Chacato, Chactoo), west Florida • Chawasha (Washa), Louisiana[17] • Cheraw (Chara, Charàh), North Carolina • Cherokee, Georgia, North Carolina, western tip of South Carolina, Tennessee,
Alabama, later Arkansas, Texas, Mexico, and Oklahoma[25] • Chiaha, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16] • Chickahominy, Virginia[26] • Chickamauga, band of Cherokees in Tennessee and Georgia • Chickanee (Chiquini), North Carolina • Chickasaw, Alabama and Mississippi,[19] later Oklahoma[25] • Chicora, coastal South Carolina[22] • Chine, Florida • Chisca (Cisca), southwestern Virginia, northern Florida[22] • Chitimacha, Louisiana[19] • Choctaw, Mississippi, Alabama,[19] and parts of Louisiana; later Oklahoma[25] • Chowanoc, North Carolina • Creek, Florida, Georgia, southern Tennessee, Mississippi,[19] later Alabama,
Oklahoma[25] • Congaree (Canggaree), South Carolina[17][27] • Coree, North Carolina[22] • Coushatta, Louisiana and Texas • Coharie, North Carolina • Cusabo coastal South Carolina[19] • Eno (people), North Carolina[17] • Garza, Texas, northern Mexico • Grigra (Gris), Mississippi[28] • Guacata (Santalûces), eastern coastal Florida[20] • Guacozo, Florida • Guale (Cusabo, Iguaja, Ybaja), coastal Georgia[17][19] • Guazoco, southwestern Florida coast[20] • Hitchiti, Creek Confederacy, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida[17] • Hooks Nation (possibly Chuaque, Huaq, Nuaq),[23] see Backhooks Nation • Houma, Louisiana and Mississippi[19] • Jaega, eastern coastal Florida[18] • Jaupin (Weapemoc), North Carolina • Jobe (Hobe), part of Jaega, Florida[20]
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• Jororo, Florida interior[20] • Keyauwee, North Carolina[17] • Koasati, Tennessee[19] • Koroa, Mississippi[17] • Luca (tribe), southwestern Florida coast[20] • Lumbee, North Carolina • Machapunga, North Carolina • Manahoac, Virginia[29] • Mattaponi, Virginia • Matecumbe (Matacumbêses, Matacumbe, Matacombe), Florida Keys[20] • Mayaca (tribe), Florida[20] • Mayaimi (Mayami), interior Florida[18] • Mayajuaca, Florida • Meherrin, Virginia,[26] North Carolina • Mikasuki (Miccosukee), Florida • Mobila (Mobile, Movila), northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[19] • Mocoso, western Florida[18][20] • Monacan, Virginia[22] • Monyton (Monetons, Monekot, Moheton) (Siouan), West Virginia and Virginia • Mougoulacha, Mississippi[22] • Muscogee (Creek), Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, later
Oklahoma • Nahyssan, Virginia • Naniaba, northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[19] • Nansemond, Virginia[26] • Natchez, Louisiana and Mississippi[19] later Oklahoma • Neusiok (Newasiwac, Neuse River Indians), North Carolina[17] • Nottaway, Virginia,[26] North Carolina • Occaneechi (Siouan), Virginia[26][30] • Oconee, Georgia, Florida • Ofo, Arkansas and Mississippi[19], eastern Tennessee[17] • Okchai (Ogchay), central Alabama[17] • Okelousa, Louisiana[17] • Opelousas, Louisiana[17] • Osochee (Oswichee, Usachi, Oosécha), Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16][17] • Pacara, Florida • Pakana (Pacâni, Pagna, Pasquenan, Pak-ká-na, Pacanas), central Alabama[17], later
Texas[22] • Pamlico, North Carolina • Pamunkey, Virginia[26] • Pascagoula, Mississippi coast[22] • Patiri, southeastern Texas • Pee Dee (Pedee), South Carolina[17][31] and North Carolina • Pensacola, Florida panhandle and southern Alabama[19] • Potoskeet, North Carolina • Quinipissa, southeastern Louisiana and Mississippi[16]
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• Rappahannock Tribe, Virginia • Saluda (Saludee, Saruti), South Carolina[17] • Santee (Seretee, Sarati, Sati, Sattees), South Carolina (no relation to Santee
Sioux), South Carolina[17] • Santa Luces, Florida • Saponi, North Carolina[32], Virginia[26] • Saura North Carolina • Sawokli (Sawakola, Sabacola, Sabacôla, Savacola), southern Alabama and
Florida panhandle[17] • Saxapahaw (Sissipahua, Shacioes), North Carolina[17] • Seminole, Florida and Oklahoma[25] • Sewee (Suye, Joye, Xoye, Soya), South Carolina coast[17] • Shakori, North Carolina • Shoccoree, North Carolina,[17] possibly Virginia • Stegarake, Virginia[29] • Stuckanox (Stukanox), Virginia[26] • Sugeree (Sagarees, Sugaws, Sugar, Succa), North Carolina and South Carolina[17] • Surruque, east central Florida[33] • Suteree (Sitteree, Sutarees, Sataree), North Carolina • Taensa, Mississippi[28] • Talapoosa, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16] • Tawasa, Alabama[34] • Tequesta, southeastern coastal Florida[17][20] • Terocodame, Texas and Mexico
o Codam o Hieroquodame o Oodame o Perocodame o Teroodame
• Timucua, Florida and Georgia[17][19][20] o Acuera, central Florida[35] o Agua Fresca (or Aqua Dulce or Freshwater), interior northeast Florida[35] o Arapaha, north central Florida and south central Georgia?[35] o Cascangue, coastal southeast Georgia[35] o Icafui (or Icafi), coastal southeast Georgia[35] o Mocama (or Tacatacuru), coastal northeast Florida and coastal southeast
Georgia[35] o Northern Utina north central Florida[35] o Ocale, central Florida[35] o Oconi, interior southeast Georgia[35] o Potano, north central Florida[35] o Saturiwa, northeast Florida[35] o Tucururu (or Tucuru), central? Florida[35] o Yufera, coastal southeast Georgia[35] o Yui (or Ibi), coastal southeast Georgia[35] o Yustaga, north central Florida[35]
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• Tiou (Tioux), Mississippi[27] • Tocaste, Florida[20] • Tocobaga, Florida[17][20] • Tohomé, northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[19] • Tomahitan, eastern Tennessee • Topachula, Florida • Tukabatchee (Tuk-ke-bat-che), Creek Confederacy, Alabama[16] • Tuscarora, North Carolina, Virginia, later New York • Tuskegee, see Creek • Tutelo, Virginia[26][30] • Tunica, Arkansas and Mississippi[19] • Utiza, Florida[18] • Uzita, Tampa Bay, Florida[36] • Vicela, Florida[18] • Viscaynos, Florida • Waccamaw, South Carolina • Wateree (Guatari, Watterees), North Carolina[17] • Waxhaw (Waxsaws, Wisack, Wisacky, Weesock, Flathead), North Carolina and
South Carolina[17][31] • Westo, Virginia and South Carolina[22] • Winyaw, South Carolina coast[17] • Woccon, North Carolina[17][31] • Yamasee, Florida, Georgia[22] • Yazoo, southeastern tip of Arkansas, eastern Louisiana, Mississippi[17][37] • Yuchi (Euchee), central Tennessee,[17][19] later Oklahoma
Southwest
• Ak Chin, Arizona • Southern Athabaskan
o Chiricahua Apache, New Mexico and Oklahoma o Jicarilla Apache, New Mexico o Lipan Apache, Texas o Mescalero Apache, New Mexico o Navajo (Navaho, Diné), Arizona and New Mexico o San Carlos Apache, Arizona o Tonto Apache, Arizona o Western Apache (Coyotero Apache), Arizona o White Mountain Apache, Arizona
• Genízaro Arizona, New Mexico • Halchidhoma, Arizona and California • Hano, Arizona • Hualapai, Arizona • Havasupai, Arizona • Hohokam, Arizona • Jumano, Sonora, Mexico • Karankawa, Texas • Kavelchadhom • Los Luceros • Mamulique Texas, northern Mexico • Maricopa, Arizona • Mojave, Arizona, California, and Nevada • Pima, Arizona • Pima Bajo • Piro • Pueblo people, Arizona and New Mexico
o Hopi, Arizona o Keres people, New Mexico
� Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico � Cochiti Pueblo, New Mexico � Laguna Pueblo, New Mexico � San Felipe Pueblo, New Mexico � Santa Ana Pueblo, New Mexico � Santo Domingo Pueblo, New Mexico � Zia Pueblo, New Mexico
o Tewa, New Mexico � Nambé Pueblo, New Mexico � Ohkay Owingeh, New Mexico � Pojoaque Pueblo, New Mexico � San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico � Tesuque Pueblo, New Mexico � Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico
o Tiwa people, New Mexico � Isleta Pueblo, New Mexico � Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico � Sandia Pueblo, New Mexico (*afiat was the name for the
Bernalillo pueblo) � Taos Pueblo, New Mexico � Ysleta del Sur Pueblo (Tigua Pueblo), Texas
o Towa � Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico
o Zuni, New Mexico • Qahatika • Quechan (Yuma), Arizona and California • Quems
• Karajá (Iny), Goiás, Mato Grosso, Pará, and Tocantins provinces, Brazil • Kayapo, Mato Grosso and Pará, Brazil • Tapirape, Brazil • Tupian • Yanomami, Venezuela and Brazil
o Künün-a-Güna (Gennakenk, Gennaken, Noordelijke Tehuelche) o Küwach-a-Güna o Mecharnúekenk o Aónikenk (Zuidelijke Tehuelche)
• Selk'nam (Ona) • Yamana or Yaghan • Yaro (Jaro)
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Languages
Main article: Indigenous languages of the Americas See also: Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas
Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[38]
(Spanish) Aridoamerican tribes by location (Spanish) Mesoamerican tribes by location
Genetic classification
A genetic tree showing the main neighbour-joining relationships within Amerindian populations. Main article: Indigenous Amerindian genetics
The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Amerindian genetics is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[39] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can easily be studied.[40] The pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[41][42] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.[41]
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Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population.[43][44] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region..[45] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations.[46][47][48] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[49]
*otes
1. ^ "Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Sturtevant and Trigger, ix 3. ^ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Trigger, 241 4. ^ a b c Sturtevant and Trigger, 255 5. ^ a b c d Sturtevant and Trigger, 198 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sturtevant and Trigger, 161 7. ^ Sturtevant and Trigger, 96 8. ^ a b c d e f g h D'Azevedo, ix 9. ^ a b c d e f g Pritzker, 230 10. ^ D'Azevedo, 161-2 11. ^ D'Azevedo, 282 12. ^ a b c d e D'Azevedo, 306 13. ^ a b D'Azevedo, 335 14. ^ a b c d e f D'Azevedo, 339 15. ^ a b c d D'Azevedo, 340 16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374 17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am Sturtevant and
Fogelson, 69 18. ^ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205 19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix 20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214 21. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673 22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81-82 23. ^ a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 315 24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant, 617 25. ^ a b c d e Frank, Andrew K. Indian Removal. Oklahoma Historical Society's
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. (retrieved 10 July 2009) 26. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293 27. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188 28. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598-9 29. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290 30. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291
232
31. ^ a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302 32. ^ Haliwa-Saponi Tribe. (retrieved 10 July 2009) 33. ^ Hahn 1993 34. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668 35. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hahn 1996, 5-13 36. ^ Hann 2003:11 37. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190 38. ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world
(15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
39. ^ "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas" (pdf). Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Parana´, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of *ew Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Gene´tica Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota´; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Gene´tica Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı´n, Colombia; Universite´ de Montreal. University College London 73:524–539. 2003. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Bortolini-AJHG-03-YAmer.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
40. ^ Orgel L (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (pdf). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 39 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
41. ^ a b "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q" (Verbal tutorial possible). Genebase Systems. 2008. http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16. Retrieved 2009-11-21. "Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendents of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present"
42. ^ Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (Digitised online by Google books). The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey. Random House. ISBN 0812971469. http://books.google.ca/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Journey%20of%20Man&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
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43. ^ First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover - Jennifer Viegas, Discovery *ews, http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html, retrieved 2009-11-18, "Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken" page 2
44. ^ Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/02/080214-america-layover.html. Retrieved 2010-01-23. "Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas"
45. ^ "Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. 2009. http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
46. ^ Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the *ational Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (23): 13994–6. PMID 9811914. PMC 25007. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9811914.
47. ^ Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095.
48. ^ "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. 2000. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2807%2963257-1. Retrieved 2009-11-22. "The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America."
49. ^ "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. Genetics Society of America. Vol 130, 153-162. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/130/1/153. Retrieved 2009-11-28. "The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000-10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds"
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References
• D'Azevedo, Warren L., Volume Editor. Handbook of *orth American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. ISBN 978-0160045813.
• Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. ISBN 0-8130-1232-5.
• Hahn, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. ISBN 0-8130-1424-7.
• Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN0-8130-2645-8
• Pritzker, Barry M. A *ative American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0195138771.
• Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of *orth American Indians: *ortheast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
• Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of *orth American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
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Categories: Indigenous peoples of the Americas | Native American tribes | Indigenous languages of the Americas
