SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION IN GUPTA PERIOD

A PROJECT

IN

HISTORY

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:DR. PRIYA DARSHINI NIDHIFACULTY, HISTORY ROLL NO. 763 SEMESTER-1ST

SESSION- 2012-17

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my faculty, whose assignment of such a relevant and

current topic made me work towards knowing the subject with a greater

interest and enthusiasm and moreover he guided me throughout the

project.

I owe the present accomplishment of my project to my friends, who helped

me immensely with sources of research materials throughout the project

and without whom I couldn’t have completed it in the present way.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my parents and all those unseen

hands that helped me out at every stage of my project.

NIDHI ROLL NO. 763 1st year

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Aim and Objective

The aim of the project is to present a detailed study of the topic “PROFESSIONAL

NEGLIGENCE” through , suggestions, different writings and articles.

Research Plan

The researcher has followed Doctrinal method.

Type of Study

Historical and Descriptive

Scope and limitations

Though the topic “SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION IN GUPTA PERIOD” is an immense

project and pages can be written over the topic but because of certain restrictions and

limitations I was not able to deal with the topic in great detail.

Source of Data

The following secondary sources of data have been used in the project:

Articles/ Magazines

Books

Websites

LIST OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement……………………………………………..

Research Methodology……………………………………………..

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

Chapter 2

Sources of Gupta period………………………………...................................

………..6-7-8-9

CHAPTER 3Condition of northern India before rise of the Guptas………………………..………….10-11-12

Chapter 4India during the Gupta Age or the Administration………………....................……………….13-14-15-16-17-18-19

Chapter 5 Economy and Society during Gupta Empire…………………........................………………20-21

Chapter 6Culture and Literature of the Gupta period………………...............................……………………….21-22

Chapter 7Decline of the Gupta Empire…………………………………….....................…………….22-23 Chapter 8Conclusion………………………………………………………………24Bibliography………………………………………………………………25

1.INTRODUCTION:

The Gupta Empire was an ancient indian empire which existed from approximately 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian subcontinent Founded by Maharaj Sri Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta the Great, and Chandra Gupta II the Great were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas (Persians), the Hunas, the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc.

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[8] The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[9][10] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[11] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.[12]

The Gupta Empire was a vast empire of north India, it was a peaceful time. In this time, mathmactices made great advances. The discovery of zero, infinty, decimal numbers, and also pi. Advances in medical, astronomy, and science, lead to discoverers of seven planets, and minor surgery, and theory of gravity, and figuring out that the planet was round not flat. This time period was considered the golden age.

The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire gradually declined because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Huna peoples from Central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha Vardhana, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

The two hundred years of Gupta rule may be said to mark the climax of Hindu imperial tradition. From the point of view of literature, religion, art, architecture, commerce and colonial development, this period is undoubtedly the most important in Indian history. The Guptas inherited the administrative system of the earlier empires. The Mauryan bureaucracy, already converted into a caste, had functioned with impartial loyalty under

succeeding empires. Under the Guptas we have direct allusions to viceroys, governors, administrators of provinces, and of course to ministers of the imperial government. 2. SOURCES OF THE GUPTA PERIOD :

(i) Literary Sources:  The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges.

Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas"

Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of the history of the ancient period of India.1

From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra andManusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta'sMudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings 2of Kashmir. Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical materials.

(ii) Archaeological Evidence : The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed.

1 V.D. Mahajan,2005, pg no.466-702 R. C. Majumdar, 2008, pg no.184

Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.

In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.

(iii) Inscriptions :  

Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.

Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.

James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history

The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting.

(iv)Coins : .

The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha 

(v)Accounts of the Foreigners : 

A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are supplemented by the writing of foreigners.3

The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author Book Subject

Magasthenes(G) IndicaValuable information on administration

and socio-economic of Mauryan India

Ptolemy(G) GeographyGeographical treatise on India in 2nd

Century AD

Pliny(G) Naturakus HistoriaAccounts trade relations between Rome

and India in 1st Century AD

Anonymous(G) Periplus of the Erythrean SeaRecords personal voyage of Indian

coasts in 80 A.D.

Fa-Hien(C) Record of the Buddhist CountriesRecords the Gupta Empire in the 5th

Century AD

Hiuen Tsang(C)Buddhist Records of the Western

World

Describes the social, economic and

religious conditions of India in the 5th

and 7th Century AD.

I-tsing(C)

A record of the Buddhists religion

as practised in India and Malay

Archipelago.

Studies the Gupta period under Sri

Gupta in the 7th Century AD.

Hwuili(C) Life of Hiuen Tsang Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

G-Greek, C-Chinese 

2. CONDITION OF NORTHERN INDIA BEFORE RISE OF THE GUPTAS:

Before the rise of the Gupta dynasty, northern India was divided into number of small monarchical Kingdoms and republics:

Monarchical kingdoms It can be known from the puranas, the Nagas were very powerful in Vidisa, Kantipuri,

3 K. D. BAJPAI, 2008, PG NO. 144

Mathura and Padmavati. The Nagas had spread in the different parts of the country. Sisha, Bhogin and Sada-chandra Chandramsa were some of the famous rulers of the Naga dynasty of Vidisa. The inscriptions refer Bhavanag. Some coins found at Padmavati mention his name. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta describes that Samudragupta had defeated the two Naga kings. They were king Ganpati Nag and Nagasena. Some scholars are of the view that king Virsena of Mathura was also a king of Naga dynasty. His coins have been discovered in Mathura, Punjab and district Bulandshahr, etc.

Ahichattra kingdom Bhadraghosa, Suryamitra, Phalgunimitra, Agnimitra, Brihatsvatimitra etc. were the kings of Ahichattra kingdom and the coins of the first three centuries of A.D. refer to these kings as well. Some of the coins refer the name of Achyuttra who was defeated by Samudragupta.

Vakataka kingdom Vindhyasakti is said to be the founder of Vakataka dynasty. But some scholars are of the view that it was Paravarsena who founded the Vakataka dynasty. He was a powerful king and performed four horse sacrifices and adopted the title of `samrat`. He was succeeded by his son Rudrasena. Samudragupta defeated Rudrasena and incorporated his kingdom into his empire.

Ayodhya kingdom From certain coins it can be known that Dhandeva and Vishakhadeva were the ruler of Ayodhya. Dhandeva was probably the descendent or Pushyamitra. Satyamitra, Ayumitra, Sanghmitra were some of the other rulers of Ayodhya.

The Maukhari kingdom Sunderverman was the king of Maukhari dynasty and ruled in Oudh. The Maukhari Senapatis are given the credit of constructing sacrificial pillars.

Kaushambi kingdom Certain coins refer to Sudeva, Brihatsvamitra, Asvaghosa, Agnimitra, Devamitra, Varunmitra, Jyeshthmitra and Partapatimitra as the ruler of Kaushambi.

The Guptas Before conquering the whole of northern India, the Guptas were also a local power. Srigupta is regarded the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Srigupta was succeeded by Ghatokacha. After Ghatotkacha, Chandra Gupta I succeeded him as a king. In Chandra Gupta`s reign the growth of the Gupta empire begins in rapid strides.4

The Arjunayans The Arjunayans ruled in the modern Bharatpur and Alwar states in Rajasthan. They had become prominent during the reign of the indo Greek kings but after them the Sakas subdued them. Thereafter, they again rose after the decline of the Kushanas but were

4 V. D. Mahajan, 2005,pg no. 525

ultimately defeated by the Guptas as well.

The Yaudheyas The Yaudheyas had established their rule in the east Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan. They were the worshipper of Brahmandeva. The Sakas and the Kushanas had subdued them but after their fall they again came into prominence. They were ultimately subdued by the Guptas.

The Malavas The Malavas ruled in Punjab at the time of Alexander`s invasion but later on they settled in Rajasthan and made Malavnagar near Jaipur as their capital. The Malva coins refer to the legend `Malavanam jayah`. They are said to be the first to use vikram era. They also used the Krita era. They had defeated the Sakas and the Mankhari Senapati was their vassal. However, they were also subdued by the Guptas.

TheLichchhavis This was a very old republic. It existed in the time of lord Buddha and was a very strong republic before the rise of the Guptas. This is born by the fact that Chandra Gupta I had married a Lichchhavis princess.

TheSibis They had a very big infantry and were a strong power at the time of the Alexander`s invasion. Later on they settled in Rajasthan and made Madhyamika as their capital. This Madhyamika was placed near Chitod.

The republic of Kunindas This republic was between the Yamuna and the Sutlej and the upper courses of the Bias and probably Chatra was their capital.

The Kulutas The Kulutas lived in the valley of Kabul and were successful in overthrowing the Kunindas. Virayasas and Bhadrayasas were their famous rulers.

The Audumbaras The Audumbaras were placed in the eastern part of Kangra, Gurdaspura and Hoshiarpura. Dharaghosa, Sivadas and Rudradasa were some of their famous rulers. Their coins have the figure of a Siva temple with a Dhavaja, a trident and a battle area. Some of the names of the Audumbara rulers can be mentioned as Agnimitra, Mahimitra, Bhumitra and Mahabumitra. Their names were mentioned in the coins.

3. FOUNDATION OF GUPTA EMPIRE IN INDIA:

The Guptas were famous rulers of ancient India, who constructed their own imperialism and introduced the Golden era in India. After the lapse of a prolonged Dark Age, it was the Guptas who initiated peace and coalesced the entire disintegrated Northern India. The Gupta rulers ascended the throne in 320 A.D. and continued to be the sovereign authority

of India till 550 A.D. When the Guptas came into the political scenario of India, the condition of entire North India was pretty lawless and due to lack of any central authority the provincial governors unfurled their flag of independence after the downfall of the Kushanas. Furthermore they were at continuous strife with one another for which the socio-political condition of Northern India was extremely chaotic. During that time the Guptas and the Kshatriyas rose to power, who not only defeated the provincial kings, but also compelled them to offer their allegiance to the Guptas. In such a manner, the Guptas consolidated the entire northern India under their own supremacy.

The Gupta records mentioned the names of the first three rulers of the Gupta lineage who ascended the throne, namely Maharaja Sari Gupta, his son Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and the latter`s son Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta. Though Maharaja Sri Gupta was the founder king of the Gupta dynasty and established dynastic stronghold in Northern India, yet the third ruler Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta I was more powerful and famous than his predecessors. However historians have pointed out unanimously that the first two Gupta kings had used the title of "Maharaja", only the third king Chandragupta I initiated the status of Maharajadhiraja. From the Gupta records of 4th century it is known that the title "Maharaja" only was ascribed to subordinate kings under the Central authority during that time and the title "Maharajadhiraja" was used by an independent king. Hence from these records it was presumed by the scholars that the first two Gupta rulers appeared to be feudatories, but their authority is still unknown. Though K.P. Jaiswal has pointed out that the Guptas were feudatories under the Bharasivas, the theory was discarded due to lack of any supportive evidence. Dr. S. Chattopadhya has however pointed out that after the downfall of the Kushanas, the Saka Murandas occupied Magadha and the Guptas acted as their vassals. Finally Chandragupta I liberated Magadha from the Sakas or the Scythians and established himself as the independent king of the Gupta Dynasty and used the title "Maharajadhiraja". However the feudatory status of the Guptas and the Scythian suzerainty over them is a subject of doubt, because conclusive proofs are yet unavailable. Allan, one of the famous interpreters of ancient history has inferred that the title "maharaja" was not always ascribed to the feudatories. He also adds that the title Maharaja was used by many independent rulers belonging to the tribes like Bharasiva, Magha, Licchavi, and Vakataka. Hence it is not unlikely that the early Guptas also used the same title as independent provincial kings.

Not much is known about Maharaja Sri Gupta, the founder king of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India. Knowledge about Maharaja Sri-Gupta is limited to the accounts of the Chinese traveller I-Tsing,5 who visited the court of Maharaja Sri Gupta. I-Tsing in his historical documents had mentioned that the extent of the Gupta Empire was too small when the founder king of Gupta dynasty, Maharaja Sri Gupta ascended the throne. It comprised the areas of Bengal and some parts of Bihar. A patron of the Buddhist cult, Maharaja Sri Gupta, constructed a temple for the Chinese pilgrims near Mrigashikhavana, close to Varendri or Varendra bhumi in Bengal and also granted twenty-four villages for its maintenance. Maharaja Sri Gupta reigned probably from 275 to 300 A.D.

5 K. D. Bajpai, 2004, pg no. 543

Maharaja Ghatotkacha succeeded his father, king Maharaja Sri Gupta to power. According to Vakataka records of Prabhabati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II described Maharaja Ghatotkacha as the founder of Gupta Dynasty in ancient India. However there is no conclusive proofs or supportive evidences about the Vakataka records. Moreover it provided ambiguous documentations, hence in the later years historians discarded the confirmation of the Vakataka records. The Rewa inscription of Skandagupta also recorded the genealogy of the Gupta rulers, where the name of Maharaja Sri Gupta was not mentioned. However Dr. Majumdar has pointed out that one of these records is the official Gupta record, hence much importance should not be attached to the omission of the name of Maharaja Sri Gupta as the founder king of the Gupta Dynasty. However Maharaja Ghatotkacha was regarded a powerful ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. Allan has pointed out that the Gupta Dynastic inscription mentioned him as "Ghatotkacha" and not Ghatotkacha Gupta. Furthermore he adds that Ghatotkacha was also identified as "Kacha". The coins issued in the name of "Kacha" were ascribed to the second Gupta ruler, Maharaja Ghatotkacha. Historians have fixed his date between 300 and 320 A.D., after a prolonged research.

The second Gupta ruler, Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son Chandragupta I. He not only inherited the throne of his father, one of the powerful rulers of Gupta Dynasty, but at the same time brought Gupta dynasty in the limelight of ancient history, by unveiling the obscurity, which covered the contemporary political scenario after the Dark Age. The emergence of Gupta Dynasty under him as a superior power, is evident from his adoption of the title "Maharajadhiraja". As historical records suggest, the third king of the Gupta Dynasty, Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta I was not only a powerful king, but at the same time was a shrewd diplomat. To augment the power of Gupta house he not only subdued the provincial kings, but also established marital relationship with some of the tribes, in order to strengthen the authority of the Gupta Empire. It is for this reason Chandragupta I married the Licchavi princess Mahadevi Kumaradevi. Some of the coins of Chandragupta I bore images of the Maharajadhiraja and his Licchavi queen Mahadevi Kumaradevi on one side and the figure of goddess Lakshmi on the reverse.

The matrimonial alliance of Chandragupta I with the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, is a subject of keen controversy among the scholars. Matrimonial alliance between royal families for political purposes was prevalent in all times, in all countries, for all ages, especially in India. Therefore, historians hold that the Licchavi marriage of Chandragupta I had immensely increased his power. Since the Licchavis were extremely powerful warrior tribes, Chandragupta did not find it wise enough to wage a war against them. But he decided to establish friendly relations with the Licchavis, to enhance the strength of the Gupta Empire. But scholars differ widely about the nature and extent of power of Chandragupta I, acquired by his alliance with the Licchavis. Allan has suggested that by matrimonial alliance, the Guptas succeeded the prestige and pedigree in the ancient line of the Licchavis, but did not gain any material power. Romila Thapar supported the view of Allan and endorsed the fact by pointing that the Guptas perhaps did not have any royal origin. But Dr. Majumdar has refuted the views of Allan by saying that the Licchavis did not enjoy any status in the contemporary society. Hence the matrimonial alliance of Chandragupta I could not enhance the pedigree of the Guptas. Moreover "Manu Samhita

" denoted the Licchavis as the "degraded Kshatriyas". Allan has further pointed out that after matrimonial alliance, the kingdom of Vaishali ruled by the Licchavis was annexed with the Gupta Empire. But later historians contradicted the view. This is so because the name Vaishali was not mentioned in the list of territories ruled by Samudragupta. Hence if it were included in his father`s kingdom, then unquestionably Vaishali would have been part of Samudragupta`s kingdom. Hence according to modern historians, though Chandragupta I engaged in matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis, yet, the kingdom of Vaishali was ruled by the Licchavis independently. However it is generally believed that the alliance of the Guptas with the Licchavis had strengthened the Gupta supremacy in ancient India.

Almost nothing is known about the conquest of the third Gupta ruler Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta I. Professor R.D. Bannerjee has suggested that- strengthened by the Licchavi alliance, firstly Chandragupta liberated the kingdom of Magadha from the shackles of the Sakas or the Scythians. Some scholars have also identified Chandragupta I with Chandrasena, a character of the play "Kaumudi Mahotsava". In the play, the alliance of Chandrasena with the Licchavi princess was also mentioned. From the evidence of the drama, it is known that Chandragupta I allied with the Licchavis and overthrew the legitimate king Sundaravarmana from the throne of Magadha and usurped it.

Prof. R.G. Basak has expounded the theory that Chandragupta I had conquered the province of Pundravardhana (North Bengal). The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta however did not mention that he had conquered the territory of Pundravardhana. It was already part of the Gupta Empire before the ascension of Samudragupta. Therefore it can be inferred that Pundravardhana was conquered by Chandragupta I. Professor Basak has also identified a king named Chandra of Meharauli Pillar inscription, with Chandragupta I. However this theory did not have wide acceptance. Though the information available about the extent of Chandragupta I`s Empire is very meagre, yet historians have presumed that probably it was a large one, which justified his title of Maharajadhiraja. Pargiter, one of the eminent historians, has suggested on the evidence of a Puranic passage that Saketa (Oudh), Prayag (Allahabad) and Magadha (South-Bihar) were included in Chandragupta`s kingdom. Chandragupta I evidently had defeated the Magha kings of Kosala and Kausambhi and annexed their kingdom. Later modern historians have opined after prolonged research of the available evidences and the campaigns made by Samudragupta, that the Empire of Chandragupta I consisted of whole Bihar, portions of Bengal, except the Eastern region or Samatata and eastern territory of U.P.

The political importance of Chandragupta I lies in the fact that he had initiated the Gupta era in 320 A.D., that had commenced from February 26th. According to some other scholars, Gupta era actually dated from December 319 A.D. Again some scholars held that the son of Chandragupta I, Samudragupta initiated the Gupta era in order to commemorate his coronation. However a strong theory has been approached by another group of scholars that Chandragupta II might have started the Gupta Era, although it was calculated from 56 years previous to his reign. However Chandragupta I, the third king of

Gupta lineage, was the most powerful among the early Guptas, who not only established a stronghold of the Gupta Empire in Northern India, but also had extended the boundary of his Empire.

4. INDIA DURING THE GUPTA AGE:

The inscriptions mention the following titles as: paramadvaita, paramabhattaraka, maharajadhiraja, prithvipala, paramesvara, samrat, ekadhiraja and chakravartin. The king was assisted in his administration by a chief minister called mantra or sachiva. Pratiharas and mahapratiharas were important officers in the royal court though they did not participate in the administration. Among the important military officers are mentioned senapati, mahasenapati, baladhyaksha, mahabaladhyaksha, baladhikrita6 and mahabaladhikrita who perhaps represented different grades. There were two other high military officers-the bhatasvapati, commander of the infantry and cavalry and the katuka, commander of the elephant corps. Another important official mentioned in the Basarh seals was ranabhandagaradhikarana, chief of the treasury of the war office. One more high officer mentioned for the first time in the Gupta records was sandhibigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika a foreign minister. One of the inscriptions mentions sarvadhyakshas, superintendents of all but it is not clear whether they were central or provincial officers. Numerous inscriptions mention dutaka or duta who communicated royal commands to officers and people concerned. Dandapasadhikarana represented the chief of the police. Ordinary police officials were known as dandapasika, chatas, bhatas, dandika and chauroddharanika. The king maintained a close liaison with the provincial administration through a class of officials called kumaramatyas and ayuktas.

The provinces called bhuktis were usually governed by officers called uparikas. The governor of a bhukti has various designations in the official records-bhogika, gopta, uparika-maharaja and rajasthaniya. Bhuktis were subdivided into vishayas. These were governed by vishayapatis. The headquarters of the district was known as adhishthana and the executive officers of the district as samvyavahari and ayuktakas. The district magistrate was helped in his administration in his administration by a large staff. They were maharattaras(village elders), ashtakuladhi-karanikas(officers in charge of groups of eight kulas or families in the local area), gramika(village headman), saulkika (collector of customs and tolls), gaulmika(incharge of forest and forts), agraharika(in charge of the agraharas, settlements dedicated to Brahmins). The district records office called akshapatala was placed in charge of mahakshapatalika. There were also in the district office, sarbodhyakshas or general superintendents under whom were employed men of noble lineage called kulaputras to guard against corruption. The popular element played an important part in the district administration. The advisory district council consisted principally of four members namely the guild president, the chief merchant, the chief artisan and the chief scribe. The villages were under gramikas along with whom were associated mahattaras or the senior persons of different classes. The town administration was carried on by the mayor of the city called purapala who corresponded to nagaravyavaharakas of the Mauryan age.

6 Ashivini Agarwal, 1960 ,pg no. 540

1. REPUBLICS:

While monarchy was the prevailing form of government during the Gupta period, afew republics lingered on in the Punjab and Rajputana. The Madras were in central Punjab, the Kunindas in the Kangra valley, the Yaudheyas in south-eastern Punja, the Arjunayanas in Agra- Jaipur tract and the Malavas in central Rajasthan. The Prarjunas, the Sanakanikas, the Kakas and the Abhiras were in central India. These republics disappeared after about 400 A.D.

2. MONARCHY:

The theory of the divinity of king’s was popular during the Gupta period. Samudragupta is dscribed as a god who had come to live upon the earth. The Gupta established a strong central government which also allowed a degree of local control. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. This included a strict caste system, or class system. The peace and prosperity created under Gupta leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.

Although the king was purposefully associated with Visnu in the inscriptions and even on the coins, it can be argued that the Guptas were not claiming to be incarnations of Visnu in the same sense as Rama and Krsna were believed to be incarnations. Rather they were claiming that their authority to rule the land came to them from Visnu. They expressed their allegiance to their god through their devotional activities, service to the poor, and patronage of the temple movement. They were kings but also servants, and this pattern of kingship is also found in different periods of Indian history.

By the fourth century A.D., political and military turmoil destroyed the Kushan empire in the north and many kingdoms in the south India. At this juncture, India was invaded by a series of foreigners and barbarians or Mlechchhas from the north western frontier region and central Asia. It signaled the emergance of a leader, a Magadha ruler, Chandragupta I. Chandragupta successfully combated the foreign invasion and laid foundation of the great Gupta dynasty, the emperors of which ruled for the next 300 years, bringing the most prosperous era in Indian history.

The reign of Gupta emperors can truly be considered as the golden age of classical Indian history. Srigupta I (270-290 AD) who was perhaps a petty ruler of Magadha (modern Bihar) established Gupta dynasty with Patliputra or Patna as its capital. He and his son Ghatotkacha (290-305 AD) have left very little evidences of their rule and did not issue any coins of their own (although there have been reports of coins of Shrigupta which need more thorough studies). Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son Chandragupta I (305-325 AD) who strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the powerful family of Lichchavi who were rulers of Mithila. His marriage to Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, brought an enormous power, resources and prestige. He took advantage of the situation and occupied whole of fertile Gangetic valley. Chandragupta I eventually assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (emperor) in formal coronation. Most probably Chandragupta I never minted gold coins of his own, although some historians believe that

gold coins depicting king (Chandragupta) and queen (Kumardevi) are minted by him. It is very likely that these coins were minted by their illustrious son, Samudragupta. Shown below is very nice example of this controversial coin where Chandragupta and Kumardevi are shown (without halo). Chandragupta is offering a ring (or putting Sindur) to his queen Kumardevi. Chandra in Brahmi script is written below left arm of King while Shri-Kumardevi is written near right hand of queen. Reverse of coin shows goddess Ambika, sitting on Lion. The legend on reverse reads Lichchavyah, which suggests that indeed, Samudragupta took pride in being son of Lichchavi princess. His affection towards his parents is amply demonstrated while issuing this superb (commemorative?) gold coin. This coin is a rare and very special in Indian numismatics.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380 AD)Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. His name appear in Javanese text `Tantrikamandaka', and Chinese writer, Wang-hiuen-tse refers that a ambassador was sent to his court by King Meghvarma of Shri Lanka, who had asked his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya for the monks traveling from Shri Lanka. But the most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the rock pillar of the Allahabad, composed by Harisena. Samudragupta enlarged the Gupta Kingdom by winning a series of battles till he was a master of northern India. Soon he defeated the kings of Vindhyan region (central India) and Deccan. He although made no attempt to incorporate the kingdoms of south of Narmada and Mahanadi rivers (southern India) into his empire. When he died his mighty empire bordered with Kushan of Western province (modern Afganistan and Pakistan) and Vakatakas in Deccan (modern southern Maharashtra). Samudragupta was a staunch Hindu and after all his military triumphs, he performed the Ashwamedha Yagna (Horse sacrifice ceremony) which is evident on some of his coins. Ashwamedha Yagna gave him the coveted title of Maharajadhiraj, the supreme king of kings. His greatest achievement can be described as the political unification of most of the India or Aryavarta into a formadible power.

KUMARGUPTA I or MAHENDRADITYA (415-455 AD)

Vikramaditya was succeeded by his able son Kumargupta I. He maintained his hold over the vast empire of his forebears, which covered most of India except southern four states of India. Later he too performed the Ashwamegha Yagna and proclaimed himself to be Chakrawarti, king of all kings. Why he did not mint coins commemorating this event is not clear. Kumargupta also was a great patron of art and culture; evidence exist that he endowed a college of fine arts at great ancient university at Nalanda, which fluorished during 5th to 12th century AD. Numismatic evidence suggests that during his reign the Gupta empire was at its zenith. His reign also saw tremendous creativity and thus a lot of variety in Gupta coinage. Kumargupta minted 14 distinct types of Gold coins, the largest of all Gupta rulers. Many of them, like Rhinoceros-slayer, Apratigha (parents crowning him as ruler) are unique in entire Indian numismatic history. He also minted two coin types, Tiger-slayer (shown below) and Lyrist, which his grandfather, Samudragupta minted briefly. These two types were discontinued during the reign Chandragupta. 

SKANDAGUPTA (455-467 AD)

Skandagupta took over the Gupta empire and soon had to face with the formidable enemy, the Huns (Hepthalites). He successfully repelled their early invasions and proved to be able king and administrator in time of crisis. Skandagupta in Junagadh rock inscription is described as `embraced by the goddess of wealth and splendour who is chosen by Shri-Laxmi, a goddess of wealth'. This theme is reflected upon his coins of King and Shri-Laxmi type. These coins show victorious king and his divine consort Shri-Laxmi (who was considered as his second wife waiting on him invisibly) standing beneath the imperial Garuda (a mythical hawk like bird) banner which signify victories of Gupta kings over barbarian Huns. The king is shown to carry a bow and arrow while Shri-Laxmi is depicted with lotus in her left hand (shall be getting this coin soon). Shown below is his silver coin minted in Kshatrapa style. Reverse is stylized humped bull with inscription Param bahagvata Shri Skandagupta Kramaditya.

3. KING’S COUNCIL:

The king was considered as an incarnation of Vishnu. He was the chief head of all administrative machinery. His main task was to defend the country against foreign invasions. He administered justice, led troops and had the largest share in the formulation of state policy. He was assisted by a council of Ministers that ranged from (a) Mantrin (the confidential adviser), (b) Sandhivigrahika (Minister incharge of war and peace), (c) Akshapatala-dhikrita (Minister in charge of records), (d) Mahaba-ladhikrita and (e) Mahadandanayak. There was a special class of officials known as Kumaramatyas.

Justice was administered by the king and his officials. In the district headquarter, the Judges were helped by Seths and Kayasthas and other representatives. The village council was responsible for the judicial administration in the villages. The principal source of king`s revenue was one-sixth of the land produce. Taxes were often collected in kind. Forced labour was also practiced. Extra taxes were also levied for special purposes. Council of Ministers were often hereditary - Harisena and saba of Chandragupta II were military generals. Very often, ministers combined many offices - some ministers accompanied the king to the battles. Chief Ministers headed the Ministry.

5. REVENUE AND POLICE OFFICERS:

 Uparikas or governors were also appointed to provinces. In the Damodarpur plates we have mention of an uparika named Arata Datta who was governing like police chiefs, controller of military stores, chief justice (Mahadanda Nayak) leave no doubt about the existence of an organized hierarchy of officials exercising imperial authority in different parts of the country. The Mahamatras or provincial viceroys go back to the Mauryan period and continue, in fact, up to the twelfth century as the highest ranks in official bureaucracy. The position of Kumaramatyas, of whom many are mentioned, is not clear as we know of them in posts of varying importance. The gramikas or the village headmen formed the lowest rung in the ladder.

6.MILITARY OFFICERS:

Siva-Dhanur-veda discusses the military of the Gupta Empire. The Guptas relied heavily on armoured war elephants; horses were used little if at all. The use of chariots had declined heavily by the time of the Guptas, as they had not proved very useful against the Macedonians, Scythians, and other invaders. Guptas utilised heavy cavalry clad in mail armour and equipped with maces and lances, who would have used shock action to break the enemy line. They also employed on infantry archers. Their longbow was composed of bamboo or metal and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head; iron shafts were used against armoured elephants. They also sometimes used fire arrows. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters. Samudragupta seized the kingdoms of Shichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. Later, he took the Kota kingdom and attacked the tribes in Malvas, the Yaudheyas, theArjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras. By his death in 3807, he had conquered over twenty kingdoms. Chandragupta II defeated his rival,Rudrasimha III, by 395 and defeated the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. Chandragupta II also crushed the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. Skandagupta defeated Pushyamitra and repelled the attack of Hephthalites or "White Huns" around 455, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline.

7.JUDICIAL OFFICERS:

Inscriptions refer to such judicial officers as Mahadandanayaka, Mahakshapatalika, etc. Probably, the Mahadandanayaka combined the duties of a judge and general. The Mahakshapatalikanwas probably the Great keeper of Records.

It appears that the Kumaramatya, Bhodagara, Dandapashika and the Uparika had each his separate Adhikarna. If it is conceded that the term Adhikarna meant a court where transactions pertaining to land were decided, it is possible that judicial matters were also decided there.

8. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS:

For administrative convenience the empire was divided into several provinces also known as Desa or Bhukti. They were placed under the governor or the princes of royal blood. The provinces were divided into districts. The local and provincial governments were carried on by regular bureaucracy. Tirabhukti was one of the important administrative centres.

The excavations at Basarh give a glimpse of the system of provincial administration as carried on in Tirabhukti, which was the provincial capital of Vaishali and Mithila. As per the excavations it is presumed that Govindagupta was the governor of the province during the lifetime of his father. From a seal of a general belonging to the establishment of the heir-apparent, it is seen that the Yuvaraja had his separate military establishment; The guilds commanded respect and were autonomous bodies. They had their own rules and they looked to the management of the temple. It is evident from the

7 C. MICHAEL BRANNIGAN, 2012,PG NO. 430

Basarh seals in Tirabhukti, Kumaramatyif were entrusted with the district administration in subordination to the provincial governor called Uparika. Various treatises on law were written and the most important were Yajnavalkya and Narada Smritis.

Yajnavalkya paid more attention to the legal matters and improved his views regarding the rights of women whom he permitted to inherit equally with men. He elaborated the subject of trade and ownership and recognised the written documents in evidence.

Central Government - each department had its own seal - number of Mahasenapatis to watch over feudatories - foreign ministers like Sandhi proably supervised the foreign policy towards the feudastory states.

The whole organization was bureaucratic as in the case of Mauryas. To some extent, the adminstration mellowed with the Guptas - Police regulations were less severe - capital punishments rare. Glowing tributes were paid to the Gupta administration by Fahien. There was no needless intereference of the government in the lives of people. It was temperate in the repression of crime and tolerant in matters of religion. Fahien could claim that he pursued his studies in peace wherever he chose to reside.

9. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION: Provincial administration - known as Bhuktis or Deshes. Officers very often of royal blood - maintained law and order and protected people against external aggression - also looked after public utility services.

Bhuktis were divided into groups of districts called Pradeshes. Pradeshas were divided into Vishyas or districts. The head of the districts was Vishayapati. Probably the provincial head was assisted by various officials.

Damdoar plate inscription mentions number of functionaries - chief banker, Chief Merchants, Chief Artisan, Chief of the writer class etc. Whether they formed part of the non-official council of the districts or were elected is not known

10: DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION:

Districts divided into number of villages - villages being the last unit. Villages looked after houses, streets, tmples banks etc. - each village had its own weavers, black-smits and gold-smiths, carpentaers etc.

Village headmen known as gramike was assisted by a council called Panchamandali. Each village had its own seal.

Towns looked after by Purapalas - town councils.

A very revealing feature of the administration was the payment of grants in land instead of salaries. Only personnel of the military service were paid cash salaries. The grants in land were of two kinds. The agrahara grant was only to brahmins and it was tax-free. The second variety of land grant was given to secular officials either as salary or as reward for services. Both these practices were widely used as the time passed by.

These grants definitely weakened the authority of the king. Although technically the king could cancel the grants, he could not do so as the time passed by.

11. SOURCE OF REVENUE:

Not enough evidence on taxation. Officials on tour were provided free rice, curd, milk, flowers, transport, etc. Perhaps they were like modern day officials at the districts level, Local people paid the expenses for apprehending criminals. Three varieties of land - waste land belonging to State which was donated very often. The crown land war rarely donated. The third was the private land. Land revenue and various taxes from the land and from various categories of produce at various stages of production. Administration was highly decentralized - police, control of military stores, chief justice, etc. Probably, recruitment ceased to be based on merit. Parallelism of power - highest concentration and extensive decentralization. Such an administration required a good standing army and complicated system of checks and counter-checks.

5. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY DURING GUPTA EMPIRE:

In the Gupta period land survey is evident from the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and many other inscriptions. An officer named Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district.The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but in gold content, Gupta coins are not as pure as Kushanas.The Guptas also issued good number of silver coins for local exchange.The Gupta copper coins are very few as compared to Kushanas, which show that use of money, was not the medium of exchange for the common people.The increase in land grants resulted in the oppression of peasants as along with the fiscal rights the administrative rights were also given to the grantees.This period also witnessed imposition of forced labor and various new taxesGupta period witnessed decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade.The trade with South-East Asia got an impetus.The ports of the East coast were Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura.The ports on the western coast were located at Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.The institution of slavery tended to become weak during this periodThe Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India.

The varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation of castes. This was chiefly due to three factors.

i. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into the Indian society primarily as Kshatriyas.

ii. There was a large absorption of tribal people into brahamanical society through land grants. The assimilated tribes were absorbed into the Shudra Varna.

iii. Guilds of craftsmen were often transformed into castes as a result of the decline of trade and of urban centers and the localized character of the crafts.

The social position of the Shudras seems to have improved in this period. This was due to their involvement in agriculture.Sudras were permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas and also worship a new god called Krishna.The social position of Vaishyas declined during

this period due to decline in tradeFrom around the 3rd century onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified and their number registered a rise. Katyayana, a smriti writer of the Gupta periods, was the first to use the expression “asprasya” to denote untouchable.The position of women deteriorated further.Polygamy was common.Early marriages were advocated and often pre-puberty marriages.Meghdoot of Kalidasa informs about the Devdasi system in Mahakal in UjjainKalidas also inform about the “purdah” prevalent among the elite class womanThe first example of Sati appears in Gupta time in 510 AD in Eran in Madhya Pradesh. (Bhanugupta’s Eran Inscription – 510 AD).Under the patronage of Gupta ruler, Vaishnavism became very popular.The gods were activated by their unions with the respective consorts. Thus, Laxmi get her association with Vishnu and Parvati got her association with Shiva.This was the period of evolution of Vajraynism and Buddhist tantric cults.Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism from Gupta period onwardsTree worship was in vogue.

6. CULTURE AND LITERATURE:

During the Guptan period the idol worship came into vogue as a result the practice of free standing temples started for the first time. Prior to this period the shrines were made in rock cut structures.The Nagara Style (Shikhar style) of architecture evolved during this period. The temples with shikhar and garbha griha (shrine room) in which the image of the god was placed, begin during this period.The examples of temple during this period are Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi distric, UP), Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod, MP), Vishnu and Kankali temple (Tigawa, MP), Parvati temple of Nanchana-Kuthwa (Panna district, MP), Shiva temple of Khoh (Satna, Panna, MP), Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP), Laxman temple of Sirpur (Raipur, MP), Vishnu temple and Varah temple of Eran (MP).The art of paintings and rock cut caves architecture also reached to the finest level. The example of these are rock cut caves at Ajanta, Ellora (in Maharashtra) and Bagh (in Madhya Pradesh)The frescoes of the Ajanta caves are the masterpieces of the paintings of this age.The examples of Stupas of this period are Mirpur khas (Sindh), Dhammekh (Saranath) and Ratnagiri (Orissa).The centres of the Gandhar sculptures declined and their places were taken by Benaras, Patliputra and Mathura.For the first time we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods.Among the best specimen of the images of Buddha is a seated Buddha image of Sarnath, which dyboxepicts the Buddha preaching the Dhamma.Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varah) carved in relief at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.

Some of the old religious books (viz. Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Matsya Puran: Ramayan and Mahabharata, Manu Smriti were re-written.

Narada Smriti, Parashara Smriti, Bhrihaspati Smriti and Katyayana Smriti were written in this period.

The six philosophies of Hinduism were compiled during this period. These philosophies and their founders are as:

 

Buddhist texts Abhidharma Kosha by Dignaga and Vishudhimagga by Buddhghosa were written during this period.

The other important literary works which belong to this period are:

7. DECLINE OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE:

Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495), Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III,Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalites broke through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Huna by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power

was much diminished, continued to resist the Hunas. The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition consisting of Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman from Malwa.[36] The succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.

The last great king of the Gupta was Skanda Gupta was ascended the throne about 455 A.D. Even during the later years of Kumar Gupta's reign, the empire was attacked by a tribe called Pushyamitra but it was repulsed, And immediately after the accession of Skanda Gupta, Hunas made inroads, but they too were repelled.

However, fresh waves of Invaders arrived and shattered the fabric of the Gupta Empire. Although in the beginning the Gupta king Skanda Gupta tried effectively to stem the march of the Hunas into India, his successors proved to be weak and could not cope with the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and who possibly used stirrups made of metal, Although the Huna power was soon overthrown by Yasodharman of Malwa, the Malwa prince successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up Pillars of victory commorating his conquest (AD 532) of almost the whole of northern India. Indeed Yasodharman's rule was short lived, but he dealt a severe blow to the Gupta empire.

8. CONCLUSION:

The Guptan administration was akin to that of Mauryas, however it differ from the latter in the degree of centralizationFor the first time the post of officers became hereditaryThere were instances for the first time that one officer was given more than one postUnlike the Mauryan period the district and local officials were not appointed by the centre but at the provincial level.The officers were paid salary in cashGuptan administration was, thus, highly decentralized, and as patrimonial bureaucracy reached its logical conclusion in hereditary grants it reflected the quasi-feudal character of the economy.It comprised a network of self governing tribes and tributary kingdoms and their chiefs often served as representatives of imperial powers.The Gupta king took exalted titles like the Mahadhiraja, Samrat, Ekadhiraja, Chakravartin, befitting their large empire and imperial status.The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kumara) nominated came in vogue.

The Gupta kings were assisted by a council of ministersAmong the high officers we may take special notice of the Kumaramatya and the Sandhivigrahika, who are not known to inscriptions of earlier period.The Kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high officials under the Guptas. It was from them the Mantris, Senapati, Mahadandanayaka (Minister of Justice) and Sandhivigrahika (Minister of peace and war) were generally chosen.The important Bhuktis (i.e. provinces) of Gupta period were: Magadha, Barddhaman, Pundra Vardhana, Teerbhukti (Northern Bihar), Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa & Saurashtra.Whereas under the Mauryas, the city committee was appointed by the Maurya government, under the Guptas, it was comprised of the local representatives.Decentralization of the administrative authority began during the Gupta period.It was during the Gupta rule that the village headmen became more important than before.The Gupta military organization was feudal by character (though the emperor had a large standing army).In the Gupta period for the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated.In Gupta period the army was to be fed by the people whenever it passed through the countryside. This tax was called Senabhakta The villagers were also subjected to forced labor called vishti for serving royal army and officials.The Gupta period also experienced an excess of land grants. (Agarhara grants, Devagrahara grants).Land grants included the transfer of royal rights over salt and mines, which were under the royal monopoly during the Maurya period.The land grants during this period often transfer administrative rights to the grantees; as a result the tendency of feudalism was perpetuated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF BOOKS-

1. Majumdar, R.C. (1977). Ancient India, New Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, 

2. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta 

3. Mahajan, V.D.(1960). Ancient India, New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd.

4.  Bajpai, K.D. (2004). Indian Numismatic Studies. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications.

5. Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 

6. Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass

7. Sharma, R.S.. Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation. 

LIST OF WEB PAGES-

1.Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century. Britannica Online Encyclopedia

2.  "Hindu Art;Vishnu". Encyclopædia Britannica.