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Thehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscienceandmanagement

RossT.Shackletona*,BrendonM.H.Larsonb,AnaNovoac,DavidM.RichardsondandChristianA.Kulla

*rtshackleton@gmail.comaInstituteofGeographyandSustainability,UniversityofLausanne,1015Lausanne,SwitzerlandbSchoolofEnvironment,ResourcesandSustainability,UniversityofWaterloo,Waterloo,OntarioN2L3G1,CanadacInstituteofBotany,DepartmentofInvasionEcology,TheCzechAcademyofSciences,CZ-25243Průhonice,CzechRepublicdCentreforInvasionBiology,DepartmentofBotanyandZoology,StellenboschUniversity,Matieland7602,SouthAfrica

AbstractBiologicalinvasionsarealeadingcauseofglobalenvironmentalchangegiventheireffectsonbothhumansandbiodiversity.Humansintroduceinvasivealienspeciesandmayfacilitatetheirestablishmentandspread,whichcanalterecosystemservices,livelihoods,andhumanwell-being.Peopleperceivethebenefitsandcostsofthesespeciesthroughthelensofdiversevaluesystems;theseperspectivesinfluencedecisionsaboutwhenandwheretomanagethem.Despitetheentanglementofhumanswithinvasivealienspecies,mostresearchonthetopichasfocusedontheirecologicalaspects.Onlyrelativelyrecentlyhavethehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionsstartedtoreceivesustainedattentioninlightoftheirimportanceforunderstandingandgoverningbiologicalinvasions.Thiseditorialdrawsoncontributionstoaspecialissueonthe“HumanandSocialDimensionsofInvasionScience”andotherliteraturetoelucidatemajortrendsandcurrentcontributionsinthisresearcharea.Weexaminetherelationbetweenhumansandbiologicalinvasionsintermsoffourcrosscuttingthemes:(1)howhumanscausebiologicalinvasions;(2)howhumansconceptualizeandperceivethem;(3)howhumansareaffected–bothpositivelyandnegatively–bythem;and(4)howhumansrespondtothem.Wealsohighlightseveralwaysinwhichresearchonthehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscienceimprovesunderstanding,stakeholderengagement,andmanagement.Keywords:Actors;attitudes;beliefs;biologicalinvasions;conflictsofinterest;environmentalmanagement;perceptions;social-ecologicalsystems;stakeholderengagement

Thisisanauthors’pre-printversionofthispaper.ThefinalversionofthisrecordinpublishedintheJournalofEnvironmentalManagementandisavailablehere:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479718309125orviathisDIOpermalink:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.08.041Thecitationofthepaper(tobeupdatedwithvolume,issueandpagenumbersonceavailable)is:Shackleton,RT,BMHLarson,ANovoa,DMRichardson&CAKull(2018)Thehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscienceandmanagement.JournalofEnvironmentalManagement:doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.08.041.

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1. IntroductionInvasivealienspecies(IAS)areamajordriverofglobalchange,affectinghumansandtheenvironment.Withinthefieldofinvasionscience,aswellaswithinotherfieldsofenvironmentalmanagementandconservation,itisincreasinglybeingrecognizedthatstudyingthesocialdomainisneededtobuilddefendableandsustainablemanagementsolutions(Robbins,2001;LeMaitreetal.,2004;García-Llorenteetal.,2008;Deckeretal.,2012;Headetal.2015;Bennettetal.,2017a,b;Christieetal.,2017;Head,2017;Kueffer,2017;Backstrometal.,2018;Teeletal.,2018).ThisisbecausetheissuesassociatedwithIAS,asinmostenvironmentalchangeandmanagementissues,areembeddedwithinasuiteofsocial-ecologicalsystems(Thomas,1956;Redmanetal.,2004;Ostrom,2009).Therefore,socialandecologicalcomplexitiesneedfurtherresearchtoenhanceourunderstandingandhelpusimproveenvironmentalmanagementandbuildresilience(Berkesetal.2000;Head,2017).Thishasledtocallsforincreasedresearchwithinthesocialdomainalongwithmoreinter-andtrans-disciplinarycollaboratedresearchandashiftfrominvasionbiologytomoreholisticinvasionscience(Richardson,2011;Kueffer,2013;Wilsonetal.2016;Vazetal.,2017a).Humansandsocietyarefundamentallyinvolvedwithbiologicalinvasionsinmultipleways,frominitialintroduction,torecognitionandmanagement–apointthatwasacknowledgedbyearlyresearcherssuchasElton(1958),HarlanandDeWet(1965)andCrosby(1986).AlthoughthebiologicalaspectsofIAShavebeenstudiedsincethe1950sandthefieldgrewquicklyfromthelate1980s,socialscienceandhumanities-relatedresearchconcerningIAShasonlyemergedinthelasttwotothreedecades(e.g.,Symanski,1994;Peretti,1998;Symanski,1994;Robbins,2001;Mitman,2004;Robbins,2004a,b;Richardson,2011;Vazetal.2017a),withmajoreditedvolumesappearingmuchmorerecently(Dobsonetal.,2013;RotheramandLambert,2014;FarwleyandMcCalman,2014).Workinthisareastilllesscommonrelativetoworkintheecologicaldomainrelatingtoresearchonbiologicalinvasions(Vazetal.,2017a;Abrahamsetal.thisissue).Earlyworkonthehumanandsocialdomainfocusedmainlyonhumansascatalysts,driversandvectorsforthepurposefuloraccidentalintroductionandspreadofnon-native/alienspeciesintonewareas,wheresomeofthemproliferateandspread(i.e.,becomeinvasive)(McNeely,2001;Pyšeketal.,2004;Robbins,2004;Richardsonetal.,2011a).Itisnowbeingacknowledged,though,thathumansalsomediatelevelsofinvasibilityofecosystemsbymodifyingdisturbanceregimesandalteringlandscapesandtheenvironment(Kueffer,2017).Otherrecentworkhasexaminedhowinvasivealienspeciesaffecthumansandsociety,inparticularbyinfluencinglivelihoodsandhumanwell-being(Shackletonetal.,2007;PejcharandMooney,2009;AtchisonandHead,2013;Bacheretal.,2018).Theseeffectsonhumanwell-beingcaninfluencetheadoptionorrejectionofIASwithinlocalculturesandlivelihoods,whichmaymodifypeople’sperceptions,attitudesandbeliefsandsometimesleadtoconflictsofinterestovertheuseandmanagementofIAS(García-Llorenteetal.,2008;Kulletal.,2011;vanWilgenetal.,2011;Estévezetal.,2015;Kulletal.,2018).Toavoid,reduce,orsolve

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theseconflictsofinterest,itisnowunderstoodthatengagementwithdifferentstakeholdersiscriticalwhenconsideringandimplementingmanagementoptionsrelatingtobiologicalinvasions(Stokesetal.,2006;Bryceetal.,2011;Gaertneretal.,2016;Crowleyetal.,2017;Novoaetal.,2018).Theaforementionedhumanandsocialdimensionsresearchdrawsonmultipledisciplinesandapproacheswithinthesocialsciencesandhumanities,justastherearediversebiologicaldisciplinesandapproachesforstudyingIAS.Themultiplephasesandprocessesofbiologicalinvasions,whichoperateatdifferentspatialandtemporalscales,canrequireandinfluencetheuseofdifferentsub-disciplinaryapproaches,theoreticalperspectivesandresearchparadigms.The“humanandsocialdimensions”inthetitleofthispaperreferstothesuiteofinteractionsthatpeoplehavewithIASatdifferentlevels(individualstosocieties);italsobroadlyencompassesdifferentframingswithinsocialscienceandhumanitiessub-fields.Thewords“human”and“social”areoftenusedinterchangeablytorelatetoanythingandeverythingtodowithpeople(e.g.,“Thehumandimensionsofinvasivespecies”(McNeelyetal.2001)and“Thesocialdimensionsofinvasivealienplants”(Head2007)).Thetwowords,however,sometimeshavemorespecificmeanings.Broadlyspeaking,“social”relatesmorecloselytowidersocial,economic,politicalandculturalaspects.Forinstance,thetheoretical,criticalsocialsciencesseektounderstandsocietalprocessesunderpinningtheintroductionandspreadofinvasivespeciesandshapingtheirimpacts,suchaslookingintopolitical-economicpowerdynamicsand“winnersandlosers”.Theyalsoinvestigatehowknowledgeoninvasionsisproducedandhowbroaderconceptualisationandframingbydifferentsocialgroupsshapeourunderstandingandactionswithrespecttoinvasions(Kull,2018).Inturn,moreappliedsocialsciencesmightconsiderquestionsrelatingmorecloselytohowtointerveneandaidinthedevelopmentofappropriatecontrolactionsandtomanageconflictsofinterestsurroundinginvasivespecies.Incontrast,the“human”dimensionscanbeconstruedtofocusmorespecificallyonhealthimpacts,oronpsychologicalaspectssuchascognition,learning,understanding,perceptionsandbehavioursofpeople.Thiseditorialpaperexploresdevelopmentsinresearchonthehumanandsocialdimensionsofbiologicalinvasionsandhowthisresearchcontributestoinvasionscience.WedrawespeciallyonpapersfromthisspecialissueintheJournalofEnvironmentalManagementonthe“HumanandSocialDimensionsinInvasionScience”,whichcoverabroadrangeofsocial-ecologicalcontextsandsub-disciplinarysocialscienceandhumanitiesapproachesandmethods(Figure1andTable1);wealsodrawonthebroaderliterature,especiallyonprevioussyntheses(e.g.McNeely,2001;RotherhamandLambert,2011;FrawleyandMcCalman,2014;Dobsonetal.,2013;Head,2017)(Figure1andTable1).

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Figure1:Thegeographicaldistributionofcontributionstothespecialissueon“HumanandSocialDimensionsinInvasionScience”.NumbersrefertopaperslistedinTable1whichprovidesfurtherdetailsofeachstudy.Table1:Paperscontributingtothespecialissueonthe“Humanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscience”.No.

Authors Countryand;Landscape/Landtenure

Species/generataxonomicgroup

Methods Topicofthestudy DoiLlink

1 Abrahamsetal.

SouthAfrica(withsomeglobalaspects)

All Socialnetworkanalysis&bibliometricreviews

Researchcollaboration&networkanalysis

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.051

2 Bachetal. Australia;Communalrangelands

Plants Ethnographicparticipantobservation,workshops&interviews

Conceptualisation&framing,livelihoods

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.050

3 BennettandvanSittert

SouthAfrica:allregionsandlandscapes

Plants Documentanalysis

Historicalanalysis,perceptionandpolicy

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.07.029

4 Bravo-Vargasetal.

Chile;Protectedarea

Pinusspp.(Pines)

Questionnaires

Perceptions&WillingnesstoPay

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.07.018

5 Coleetal. USA;Freshwatersystems

Allaquaticinvasivespecies

Questionnaires,&networkanalysis

Uptakeofengagement&networkanalysis

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.078

6 Crowleyetal.

UK;Urbancity Myiopsittamonachus(Monkparakeets)

Keyinformantinterviews&documentanalysis

Perceptions&conflicts

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.11.036

7 Kulletal. Madagascar;Communalgrasslands

Australianplants–particularlyGrevilleabanksii(Dwarfsilkyoak)

Householdinterviews,keyinformants&questionnaires

Livelihoodeffects,conceptualisation&framing

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.004

8 NgorimaandShackleton

SouthAfrica;Communalmontanegrasslands

Acaciadealbata(Silverwattle)

Householdquestionnaires,focusgroups&

Perceptions&livelihoodeffects

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.05.077

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participatorymethods

9 Pagèsetal. UK;alllandscapes

Allspecies Keyinformantinterviews

Volunteering&stewardship,stakeholderengagement

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.053

10 Shackletonetal.(a)

Global Allinvasivespecies

Workshop,review&synthesis

Perceptions doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.044

11 Shackletonetal.(b)

Global Allinvasivespecies

Review Livelihood&humanwell-beingimpacts

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.05.007

12 Shackletonetal.(c)

Global Allinvasivespecies

Review Stakeholderengagement

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.044

13 Shresthaetal.

Nepal;Communityagrarianandforestlandscapes

Invasiveplants

Stakeholderworkshops,focusgroupdiscussions

Perceptions,likelihoodimpacts,stakeholderengagement,planning&prioritisation

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.034

14 Udoetal. ReunionIsland:Alllandscapes

Ulexeuropaeus(Commongorse)

DocumentanalysisusingtheMulti-levelperspective

Historicalanalysisonframing

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.036

15 Villotoroetal.

Chile;Ruralagriculturallands

Canislupusfamiliaris(Dogs)

Questionnairesurveys

Perceptions&conflicts

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.035

16 Waldetal. GuamIslands;Alllandscapes

Invasiveanimals

Workshops Publicperceptions&attitudes

doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.047

2. ThestudyofhumanandsocialdimensionswithininvasionscienceStudyingthehumanandsocialdimensionsofbiologicalinvasionshasprovidedsignificantcontributionstoinvasionscience,butthereisaneedtoidentifyemergingtrendsandtopromotefurtherresearchandintegration.Belowwediscussfourareasthatthisspecialissuecontributesto,andwherewebelievebetterinsightsonhumanandsocialdimensionsareimperativeforimprovingourunderstandingandmanagementofinvasivealienspeciesinthefuture:(1)humanscausingbiologicalinvasions;(2)humansconceptualising,understandingandperceivinginvasionsandmanagementoptions;(3)humansandsocietybeingaffectedbybiologicalinvasions;and(4)humansrespondingtobiologicalinvasions.Moreworkinthesefourareaswillgreatlyimprovetheunderstandingofthemanyissuesrelatingtoinvasionsandtheirmanagement(Figures2).

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Figure2:Contributionsofthehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscienceandhowtheycanhelptoimproveunderstandingandmanagementofbiologicalinvasions.2.1.HumanasacauseofbiologicalinvasionsThemostcommonlyuseddefinitionofIAS(sensuRichardsonetal.2000)specifiesthefundamentalroleofhumanfacilitationofspeciesintroductionsacrossbiogeographicalbarriers.Onceintroducedbyhumansthesespecies,theymaylaterestablish,spreadandbecomeinvasive.Besidesintroducingspecies,humansalsoalterandmodifytherecipientecosystems,landscapesandnativeandalienspeciesthemselves,therebyshapinginvasionmechanismsandprocesses(McNeely,2001;Hulme,2006;HuiandRichardson,2017;Kueffer,2017).Understandingtheroleofhumansincausingbiologicalinvasionsisoneofthebetter-researchedareasconcerningthehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscience(McNeely,2001;RuizandCarlton,2003).However,muchmoreresearchisneededonfactorssuchaspeople’sdeepmotivationstointroduceandspreadinvasivespeciesandfacilitatebiologicalinvasionprocessesandhowthismightchangeoverspaceandtime(Kowarik,2003;Kueffer,2017;BennettandVanSittert,thisissue;Udoetal.thisissue).Theterms“introductionpathway”and“invasionpathway”areoftenusedtodescribediverseprocessesassociatedwiththeintroductionanddisseminationofalienspeciesandarecommonlyframedonthebasisofecologicalandsometimessocialfactors(RuizandCarlton,2003;Wilsonetal.,2009;Hulmeetal.2008;2009;Essletal.,2015).Anumberofstudiesonpathwaysdiscussdifferentreasonswhyandprocessesthroughwhichhumansintroducealienspeciesoutsidetheirnativeranges.However,mostofthesestudiesdonotaddressthedeepercausalstructuresandmechanismsrelatingtohumanmotivations,behavioursandpatternsofspread.Althoughunderstandingtheecologicalprocessesthatresultininvasionsiscrucial,betterunderstandingofthehumandrivers,socialnetworks,

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andanthropogeniccause-and-effectrelationshipsarealsoneededtoimprovepolicyandgovernancepertainingtobiologicalinvasions(Kueffer,2017).Thisrelatestoansweringquestionsaboutthemotivationsforintroducingorspreadingknowninvasivespecies,andhowandwhypeoplemakecertainchoicesrelatingtotheuptakeofbiosecuritymeasurestopreventspreadinginvasions.Betterunderstandingtemporalandspatialscalesisalsousefultoimproveknowledgeandthesocialscienceshaveprovidedgoodinsightregardingthis.Forexample,focusingontheglobalhistoryofAustralianAcaciaintroductions,Carruthersetal.(2011)showthattherehavebeendifferentmotivationsorethicalconsiderationsrelatingtointroductionsovertime,duetochangingcultural,economicandpoliticalcontexts.FurtherworkinthepresentspecialissueidentifieschangesovertimeintheintroductionandfacilitationofUlexeuropaeusinReunionIsland(Udoetal.,thisissue),andthepublicattitudestowardsthemanagementofinvasiveplantsinSouthAfrica(BennettandVanSittertetal.,thisissue).Atasmallerscale,Coleetal.(thisissue)presentaninterestingstudyofhowrecreationalboaterscancausebiologicalinvasionsinwaterbodiesinthenorth-easternUSAthroughpooruptakeofbiosecuritymeasuresorthroughpurposefulintroductionsanddirectdisregardforgenerallyacceptednorms.Usinginterviews,theyelicitedinformationonthelevelofboater’suptakeofbiosecuritymeasurestopreventtheaccidentalspreadandtobetterunderstandthepotentialspreadofinvasivespeciesfromonewaterbodytoanotherusingacoupledsocialandecologicalnetworkanalyses.Theyshowthatthereisamajorinterconnectednessbetweenwaterbodiesandthattheincreasingbutnotcompleteuptakeofbiosecuritymeasuresmeansthattheriskofpeoplecausingfurtherspreadofaquaticinvasivespeciesbetweendifferentlakesisveryhigh.Educationalcampaignshavechangedboaters’actionsovertime,increasingtheiruptakeofbiosecuritymeasures,butmoreworkisneededtoimprovecomplianceamongthepartiesthatdonotfollowbiosecuritymeasures.Anotherbigquestionrelatedtopeoplecausinginvasionsishowhumansalterenvironmentsandspeciesandhowthisaltersinvasiondynamics.Thisrequiresamorefocussedinputfromthesocialsciencesandhumanities(McNeely,2001;Hulme,2006;Kueffer,2017;Kull,2018).Thisissueisstilladdressedprimarilybyecologists,oftenusingbroad-scalemodels(e.g.Thuilleretal.,2006;Pyšeketal.,2010),consideringmainlyecologicalfactors(e.g.Huietal.,2016),withoutgivingenoughattentiontothesocietalprocessesimplicatedininvasions;elaborationonsuchissuesisneededtoimproveunderstanding.Theroleoflanduseinfacilitatingorhinderinginvasionshasbeendiscussedbeforeasthe“humanreleasehypothesis”(Zimmermannetal.,2014).Thishypothesishighlightsthattheabundanceofinvasivealienspeciescanbeinfluencedbythelevelofhumanactionorlandscapemaintenance.Theauthorsdiscussthatintermediatelevelsofhumanactivitylikelyfacilitateinvasionsmost,apointwhichneedstobebettercontextualisedandresearchedincombinationwithimportantecologicaldriversofinvasions.Contributionstothespecialissuedonotaddressthistopicindepthandmoreresearchisneededinthisarea.2.2.HumanconceptionsandperceptionsofbiologicalinvasionsAsecondmajorcontributionrelatestohowhumansconceptualise,frame,understandandperceiveinvasions–i.e.howpeoplethinkandfeelaboutinvasivealienspecies(Figure2).Thiscanberoughlyapproachedintwoways,aswedointhetwosubsectionsbelow:1)amoresociologicalapproachrelatingtohowgroupsofpeoplebroadlyname,categorizeand

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framebiologicalinvasions;and2)amorepsychologicalapproachfocusedonindividuals’knowledge,attitudesandperceptions.2.2.1ConceptualisationandframingofbiologicalinvasionsininvasionscienceandmanagementThewaysinwhichbiologicalinvasionsareframed,studied,andthoughtandtalkedaboutbydifferentsectorsofsocietyhasbeenanimportantfocusofthesocialsciencesandhumanities(Head,2017;Kull,2018).Severalcontributionshavebeenintheformofcritiquesleadingtodebates(e.g.seeBrownandSax(2004),Casseyetal.(2005),Warren(2007,2009),Richardsonetal.(2008),Peterson(2009),Low(2012a,b)andKullandTassin(2012)).Thesedebateshaveledtomoreobjectiveframingandconceptualisationoftheinvasionphenomenaandamorebalancedandwiderviewacknowledgingandintegratingdifferentframingsfromdifferentdisciplinesrelatingtoinvasions(Larson,2005,2007;ColauttiandMacIsaac,2004;RichardsonandRicciardi,2013;RussellandBlackburn,2016).Thishasalsoprobablyledmoreecologicallyfocusedresearcherstobetterconsiderthebroadersocietalimplicationsoftheirwork.Severalpapersinthisspecialissueaddressthetopicofconceptualisationandframing.Forexample,Bachetal.(thisissue)arguethatalternativeframingssuchas“healthycountry”(anAboriginalviewthatrelatestoallliving,non-livingandspiritualpartsofasystemandtheirinteractions;alsoseeBurgessetal.2005)mightbeusefulforguidinginvasivespeciesmanagementoncommunallandsinAustralia.The“healthycountry”conceptdrawslocalknowledgeandunderstandingintotheconceptualisationofinvasivespeciesmanagementoptions.Bachetal.(thisissue)stresstheneedtomoveawayfromtraditionalweedlists(thatsimplylistallinvasivespecies)toimprovemanagementuptake.Inparticular,thisconceptacknowledgesthedynamicnatureoflandscapesandincludesprioritiesbasedonlocalvaluesandapost-colonialstance(HeadandAtchison2015).Thiscouldleadtotheuptakeofnovelcontrolapproachesandimproveprioritisationandmanagementimplementation.Kulletal.(thisissue)studythetransitionofgrasslandsanddegradedareasto“neo-Australianforests”inMadagascar.Theydiscusstheimportanceofacknowledgingdiverseframingsfromdifferentactorssuchas“beneficiallandscapegreening”(forestersandparticularNGOs),“rampantbiologicalinvasion”(invasionbiologists),and“novelecosystems”(someecologists).Theyarguethatlocalnon-academicperspectivesareoftenexcludedandproposethatresearchersandpolicymakersneedtobetterincorporateamorebottom-upandlocalunderstanding.Narrativesorframingsofinvasivealienspeciesareoftenrelatedtoadominantsetofactorsinaparticularcontext,andusuallyreflectparticularsocialconstructslikepoliticalinstitutionsandlawsimplementedbypowerfulactors(Dobsonetal.2013;HeadandAtchison2015;BennettandvanSittert,thisissue;Udoetal.,thisissue).Severalcontributionsstressthattheconceptualisationandframingofinvasivealienspeciesisoftendynamicintime–e.g.Ulexeuropaeus(commongorse)onLaRéunionwent“fromusefultoinvasive”overthepastcentury(Udoetal.thisissue).Similarly,BennettandvanSittert(thisissue)showthatframingandconceptualisationdifferoverspaceandtimeinSouthAfrica.Theyshowhowhistoricalresponsestoinvasivespecies,insomecasesaroundacenturyago,inoneareaofSouthAfrica(thebroadCaperegion)shapedpresentpolicyandpracticeforthewholecountry.Futureworkoninvasionsclearlyneedstoacknowledgetheexistenceofdifferentframingstoreduceconflictsandensure

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balancedsolutions(Woodfordetal.2016).Thiscouldalsohelpwithengagingactors(seebelow),potentiallyprovidingsharedunderstandingandsolutionstomaximizebenefitsandreducecostsforthebroadersociety(Kulletal.2011;Novoaetal.,2015,2016;Headetal.,2015).2.2.2Understandingpeople’sknowledge,perceptionsandbehavioursPeople’svaluesystemsandknowledgeaffecttheirunderstanding,conceptualisationandbehaviours.Perceptionsofinvasivealienspeciesareoftendiverse,frequentlyleadingtoconflictsofinterestrelatingtotheintroductionandmanagementofinvasivespecieswhenopposingviewsarise(Crowleyetal.,2017;Shackletonetal.,thisissuea).Inthisspecialissue,thebroad-scalefactorsthatinfluencepeople’sperceptionsrelatingtoinvasivealienspeciesarecoveredinaconceptualframeworkthathighlightssixcoreandanumberofotherunderlyingfactors.Theseinclude:theindividual(s)concerned;theeffectsoftheinvasivespecies;thespeciesitself(anditstraits);thesocial-culturalcontext;thelandscapecontext;andtheinstitutional,governanceandpolicycontexts(Shackletonetal.,thisissuea).SeveralcontributionsinthespecialissuealsodescribecasestudiesindifferentcontextsthatelucidatesomeoftheconceptsfromtheframeworkproposedbyShackletonetal.(thisissuec).Forexample,workinginurbanecosystemsandfocussingonanumberofinvasivealienplants,Potgieteretal.(thisissue)showhowpeople’sknowledgeoftheeffectsofinvasivespecies(ecosystemservicesanddisservices)caninfluenceperceptionsandhowsuchknowledgeinturnisalsostronglyinfluencedbydemographicprofilesdefinedbyeducationlevelandwealthstatus.Forexample,peoplewithhighereducationlevelsandmoreexposuretoenvironmentalhazardsperceiveinvasivespeciesmorenegativelyandaremorelikelytosupportmanagement,butalsohaveaclearerunderstandingofthepositiveaspectsofsomespecies.Alsointheurbancontext,Crowleyetal.(thisissue)showhowpersonalvaluesystemsandexperiencesinfluenceperceptionsandbehavioursrelatingtocharismaticinvasivespeciesandhowthiscanleadtoconflictsregardingtheirmanagement.Theyalsodetailhowsocietalinteractionsandgovernancecontextsamongdifferentactorscaninfluenceandreinforceparticularperceptions.Villatoroetal.(thisissue)discusssimilarissuesrelatingtodifferentvalues,perceptionsandtheresultingconflictofinterestsonthemanagementofferaldogsinruralChile.Inparticular,theyhighlightthatpeoplewerelessinfavouroflethalformsofmanagementandsupportedotheroptionssuchasfinesandsterilisation.Peoplealsoperceivedimpactsonwildlifeaslessofanissuethanimpactsonhumansorlivestock.InaprotectedareaofChile,Bravo-Vargasetal.(thisissue)highlightcontrastingsocialvaluesandperceptionsrelatingtothecontrolofinvasivepinetrees–particularlycontrastingperceptionsrelatingtosummervs.winterlandscapes.Waldetal.(thisissue)showedthathavingpositiveinteractionswithmanagerschangedperceptionsofinvasivespeciesandtheirmanagementandincreasedsupportforcontrolandtrustfromdifferentauthoritiesinGuam.Perceptionsclearlychangeovertime,andhistoricalanalysesareusefulforidentifyingmilestonesandtriggersforsuchchangesinperception(BennettandvanSittert,thisissue;Udoetal.,thisissue),andfurtherworkisneededinthisarea.Differentconceptualisation,values,perceptions,andbehaviourscanleadtoconflictsofinterestwhichcanhinder

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management(Novoaetal.,2018;Crowleyetal.,thisissue;Shackletonetal.,thisissue).Akeytomovingforwardwithmanaginginvasionsisunderstandinghowvaluesandperceptionstranslateintopracticesandbehaviours,andthebarriersthatoftenhindersuchtranslation.Wealsoneedfurtherworktodevelopmethodsforassessingtherolesofspecificcontextsandthecomplexfactorsthatinfluencepeople’sperceptions.2.3EffectsofbiologicalinvasionsonhumansAlargebodyofworkseekstoimproveourunderstandingofhowinvasivespeciesaffecthumansandsociety.Thistopicofresearchaddressesthequantificationofpositiveandnegativeeffectsofinvasivealienspeciesonhumansandsociety,particularlyusingframeworkslikeecosystemservicesanddisservices,humanwell-beingandlocallivelihoods(Shackletonetal.,2007;PejcharandMooney,2009;Kulletal.,2011;Vazetal.,2017b;Bacheretal.,2018).Severalstudiesinthespecialissueaddressthistopic.Shackletonetal.(thisissuec),throughaglobalreview,provideinsightsonhowinvasivealienspeciesaffectlivelihoodsandhumanwell-beingbyquantifyingthevariousbenefitsandcostsofinvasivespeciesandassessingtheroleofsocial-ecologicalcontextsinshapingtheeffectsofinvasivealienspeciesindifferentsettings.Inamorelocalcontext(thecityofCapeTown),Potgieteretal.(thisissue)showthatinvasivealienplantshavebothpositiveandnegativeeffectsforcitydwellers.Someofthesekeypositiveeffectsincludeculturalservicesrelatingtoshade,recreationandaesthetics,andprovisioningservicessuchasfuelwood.Severalnegativeeffectsordisserviceswerealsohighlighted,theprimaryonesbeinglossofwatersupplyandnativebiodiversityandissuespertainingtohowinvasivealienspeciescanreducelocalpeople’ssafetyandsecuritythroughhazardslikechangingfireregimesandincreasingcrime.InaruralcommunalgrasslandsettinginSouthAfrica,NgorimaandShackleton(thisissue)showhowtheinvasivetreeAcaciadealbataprovidesbenefitsforlocallivelihoods(inparticularfuelwoodwhichcanalsogenerateincome)andnegativeimpacts(impactingonhumansecurity,watersupplyandgrazingpotential).Theydetailthenichefilledbythistreeintheareaandtheimportanceofitsservices,particularlyinthecontextoftherelativelytreelessgrasslandbiome,showsitsparticularimportanceinthislocalcontext.However,waysneedtobefoundtomaintainbenefitsforindividuallivelihoodswhilereducingthecostsforthebroadersociety.Kulletal.(thisissue)describetheimportanceofAustraliantrees(especiallyGrevilleabanksii)forcharcoalproduction,akeylivelihoodactivityintherurallandsofeasternMadagascar(Kulletal.,thisissue).InruralNepal,numerousinvasivealienplantspeciesalsogeneratesubstantialnegativeimpactsforlocalssuchaslossofgrazing,poisoningoflivestock,andreductionsincropproductionandintheabilitytoharvestforestproducts.However,afewspeciesprovidedlimitedbenefitsintheformoffodder,biomassforcomposting,medicinalproductsandsoilstabilisation(Shresthaetal.,thisissue).LocalpopulationsinGuamconsideredthesocialeffectsoftheinvasivebrowntreesnake(Boigairregularis)tobeminimal,butwerehighlyconcernedaboutthenegativeimpactsoftheinvasivecoconutrhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros)whichkillscoconuttrees,animportantsourceofincomeandfoodforlocallivelihoodsandalsoatreewithhighculturalvalueontheisland(Waldetal.,thisissue).InChile,peopleweremoreconcernedaboutthenegativeimpactsofferaldogsonhumanhealthandsafetyandlivestock(economicissues)thanimpactsonnativebiodiversity(Villatoroetal.,thisissue),showingthatsometimesthesocialeffectsofinvasivespeciesareofmoreconcernthantheirbiologicalones.

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Thisresearchparticularlyreinforcestheviewthatsocioeconomiceffectsofinvasivespeciesareoftenverycontextspecific.Forinstance,AustralianacaciasaregenerallyperceivedmorepositivelyandhavefewerimpactsinMadagascarthaninSouthAfrica–whichislikelybasedondifferencesinland-useintensityandfeaturesoflandtenure(Kulletal.,2007;Kulletal.,2011;Kulletal.,2018;NgorimaandShackletonetal.,thisissue;Shackletonetal.,thisissueb).Similarly,LantanacamaraiswidelyperceivedtohavemajornegativeimpactsandveryfewbenefitsinEastAfrica,whereasinsomeIndiancommunitiesthespeciesprovidesimportantbenefitsasithasreplacedandsubstitutedoverusednativebamboosforfurnituremakingandensuredcontinuityofanimportantlivelihoodpracticeforsomecommunities(Kannanetal.,2014;Shackletonetal.,2017).Theeffectsofinvasivespeciesonhumansandsocietycanalsochangeovertime(Shackletonetal.,2007;Shackletonetal.,thisissueb;Udoetal.,thisissue).However,littleresearchonchangesinthesocioeconomiceffectsofinvasivespeciesovertimehasbeendoneandmoreworkisneededinthisarea.Muchoftheworkthathasbeendonehasfocusedonthedevelopingworldandinsightsfromthe“north”areneeded.Mostattentionhasbeengiventounderstandingtheeffectsofinvasivealienspeciesonmaterialandtangiblebenefitsandcosts(Shackletonetal.,thisissueb).However,therearealsomoreabstractbenefitsandcostsrelatingtohumanvaluesandlocalculturethatneedfurtherelucidation(Estévezetal.,2015;Bachetal.,thisissue;Crowleyetal.,thisissue;Potgieteretal.,thisissue).Oneaspectthatislackingisanobjectivebasisforcomparingtrade-offsamongdifferentactorsandforassessinghowdifferentpowerdynamicsbetweendifferentstakeholdersrelatetoandinfluencesocialbenefits,costs,anddecision-making.ContributionstothisSpecialIssuehavebeenusefulforunderstandingthedifferentsocioeconomiceffectsofinvasivealienspeciesandshowinghowthesecanhelpwithplanningand/prioritisingcontrolefforts,andavoidormitigateconflictsofinterest(Shackletonetal.,thisissueb;Shresthaetal.,thisissue)(Figure2).2.4HumanresponsestoinvasionsThefourthfocusareaderivedfromthisSpecialIssuerelatestopeoplerespondingtoinvasionsviamanagementplanningandimplementationwhichcommonlyrequiresengagementwithstakeholders(Figure2).Itlinkstoquestionsofwhattodo,whodecides,howtodoit,andwhowilldoit?Socialengagementisrapidlygainingtractionasithasbeenrealisedthatinmanycasesdifferentstakeholdersandactorsareinvolvedindifferentfacetsoftheinvasionandmanagementprocesses,andthereforemanagementplanningandimplementationdemandengagementwithallstakeholderstoensureeffectiveadaptivegovernance(Folkeetal.,2005;Bryceetal.,2011;Novoaetal.,2018).Adaptivegovernancedrawsonmultipleknowledgesystemsandactorsandprocessestoprovideshareddevelopmentandunderstandingofsustainablepoliciesandmanagementimplementation(Folkeetal.,2005).Socialfactorscanactasbothabarriertoandanenablerofeffectivegovernanceandmanagement;thisgeneratessubstantialcomplexityandcomplicatesthetaskofengagementbutalsomakesitmorenecessary(vanWilgenandRichardson,2012;Shackletonetal.,2016;Headetal.,2017).Anumberofdifferentapproachesforengagementcanbeuseddependingontheaimoftheengagement(Shackletonetal.,thisissuec).Forexample,Shresthaetal.(thisissue)useparticipatorycommunitymeetingstoassesslocalknowledgeandaidwithprioritisation

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planning.Manystudiesusedquestionnairesinatop-down,purelyresearch-orientatedmannertoassesspublicpracticesandperceptions(e.g.Coleetal.,thisissue;Villatoroetal.,thisissue;Shackletonetal.,thisissuec;Kulletal.thisissue).Othersusein-depthinterviewstoachieveadeeperunderstandingofparticularphenomenaorproblems,butagainfocusmoreonresearchoutput(Pagésetal.,thisissue;Waldetal.,thisissue).Otheroptionsincludeparticipatoryruralappraisalandmapping,scenarioplanning,collaborativeimplementationandcitizenscienceandstewardship(e.g.seeBryceetal.,2011;Luizzaetal.,2016;Pagésetal.,thisissue).Stakeholderengagementisoftenconductedasaninputtoplanningandprioritisationofmanagement.Forexample,Shresthaetal.(thisissue)usedparticipatorycommunitymeetingsinordertorankinvasivealienspeciesintermsoftheirnegativeeffectsandmanagementpriorities.Otherspecialisedmethodologieslikemulti-criteriadecisionmakinghavealsobeendevelopedtoengagestakeholdersindecisions,forexample,toassignprioritytocertaininvasivealienspeciesandlandscapeunitsformanagement(e.g.seeLuietal.,2010;Forsythetal.,2012).Manyinvasivespeciesgenerateconflictsofinterest,andengagementiscrucialforavoiding,reducingorresolvingsuchconflicts(Crowleyetal.,2017;Zengeyaetal.,2017;Novoaetal.,2018;Crowleyetal.,thisissue;Villatoroetal.,thisissue).Approachesusedtodealwithconflictsincludebuildingsociallearningandtrustbetweenpartiesandpromotingeffectivecommunication(Novoaetal.,2016,2018;Crowleyetal.,thisissue;Waldetal.,thisissue).Crowleyetal.(thisissue)stresstheneedforcollaborativeplanning,transparencyandinclusivitytoensureeffectivemanagementandtopreventconflict;theyemphasizethatdisregardingpublicopinionsandvaluesisafundamentalmistakewhendesigningmanagementstrategiesforinvasivespecies.Novoaetal.(2016)showedthatconflictscanbereducedbyengagingdifferentactorsindiscussionsregardingtheimpactsofinvasivecactiandtheirmanagementoptions,andthatthiscanleadtobetterunderstandingandimprovedconsensusbetweenopposingactors,therebyaidinginthedevelopmentofmanagementinterventionsthataresupportedbyallparties.Engagementaimingtoawarenessraisingandsociallearningisalsoimportantwhendevisingstrategiestomanageinvasions(Reedetal.,2010;Coleetal.,thisissue;Pagésetal.,thisissue;Shackletonetal.,thisissuec).Forexample,Coleetal.(thisissue)highlightthatawarenessrisingandeducationcampaignshaveimprovedlocalrecreationalboaters’biosecurityactionswithregardstopreventingthespreadofaquaticinvasivespecies.Bravo-Vargasetal.(thisissue)showthatevenverylimitedawarenessraisingregardingpineinvasionsinaChileannationalparkcanincreasesupportandwillingnesstopayformanagement.Engagementisalsocentraltodevelopingandaidingcollaboration,co-managementandadaptivegovernance(Jentoftetal.,1998;Armitageetal.,2009;Bryceetal.,2011;Shackletonetal.,thisissuec).Co-managementisimportanttoensurethatmultipleactorstakeownershipandaidwithcontrolofinvasivealienspecies.Thisapproachisparticularlyimportantinthecontextofinvasionsbecausethereareoftenmanydifferentstakeholders,e.g.thoseinvolvedinintroducinganddisseminatingthealienspecies,thosewhomayprofitfromthepresenceofthespecies,andthoseaffectedbyinvasionsindifferentpartsofthe

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landscape.Improvedcollaborationandco-implementationofcontrolcanalsoaidinreducingtheburdenofmanagementofinvasivespeciesbythestateandleadtosharedresponsibility.Anothercomponentrelatingtoengagementiscitizenscienceandvolunteeringinitiativestomapandcontrolinvasivespecieswhichlinkstobothco-managementandsociallearning;thisisagrowingareaofinterestininvasionscience(Marchanteetal.,2017;Ricciardietal.,2017;Pagésetal.,thisissue).Citizensciencereportingandmonitoringhasbeenhighlyusefulinanumberofregionstoprovidebetterunderstandingofinvasivespeciesdistributions(Marchanteetal.,2017,Shackletonetal.,thisissuec).Similarly,therearemanyprogramsinwhichpeoplevolunteertheirservicestocontrolinvasivealienspecies(Pagésetal.,thisissue;Shackletonetal.,thisissue).Althoughcitizenscienceandvolunteeringcanbenefitmultipleparties,Pagésetal.(thisissue)discusstheintricatenatureofvolunteeringprogrammesandtheneedtocarefullyaddressdifferentpeople’smotivationsandexpectationstoensurealignmentbetweentheagendaofdifferentparties.Thisisneededtoensuresatisfactionofvolunteers,provideempowermentwithregardstocontrol,andtoensurethelong-termsustainabilityofsuchprojects.Finally,areviewbyShackletonetal.(thisissuec)revealedthatalthoughresearchthatincludessocialengagementisontherise,mostofthisworkisdoneinatop-downmanner,withtheaimofunderstandingpeople’sperceptions.Theyarguethatfutureworkshouldbemoreintegrativeandshouldincludemoreco-designandco-implementationandshouldseektoincreasesociallearning.Differentactors’wants,needsandagendasneedtobeaccountedfor(Pagésetal.,thisissue).Thereisalsoneedforincorporatingmorebottom-upratherthantop-downengagementandbetterunderstandingofpowerdynamics(Shackletonetal.,thisissuec).

3. ConclusionsWehaveillustratedsomeofthecrucialresearchcontributionsrelatingtothehumanandsocialdimensionsofinvasionscienceandtheirroleinimprovingunderstandingandmanagementofbiologicalinvasions.Thecontributionstothespecialissueremindusthatbiologicalinvasionsareasinherentlysocialastheyarebiologicalandareperfectexampleofsocio-naturalhybridinteractionsandsystems(Robbins2001;Head2017).Furtherinputsfromthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesareurgentlyneededtoimproveourunderstandingofthecontextandcomplexityofinvasionsandtheirmanagement.Thisoftenrelatestotrade-offsandconflicts,especiallythosecausedbythediversesocial-economicbenefitsandcostsofinvasionsandbythedifferenthumanvalues,perceptionsandbehaviours.Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgeandunderstandthedifferentwaysofframingandunderstandingbiologicalinvasions.Researchandmanagementisoftenconductedinafairlytop-down,non-collaborativemanner.Bettercollaborationsandmorebottom-upengagementshouldbesoughttoensurebetteruptakeofpolicyandmanagementpractices.Thiswillhelptoaddressfundamentalchallengesespeciallyrelatingtoissueslikeconflictsofinterest,aidingwithprioritisationandcooperativemanagementimplementation.Moreresearchshouldbefacilitatedthroughimprovedsocial-ecologicalcollaborationandinter-ortransdisciplinarity

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(Kueffer,2010,2013;Turneretal.,2016).Theneedforinterandtransdisciplinaryunderstandingisslowlybeingrecognisedbutthisuptakeisstillfarbehindthatfromthemorefundamentalbiologicalresearchinthefield(Vazetal.,2017a).Workinginamoreinterdisciplinarymanner,andmorecloselywithlocalcommunities,practitionersandpolicymakers,willimprovetherelevanceofresearchininvasionscience.Thisincludesputtingmoreemphasisontrainingyoungsocialscientistsandhumanitiesscholarstobecomeleadersorchampionsinthefieldandsettingupbetterglobalnetworksforinvasionsciencewithbetterrepresentationfromthesocialsciencesandhumanities(Packeretal.,2017;Abrahamsetal.,thisissue).AcknowledgmentsWethankallthecontributorstothespecialissueandtheeditorialstaffofJournalofEnvironmentalManagementforhelpingtomakeitasmoothprocess.Inparticular,wethanktheEditor-in-Chief,BerrinTensil,whofacilitatedtheissueandprovidedmuchsupport.Manyfundingsourcescontributedtoallowthespecialissuetohappen.WeacknowledgefundingfromtheDST-NRFCentreofExcellenceforInvasionBiology(wheretheideaforthespecialissuewasborn),theSocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanada(SSHRC),theSwissgovernmentthroughtheSwissGovernmentExcellenceScholarship,StellenboschUniversity(through“Consolidocfunding”oftheofficeoftheViceRector:Research,InnovationandPostgraduateStudiestoRTS),andtheNationalResearchFoundation,SouthAfrica(grant85417toDMR).ANacknowledgesfundingfromtheProjectNo.14-36079GCentreofExcellencePLADIAS(CzechScienceFoundation)andthelong-termresearchdevelopmentprojectRVO67985939(TheCzechAcademyofSciences).RTSalsothanksCharlieShackletonandtheSouthAfricanResearchChairsInitiativeoftheDepartmentofScienceandTechnologyandtheNationalResearchFoundationofSouthAfricaforhelpingtofundaworkshopinLisbon,Portugal,inSeptember2017.ReferencesAbrahams,B.,Sitas,N.,Esler,K.J.,thisissue.Exploringthedynamicsofresearchcollaborationsbymappingsocialnetworksininvasionscience.J.Environ.Manage.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.051Armitage,D.R.,Plummer,R.,Berkes,F.,Arthur,R.I.,Charles,A.T.,Davidson-Hunt,I.J.,Diduck,A.P.,Doubleday,N.C.,Johnson,D.S.,Marschke,M.,McConney,P.,2009.Adaptiveco-managementforsocial–ecologicalcomplexity.Front.Ecol.Environ.7,95-102.Head,L.,Atchison,J.,2015.Entangledinvasivelives:indigenousinvasiveplantmanagementinnorthernaustralia.GeografiskaAnnaler:SeriesB,HumanGeo.97:169-182.Bach,T.M.,Kull,C.A.,Rangan,P.,thisissue.Killingliststohealthycountry:AboriginalapproachestoweedcontrolinKimberly,WesternAustralia.J.Environ.Manage.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.050Bacher,S.,Blackburn,T.M.,Essl,F.,Genovesi,P.,Heikkilä,J.,Jeschke,J.M.,Jones,G.,Keller,R.,Kenis,M.,Kueffer,C.,Martinou,A.F.,Nentwig,W.,Pergl,J.,Pyšek,P.,Rabitsch,W.,Richardson,D.M.,Roy,H.E.,Saul,W.,Scalera,R.,Vilà,M.,Wilson,J.R.U.,Kumschick,S.,2018.Socio-economicimpactclassificationofalientaxa(SEICAT).Meth.Ecol.Evol.9,159-168.Backstrom,A.C.,Gerrard,G.E.,Hobbs,R.J.,Bekessy,S.A.,2018.Grapplingwiththesocialdimensionsofnovelecosystems.Front.Ecol.Environ.16,109-117.Berkes,F.,Folke,C.andColding,J.eds.,2000.Linkingsocialandecologicalsystems:managementpracticesandsocialmechanismsforbuildingresilience.CambridgeUniversityPress.

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