The Handbookof EducationalLinguistics

Edited by

Bernard Spolsky andFrancis M. Hult

The Handbook ofEducational Linguistics

Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics

This outstanding multi-volume series covers all the major subdisciplines within linguistics todayand, when complete, will offer a comprehensive survey of linguistics as a whole.

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The Handbook of Child LanguageEdited by Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinneyThe Handbook of Phonological TheoryEdited by John A. GoldsmithThe Handbook of Contemporary Semantic TheoryEdited by Shalom LappinThe Handbook of SociolinguisticsEdited by Florian CoulmasThe Handbook of Phonetic SciencesEdited by William J. Hardcastle and John LaverThe Handbook of MorphologyEdited by Andrew Spencer and Arnold ZwickyThe Handbook of Japanese LinguisticsEdited by Natsuko TsujimuraThe Handbook of LinguisticsEdited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-MillerThe Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic TheoryEdited by Mark Baltin and Chris CollinsThe Handbook of Discourse AnalysisEdited by Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. HamiltonThe Handbook of Language Variation and ChangeEdited by J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-EstesThe Handbook of Historical LinguisticsEdited by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. JandaThe Handbook of Language and GenderEdited by Janet Holmes and Miriam MeyerhoffThe Handbook of Second Language AcquisitionEdited by Catherine J. Doughty and Michael H. LongThe Handbook of BilingualismEdited by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. RitchieThe Handbook of PragmaticsEdited by Laurence R. Horn and Gregory WardThe Handbook of Applied LinguisticsEdited by Alan Davies and Catherine ElderThe Handbook of Speech PerceptionEdited by David B. Pisoni and Robert E. RemezThe Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volumes I–VEdited by Martin Everaert and Henk van RiemsdijkThe Handbook of the History of EnglishEdited by Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou LosThe Handbook of English LinguisticsEdited by Bas Aarts and April McMahonThe Handbook of World EnglishesEdited by Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. NelsonThe Handbook of Educational LinguisticsEdited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult

The Handbookof EducationalLinguistics

Edited by

Bernard Spolsky andFrancis M. Hult

© 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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First published 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

1 2008

The handbook of educational linguistics / edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M.Hult.

p. cm. — (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-5410-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Language and education.

I. Spolsky, Bernard. II. Hult, Francis M.

P40.8.H36 2008306.44—dc22

2007030476

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And this is what Rabbi Chanina said: “I have learned muchfrom my teachers, and from my colleagues more than from myteachers, but from my students more than from them all.”

Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Taanit, 7a

Contents

Notes on Contributors x

1 Introduction: What is Educational Linguistics? 1Bernard Spolsky

2 The History and Development of Educational Linguistics 10Francis M. Hult

Part I Foundations for Educational Linguistics 25

3 Neurobiology of Language Learning 27Laura Sabourin and Laurie A. Stowe

4 Psycholinguistics 38William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia

5 Linguistic Theory 53Richard Hudson

6 Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language 66Rajend Mesthrie

7 Linguistic Anthropology 83Stanton Wortham

8 The Political Matrix of Linguistic Ideologies 98Mary McGroarty

9 Educational Linguistics and Education Systems 113Joseph Lo Bianco

Part II Core Themes 127

Linguistically and Culturally Responsive Education10 The Language of Instruction Issue: Framing an Empirical

Perspective 129Stephen L. Walter

viii Contents

11 Bilingual and Biliterate Practices at Home and School 147Iliana Reyes and Luis C. Moll

12 Vernacular Language Varieties in Educational Settings:Research and Development 161Jeffrey Reaser and Carolyn Temple Adger

13 Linguistic Accessibility and Deaf Children 174Samuel J. Supalla and Jody H. Cripps

14 Identity in Language and Literacy Education 192Carolyn McKinney and Bonny Norton

15 Post-colonialism and Globalization in Language Education 206Hyunjung Shin and Ryuko Kubota

Language Education Policy and Management16 Levels and Goals: Central Frameworks and Local Strategies 220

Brian North17 Language Acquisition Management Inside and Outside

the School 233Richard B. Baldauf Jr., Minglin Li, and Shouhui Zhao

18 Language Cultivation in Developed Contexts 251Jirí Nekvapil

19 Language Cultivation in Contexts of MultipleCommunity Languages 266M. Paul Lewis and Barbara Trudell

20 Ecological Language Education Policy 280Nancy H. Hornberger and Francis M. Hult

21 Education for Speakers of Endangered Languages 297Teresa L. McCarty, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, andOle Henrik Magga

22 The Impact of English on the School Curriculum 313Yun-Kyung Cha and Seung-Hwan Ham

Literacy Development23 Literacy 328

Glynda A. Hull and Gregorio Hernandez24 Vernacular and Indigenous Literacies 341

Kendall A. King and Carol Benson25 Religious and Sacred Literacies 355

Jonathan M. Watt and Sarah L. Fairfield26 Genre and Register in Multiliteracies 367

Mary Macken-Horarik and Misty Adoniou

Acquiring a Language27 Order of Acquisition and Developmental Readiness 383

Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and Llorenç Comajoan28 Language Socialization 398

Kathleen C. Riley

29 Interlanguage and Language Transfer 411Peter Skehan

30 Second Language Acquisition and Ultimate Attainment 424David Birdsong and Jee Paik

31 Explicit Form-Focused Instruction and SecondLanguage Acquisition 437Rod Ellis

Language Assessment32 Language Assessments: Gate-Keepers or Door-Openers? 456

Lyle F. Bachman and James E. Purpura33 Diagnostic and Formative Assessment 469

Ari Huhta34 Accountability and Standards 483

Alan Davies35 Scales and Frameworks 495

Neil Jones and Nick Saville36 Nationally Mandated Testing for Accountability:

English Language Learners in the US 510Micheline Chalhoub-Deville and Craig Deville

Part III Research–Practice Relationships 523

37 Task-Based Teaching and Learning 525Teresa Pica

38 Corpus Linguistics and Second Language Instruction 539Susan M. Conrad and Kimberly R. LeVelle

39 Interaction, Output, and Communicative Language Learning 557Merrill Swain and Wataru Suzuki

40 Classroom Discourse and Interaction: Reading Acrossthe Traditions 571Lesley A. Rex and Judith L. Green

41 Computer Assisted Language Learning 585Carol A. Chapelle

42 Ecological-Semiotic Perspectives on Educational Linguistics 596Leo van Lier

43 The Mediating Role of Language in Teaching and Learning:A Classroom Perspective 606Francis Bailey, Beverley Burkett, and Donald Freeman

44 A Research Agenda for Educational Linguistics 626Paola Uccelli and Catherine Snow

Author Index 643Subject Index 659

Contents ix

Notes on Contributors

Carolyn Temple Adger directs the Language in Society Division at the Centerfor Applied Linguistics in Washington, DC. She has conducted several studiesof classroom discourse and interaction among teachers in a professional devel-opment setting and has applied linguistic research in work with teachers ofEnglish language learners. Her publications include Dialects in Schools andCommunities (with Walt Wolfram & Donna Christian, 2007) and What TeachersNeed to Know about Language (co-edited with Catherine E. Snow & DonnaChristian, 2002).

Misty Adoniou is a lecturer in literacy and ESL in the School of TeacherEducation and Community Services at the University of Canberra in Australia.Her research interests include multimodality in literacy teaching and children’sout-of-school literacy practices.

Lyle F. Bachman is Professor and Chair of Applied Linguistics at theUniversity of California, Los Angeles. His publications include FundamentalConsiderations in Language Testing (1990), Interfaces between Second LanguageAcquisition and Language Testing Research (co-edited with Andrew Cohen,1998), Language Testing in Practice (with Adrian S. Palmer, 1996) and StatisticalAnalyses for Language Assessment (2004). His current research interests includevalidation theory, epistemological issues in Applied Linguistics research,and issues in assessing the academic achievement and English proficiency ofEnglish language learners in schools.

Francis Bailey is Associate Professor of Second Language Education at theSchool for International Training, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA. His researchinterests include the role of semantic memory in the learning of elementaryschool children.

Richard B. Baldauf, Jr. is Associate Professor of TESOL at the University ofQueensland. He is coauthor, with Robert B. Kaplan, of Language Planning fromPractice to Theory (1997) and Language and Language-in-Education Planning in the

Pacific Basin (2003), and is co-editor with Robert B. Kaplan of the “LanguagePolicy and Planning” polity study series published by Multilingual Matters.His interests include language policy and planning and TESOL curriculumrelated studies.

Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig is Professor of Second Language Studies at IndianaUniversity. Her books include Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition(2000), Interlanguage Pragmatics: Exploring Institutional Talk (with BeverlyHartford, 2005), and Pragmatics and Language Learning (with César Félix-Brasdefer and Alwiya Omar, 2006). She has published in Language Learning,Studies in Second Language Acquisition, and TESOL Quarterly, and is a formereditor of Language Learning.

Carol Benson is based at the Centre for Teaching and Learning at StockholmUniversity. Her PhD is in Social Sciences and Comparative Education, and herresearch and consulting focus on mother tongue based schooling in multi-lingual countries.

Tej K. Bhatia is Professor of Linguistics and Director of South Asian Lan-guages at Syracuse University. He has been Director of the Linguistic StudiesProgram and Acting Director of Cognitive Sciences at his university. Hispublications include three handbooks with William C. Ritchie. His authoredbooks include Colloquial Hindi (2007, revised edition), Advertising in RuralIndia: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism (2000), ColloquialUrdu (2000), Colloquial Hindi (1996), Negation in South Asian Languages (1995),Punjabi: A Cognitive-Descriptive Grammar (1993), and A History of the HindiGrammatical Tradition (1987). Email: tkbhatia@syr.edu

David Birdsong is Professor of French Linguistics at the University of Texas,with a specialization in second language acquisition. He has held visitingpositions at Georgetown University and at the Max Planck Institute forPsycholinguistics. He has published articles relating to age and second lan-guage acquisition in such journals as Language, Journal of Memory and Language,and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.

Beverley Burkett is Project Leader for Language Education at Nelson MandelaMetropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. She has spent 22 yearsin teacher development and is currently team leader of a longitudinal researchstudy that is focusing on additive bilingualism.

Yun-Kyung Cha is Professor of Education at Hanyang University in Korea.He received his doctorate in the Sociology of Education at Stanford University(USA) and was awarded a National Academy of Education Spencer Fellow-ship (1991). His research interests focus on the comparative and sociologicalanalysis of school curricula, and the institutionalization of teacher educationand lifelong education programs.

Notes on Contributors xi

Micheline Chalhoub-Deville is a Professor in the Educational ResearchMethodology Department at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro.She has published in journals such as Language Testing, Language Learning,Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, and World Englishes. Her most recentedited book is entitled Inference and Generalizability in Applied Linguistics:Multiple Research Perspectives (co-edited with Carol A. Chapelle & PatriciaA. Duff, 2006). Her main interest in second/foreign language testing includesperformance-based assessment, computerized testing, ELL testing, as well asadmissions and exit proficiency testing.

Carol A. Chapelle, Professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics at Iowa State Uni-versity in the United States, is past president of the American Associationfor Applied Linguistics (2006–7) and former editor of TESOL Quarterly (1999–2004). Her research explores issues at the intersection of computer technologyand applied linguistics. Her books on this area are Computer Applications inSecond Language Acquisition: Foundations for Teaching, Testing, and Research (2001),English Language Learning and Technology: Lectures on Applied Linguistics in theAge of Information and Communication Technology (2003) and Assessing Languagethrough Computer Technology (with Dan Douglas, 2006).

Llorenç Comajoan holds a PhD in Linguistics from Indiana University and isa professor at the University of Vic, Catalonia (Department of Philology, Schoolof Education). His interests include the interrelationship of discourse andsemantic features in second language acquisition as well as language attitudesby children of immigrant origin in Spain. He has published articles inLanguage Learning, Catalan Review, and Caplletra. His contribution was fundedby a grant to the Department of Linguistics of the University of Barcelona(C-RED 2005).

Susan M. Conrad is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Portland State Univer-sity in Portland, Oregon, USA. Her co-authored book projects in corpus lin-guistics include Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use (1998),Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999), and Variation in English:Multi-Dimensional Studies (2001).

Jody H. Cripps is a doctoral student in the Second Language Acquisition andTeaching Interdisciplinary Program at the University of Arizona. His researchinterests are second language processing and second language use with aspecialty in literacy.

Alan Davies is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University ofEdinburgh. His books include: The Native Speaker: Myth and Reality (2003),A Glossary of Applied Linguistics (2005), and Assessing Academic English: TestingEnglish Proficiency 1950–2005 – the IELTS solution (2007). One-time editor ofApplied Linguistics and of Language Testing, his main research interests are inlanguage assessment and in the construct of the native speaker.

xii Notes on Contributors

Craig Deville currently serves as the Director of Psychometric Services withMeasurement Inc. His interests include language testing, educational achieve-ment assessment, computerized testing, and validation. He has publishedwidely, including in such journals as Language Testing and Applied PsychologicalMeasurement, and has contributed chapters in numerous edited volumes. Hismost recent co-authored chapter appeared in the fourth edition of EducationalMeasurement (ed. R. L. Brennan, 2006).

Rod Ellis is currently Professor in the Department of Applied LanguageStudies and Linguistics at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Hispublished work includes Understanding Second Language Acquisition (awardedthe BAAL prize in 1986), The Study of Second Language Acquisition (awarded theDuke of Edinburgh Prize in 1995), Task-Based Learning and Teaching (2003), and(with Gary Barkhuizen) Analyzing Learner Language (2005).

Sarah L. Fairfield teaches Sociology and Humanities at Geneva College, and isa doctoral student in the Social and Comparative Analysis of Education at theUniversity of Pittsburgh.

Donald Freeman is Professor and Director of the Center for Teacher Educa-tion, Training, and Research at the School for International Training, Brattleboro,Vermont, USA. His research focuses on teacher education designs and theconnections between teacher and student learning.

Judith L. Green is Professor of Education in the Gevirtz Graduate School ofEducation, University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research focuses onthe social construction of knowledge in classrooms with linguistically andculturally diverse students. She is currently editor of the Review of Researchin Education (30), and co-editor of two recent handbooks: ComplementaryMethods for Research in Education (2006, for the American Education ResearchAssociation) and Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Literacy Research (2005, forthe National Conference for Research on Language and Literacy). Email:green@education.ucsb.edu

Seung-Hwan Ham is a doctoral student in educational policy at MichiganState University. His academic interests are in cross-national and historicalanalyses of curricular changes and associated transformations in schoolingand teacher training.

Gregorio Hernandez received his PhD in Education in Language, Literacy,and Culture at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of theTransnational Literacy Researchers Group, in the Center for the Americas,Vanderbilt University. His research focuses on literacy practices in and out ofschool, Hispanic migration in the US, and the politics of literacy education inMexico and Latin America.

Nancy H. Hornberger is Professor of Education at the University ofPennsylvania, where she also convenes the annual Ethnography in Education

Notes on Contributors xiii