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Journal of Child and Family Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1, February 2006 ( C 2006), pp. 71–82 DOI: 10.1007/s10826-005-9009-6 The Impact of Maternal Depression and Parenting Behaviors on Adolescents’ Psychological Functioning in Romania Mihaela Robila, Ph.D. 1,3 and Ambika Krishnakumar, Ph.D. 2 Published online: 18 February 2006 We examined the impact of maternal depression and parenting behaviors on ado- lescents’ psychological functioning in Romania. The direct and indirect links between maternal depression, maternal acceptance, behavioral control, psycho- logical control and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors were analyzed. The sample consisted of 239, 12–14 year-old adolescents and their mothers. Results indicated that higher maternal depression were associated with higher levels of psychological control and higher levels of internalizing and ex- ternalizing behaviors. Higher levels of behavioral control were associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescents. However, the mothers were able to compartmentalize their depression from other parenting behaviors such as acceptance and behavioral control. KEY WORDS: parenting; mothers; depression; Romania; adolescents. The socioeconomic transition over the last decade from communism to democracy and from a state controlled to a free market economy has been chal- lenging and highly stressful for Romanian families (Robila, 2003, 2004; Robila & Krishnakumar, 2004). These macro-environmental changes in Romanian society have been socially and economically uncertain times for many families. Faced with these challenges, Romanian families indicate high levels of psychological and social distress which are frequently expressed through feelings of loneliness, uncertainty, and a feeling of inability to have control over ones life or that of one’s family (Robila & Krishnakumar, 2005). Depression experienced by adult family 1 Assistant Professor, Family Science, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY. 2 Assistant Professor, Child and Family Studies, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY. 3 Corresponding should be directed to Mihaela Robila, Family Science, 306 Remsen Hall, Queens College, CUNY, 65–30 Kissena Bld., Flushing, NY 11367; e-mail:[email protected]. 71 1062-1024/06/0200-0071/1 C 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
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Journal of Child and Family Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1, February 2006 ( C© 2006), pp. 71–82DOI: 10.1007/s10826-005-9009-6

The Impact of Maternal Depression and ParentingBehaviors on Adolescents’ PsychologicalFunctioning in Romania

Mihaela Robila, Ph.D.1,3 and Ambika Krishnakumar, Ph.D.2

Published online: 18 February 2006

We examined the impact of maternal depression and parenting behaviors on ado-lescents’ psychological functioning in Romania. The direct and indirect linksbetween maternal depression, maternal acceptance, behavioral control, psycho-logical control and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors wereanalyzed. The sample consisted of 239, 12–14 year-old adolescents and theirmothers. Results indicated that higher maternal depression were associated withhigher levels of psychological control and higher levels of internalizing and ex-ternalizing behaviors. Higher levels of behavioral control were associated withhigher levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescents. However,the mothers were able to compartmentalize their depression from other parentingbehaviors such as acceptance and behavioral control.

KEY WORDS: parenting; mothers; depression; Romania; adolescents.

The socioeconomic transition over the last decade from communism todemocracy and from a state controlled to a free market economy has been chal-lenging and highly stressful for Romanian families (Robila, 2003, 2004; Robila &Krishnakumar, 2004). These macro-environmental changes in Romanian societyhave been socially and economically uncertain times for many families. Facedwith these challenges, Romanian families indicate high levels of psychologicaland social distress which are frequently expressed through feelings of loneliness,uncertainty, and a feeling of inability to have control over ones life or that of one’sfamily (Robila & Krishnakumar, 2005). Depression experienced by adult family

1Assistant Professor, Family Science, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY.2Assistant Professor, Child and Family Studies, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.3Corresponding should be directed to Mihaela Robila, Family Science, 306 Remsen Hall, QueensCollege, CUNY, 65–30 Kissena Bld., Flushing, NY 11367; e-mail:[email protected].

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1062-1024/06/0200-0071/1 C© 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

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72 Robila and Krishnakumar

members can have detrimental impact on parent-child socialization patterns, andundermine adolescent functioning.

Parental depression places adolescents at increased risk for internalizing(Galimore & Kurdek, 1992) and externalizing problem behaviors (Gartstein &Fagot, 2003). Children of depressed women show deficits in social, psychological,and cognitive domains and are at increased risk for depression and conduct disorder(Burke, 2003). Beyond direct effects, researchers suggest that parental depressivesymptoms could impact adolescent problem behaviors indirectly through loweringthe quality of parenting (Harnish, Dodge, & Valente, 1995). Research indicates thatthe pathways linking parental depression and adolescent outcomes are complex,with low quality parenting behaviors being intervening variables (e.g., Hill, Bush,& Roosa, 2003).

Maternal depressive symptoms play a key role in the quality of mother-child interactions (Albright & Tamis-LeMonda, 2002). Maternal depression re-lates inversely to the quality of mother-child interactions. High scores on de-pression are associated with less sensitivity, engagement, affection, and morerigidity in mothers and with less compliance, affection, engagement, and gen-tleness in children. In addition, higher depression scores are associated withless mutual communication, reciprocity, and enjoyment in the mother-childdyad (e.g., Crnic & Greenberg, 1987). Depressed parents have been describedas more inconsistent, lax, uninvolved and more forceful with their children(e.g., McLoyd et al., 1994).

While effective parenting behaviors such as acceptance, attentiveness, re-sponsiveness, guidance (Bronstein et al., 1996), inductive discipline (Whitebecket al., 1997), autonomy granting practices (Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994; Gray &Steinberg, 1999) and clear limits setting (Denham et al., 2000) have been linkedwith positive adolescent adjustment and development, previous studies indicatethat parenting difficulties predict adolescents’ internalizing and externalizingsymptoms (Forman & Davis, 2003). Longitudinal research indicates that par-ents firm behavioral control reduces externalizing problems among adolescents(Galambos, Barker, & Almeida, 2003). Lower acceptance and higher negativeaffect is consistently related to greater emotional/behavioral problems in adoles-cents (Bosco et al., 2003). Disruptive parenting with insufficient monitoring ismore characteristic of parents with conduct-disordered children (Berg-Nielsen,Vikan, & Dahl, 2002).

Previous research indicates that the link between parental depression andinternalizing and externalizing problem behaviors in adolescents is mediated bythe quality of parenting (Hetherington & Clingpeel, 1992). Youth depression wasfound to be impacted by parenting style and maternal mental health (Oyserman,Bybee, & Mowbray, 2002). Depressed mothers perceive the behavior of their chil-dren more negatively than those who are not depressed (Brody et al., 2002). Theyuse more anxiety- and guilt-inducing methods of discipline in combination withvoiced disappointment in their children than non-depressed parents (Cicchetti &

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Parenting and Adolescents Functioning 73

Toth, 1991). Depressed mothers may lack the necessary skills to cope with normalstressful events which contribute to adolescents’ internalizing and externalizingbehaviors (Forehand & McCombs, 1988).

Gray and Steinberg (1999) advised scholars to examine three components ofauthoritative parenting (acceptance, behavioral control and psychological control)when investigating adolescents’ outcomes. This suggestion was based on earlierresearch (e.g., Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994) which indicated that the three par-enting behaviors were associated with specific adolescents’ outcomes: behavioralproblems with behavioral control (Peterson & Hann, 1999), psychosocial and in-ternal distress with both psychological control and acceptance-involvement (Gray& Steinberg, 1999; Peterson, & Hann, 1999).

Extant research on depression and its impact on parenting and children hasfocused predominantly on western families (e.g., Brody, McBride, Kim, & Brown,2002). Little is known about these family processes in Eastern European coun-tries. Our investigation examines the impact of maternal depression on parentingand subsequently on children internalization and externalization in Romania. Theinterrelationship among constructs is explained from the perspective of familystress theory developed by Boss (2002). Family stress is defined as a “pressureor tension in the family system—a disturbance in the steady state of the family”(Boss, 2002, p. 16). To understand the impact of stressors on families and individ-uals one must examine family internal and external context. In this study, we focuson the family’s internal context which refers to psychological dimension withinfamilies (family members’ perception, appraisal and assessment of the events).We examine mothers’ assessment of their own depression, and adolescents’ per-ceptions and assessment of parenting behaviors and their own psychological func-tioning. Finally, we examine how a stressful event, such as maternal depres-sion, impacts parenting behaviors and adolescent internalizing and externalizingbehaviors.

Maternal depression was conceptualized as mothers’ feelings of frustration,sadness, demoralization, loneliness, and pessimism about the future (Radloff,1977). Behaviors such as restless sleep, talking less than usual, and having a poorappetite were considered to be indicative of depression. For Romanian families,economic and social adversities contribute greatly to a general state of frustrationand lack of hope about the future. The lack of professional counseling servicesand organizations (i.e., support groups) increases Romanians’ difficulties in copingwith stressful situations.

Parenting was conceptualized as behaviors that indicate warmth, moderateenforcement of rules, and a low level of guilt induction (Gerard & Buehler, 1999).Parental acceptance was conceptualized as those behaviors that indicate to theadolescent warmth, nurturance, support and a feeling of being loved and wantedby the parent (Gray & Steinberg, 1999). Behavioral control was conceptualizedas parents’ attempt to set limits for the adolescent, to monitor and structure theadolescent’s life (Barber et al., 1994; Gray & Steinberg, 1999). Psychological

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74 Robila and Krishnakumar

control was conceptualized as use of guilt, and emotional control to guide theadolescent’s thoughts and behaviors (Gray & Steinberg, 1999).

Adolescents’ psychological functioning was conceptualized as behaviorsthat are both outer-directed and inner-directed. Outer-directed behaviors wereconceived as externalizing and include behaviors such as hostile defiance, tem-per tantrums, and destructive behaviors such as aggression, lying and stealing(Kazdin, 1995). Inner-directed behaviors were conceived as internalizing and in-clude behaviors such as depression, excessive fear, anxiety, and somatic complaints(Reynolds, 1992). We focused on adolescence, which is the period that begins atpuberty (ages 10 to 12) and ends when physical growth is completed (age 18–19)(Yorburg, 2002). Our focus on adolescents rather than on a different age groupis because they are able to provide their own perspective on parenting strategiesand on their own psychological functioning, which allows an understanding ofthese issues from youth’s perspective. Adolescence is also a vulnerable stage ofhuman growth particularly in terms of development and stability of internalizingand externalizing behaviors.

METHOD

Sample

The study was conducted in northeast Romania, using a school-based sur-vey. Direct access to families is often difficult in Romania given the limitedtrust placed on outsiders and hence the school system was chosen as the sam-pling frame. Families place high trust in the school system and are committedto participating in school-related activities. Two schools were randomly selectedfrom a list of schools (N = 54) serving the city. Principals of the schools andteachers from 6th and 7th grade were contacted and informed about the study.After obtaining teachers permission, letters of introduction and consent formswere sent home to the families through students in their classes. Parents’ signedthe written consent form agreeing to their and their adolescent child’s partic-ipation in the study. After gaining parental consent, the questionnaire for themother was sent home with the adolescent who brought it back in a sealed en-velope. Adolescents completed the questionnaire at school during regular schoolhours.

Of the 310 6th and 7th grade adolescents in the two schools, 280 childrenand their mothers agreed to participate (response rate = 90.3%). The sample forthis investigation was restricted to married mothers. This resulted in a sample of239 mothers and children. The final sample included 123 girls and 116 boys witha mean age of 12.9 years (12–14 years). The mean age for mothers was 39.8 years(30–49 years) and 71% had one or two children and had at least a high schooleducation.

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Parenting and Adolescents Functioning 75

Measures

All measures were translated and adapted for use within the Romanian sam-ple. Items were checked for content appropriateness in the Romanian context. Thetranslation-backtranslation method was used (Hambleton, 1994). The instrumentswere translated from English to Romanian and then backtranslated to English todetermine if there was any drift in meaning on any of the items. Experts fluentin Romanian and English examined the clarity and meaning of different items.Questionnaires were also examined for cultural appropriateness of words andphrases.

Maternal depression was examined using the Center for EpidemiologicalStudies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Mothers responded to 20 itemsregarding how frequently they experienced each of the depressive symptoms (e.g.,poor appetite, restless sleep) over the past week. The response format ranged from0 (rarely/none of the time) to 3 (most/all of the time). The CES-D has been shownto have adequate validity among various demographic groups within the U.S.population (McLoyd et al., 1994) and has been examined for content validity byRomanian experts (Vrasti, Schreppler, & Olteanu, 1986). The scores were summedand those of 16 or higher on the CES-D were indicative of clinical depression.Sixty-seven percent of mothers had scores higher than 16 indicating high levelsof depression.

Parental acceptance, behavioral control and psychological control were ex-amined using thirty items selected from the revised short form of the Child’sReport of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) (Schludermann & Schludermann,1977). The questions assessed maternal acceptance (10 items) (e.g., “My mothergives me a lot of care and attention”), maternal behavioral control (10 items) (e.g.,“My mother is very strict with me”), and maternal psychological control (10 items)(e.g., “My mother says, if I really cared for her, I would not do certain things”).The CRPBI is a widely used self-report measure of children’s assessment of par-enting practices and has been reported to have adequate validity and reliability(Schludermann & Schludermann, 1977). To each question, adolescents respondedon a 4-point scale, 1 (not at all like her) to 4 (a lot like her). Factor analysis (us-ing maximum likelihood as method of factor extraction) indicated that the itemsloaded well on maternal acceptance, behavioral and psychological control. Cron-bach’s alpha for maternal acceptance scale was .65, for maternal psychologicalcontrol scale was .69, and for maternal behavioral control scale was .68.

Externalizing and internalizing behaviors were measured using the adoles-cents’ report on Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (3-point scale: 0 = never,2 frequently) (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983). Externalizing behaviors were mea-sured with two indexes, Child Delinquency (10 items) and Child Aggressiveness(16 items) which were created by summing the items. Internalizing behaviors weremeasured with two indexes Child Depression (11 items), and Child Withdrawal(9 items), which were created by summing the items. This rating scale has been

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used widely with various ethnic groups in the U.S. and in other countries (e.g.,Germany, Finland) and has been found to have adequate validity and reliability(Helstelae, Sourander, & Bergroth, 2001). Sample items for internalizing problembehaviors include “I am shy or timid,” and for externalizing problem behaviorsinclude “I am disobedient at school.” Adolescents responded to these items on a3-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 2 (frequently).

RESULTS

Descriptive data are presented in Table I. Structural equation modeling (SEM)was used to examine the proposed conceptual model. Structural equation modelingis particularly suited to testing mediators because it permits the simultaneousestimation of direct and indirect paths (Arbuckle, 1999; Schumacker & Lomax,1996). Tests of mediation were based on Baron and Kenny (1986) guidelines andincluded four steps: (a) a significant relationship should exist between maternaldepression and internalizing and between maternal depression and externalizing,(b) a significant relationship should exist between maternal depression and themediating constructs (behavioral control, psychological control and acceptance)(c) a significant relationship should exist between the mediating constructs andinternalizing and externalizing, and (d) a significant drop should occur in theassociation between maternal depression and internalizing and externalizing afterthe introduction of the mediating constructs in the model.

The fit of the model was evaluated against the following criteria: Chi-squareand the degree of freedom (χ2; df), the goodness-of-fit (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-fit (AGFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Afterthe models were examined using SEM, the significance of the indirect pathwayswere examined using Sobel’s test which involves calculation of the t ratio fromthe betas and standard errors of the link between the independent variable andintervening variable and the intervening variable and dependent variable. T ratiosof 1.96 or larger were considered significant at the probability level of .05.

Table I. Means and Standard Deviations forScales and Indexes

Scale/Index M SD

Maternal depression 21.97 10.28Acceptance 3.26 .49Psychological control 1.91 .49Behavioral control 1.54 .51Adolescent delinquency 4.12 2.51Adolescent aggressiveness 8.11 4.11Adolescent depression 7.80 3.74Adolescent withdrawal 6.23 3.76

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Parenting and Adolescents Functioning 77

Fig. 1. Maternal depression and adolescent internalizing behaviors.

In the first step, the direct impact of maternal depression on child internalizingbehaviors was examined (see Fig. 1). The results showed that higher depressionincreases internalization in children (β (standardized beta) = .23; C.R. = 2.949).The model explained 6% of the variance.

In the second step, when parenting behaviors (acceptance, psychologicalcontrol, strict discipline) were introduced into the model, the results indicatedthat maternal depression was associated with increases in psychological control(see Fig. 2). Psychological control and behavioral control (strict discipline) wereassociated with increase in the level of internalizing behaviors. There was noimpact of depression on acceptance or of acceptance on internalizing behaviors.The model accounted for 35% of variance in adolescents’ externalizing behaviorsand had a good fit: Chi-square = 11.55, df = 6, p > .05; GFI = .98, AGFI = .95,RMSEA = .03. Sobel test indicated that the indirect impact of maternal depression

Fig. 2. Maternal depression, parenting and adolescent internalizing behaviors.

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78 Robila and Krishnakumar

Fig. 3. Maternal depression and adolescent externalizing behaviors.

on internalizing, through psychological control, was significant (t = 4.00, df =237, p < .05).

Similarly, the direct impact of maternal depression on child externalizingbehaviors was examined and the findings indicated that maternal depression wasassociated with increases in the level of externalizing behaviors (see Fig. 3) (β =.16; C.R. = 2.338). The model explained 3% of the variance. When psychologicalcontrol was introduced into the model this link became non-significant (see Fig. 4).Higher levels of psychological control and strict discipline were associated withhigher levels of externalizing behaviors in children. There was no impact ofdepression on acceptance or of acceptance on externalizing behaviors. The Sobeltest indicated that the indirect paths were significant (t = 5.50, df = 237, p < .05).The model accounted for 25% of variance in adolescents’ externalizing behaviorsand had a good fit: Chi-square = 13.22, df = 7, p > .05; GFI = .98, AGFI = .95;RMSEA = .03.

Fig. 4. Maternal depression, parenting and adolescent externalizing behaviors.

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Parenting and Adolescents Functioning 79

DISCUSSION

We examined the impact of maternal depression and parenting behaviorson adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors in Romania. This in-vestigation used a quantitative approach and a path analytic technique to testthe model. Constructs were assessed through mothers and adolescents’ reports.Our results with Romanian families support previous research (e.g., Burke, 2003;Peterson & Hann, 1999). Previous studies indicated that higher levels of maternaldepressive symptoms and coercion are associated with higher levels of child ex-ternalizing behaviors (e.g., Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). Similarly, for the Romaniansample, maternal depression is associated with higher externalizing in children.In addition, higher maternal depression is related to higher depression and with-drawal in children. Maternal depression is also related to higher psychologicalcontrol. Strict discipline and psychological control decrease child behavioralproblems.

Our results support previous literature that indicated that youth depression isimpacted by parental depression and quality of parenting (e.g., Forman & Davis,2003; Oyserman, Bybee, & Mowbray, 2002). The findings indicate that higherlevels of parenting quality are associated with lower levels of internalizing andexternalizing problem behaviors. Viewed from the perspective of family stresstheory (Boss, 2002), the results suggests that mothers’ depression is associatedwith a lower quality of parenting which, in turn is associated with higher external-izing and internalizing problem behaviors in adolescents. Helping mothers to beaware of their depression and its deleterious effects on their children would helpthem to take charge of some aspects of their parenting (which is part of family’sinternal context).

There are some limitations to be considered when taking into account thefindings of this investigation. We did not use a national representative sample andtherefore the findings cannot be broadly generalized and need to be interpreted withcaution. We examined mothers and adolescents as reporters of various behaviors.Including fathers in future investigations would provide a more comprehensivepicture of Romanian family processes. Although self-reports by adolescents andmothers offer an “insiders’” perspective (Olson, 1977), observations of variousfamily processes will provide an “objective reality.” Finally, this is a cross-sectionalstudy. Conducting longitudinal research has been encouraged by family scholarsas a way to better understand families and changes in family processes over time(Miller & Wright, 1995).

Our study has several strengths and offers a significant contribution to theresearch on family functioning in Romania. To fully understand the impact offamily processes on adolescents it is essential to examine different processes, likeparental psychological functioning and parenting quality. The present study offersa close look at how maternal depression affects adolescents in Romania. A family

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80 Robila and Krishnakumar

stress perspective on family functioning enriches the current available informationin this area.

By tailoring conceptualization and operationalization appropriately and ad-equately to the Romanian context, valid and reliable survey questionnaires forthe Romanian population were developed. Considering the paucity of instrumentsthat explore family processes in Romania, this is a significant contribution of ourstudy because the information obtained through these inventories could be usedto develop more culturally appropriate measures of family and adolescent’ func-tioning. Another strength of this study is the use of multiple informants whichminimizes the biases in the estimation of path coefficients (Bank et al., 1990).

Our study expands the research on family functioning to countries beyondthe United States. By investigating family life in Romania, one is able to under-stand both common and unique pathways of how depression impacts families andadolescents in another part of the world. Some of the effects of these processes onfamily functioning seem to be universal in nature and applicable to people aroundthe world. Examples of these are the associations between maternal depressionand psychological control. Other paths are more specific such as the lack of a linkbetween maternal depression and behavioral control and acceptance.

Romanian mothers are able to compartmentalize their depression from otherparenting behaviors such as acceptance and behavioral control. This represents aneffective way to protect adolescents from deleterious effects of parental depression.It could be something, that parents learn through socialization processes as a copingmechanism when dealing with difficulties.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by a dissertation grant from Jacobs Foundation(Switzerland) and a research grant from the Graduate School at Syracuse Univer-sity awarded to the first author. The authors are grateful to the participating childrenand families. Parts of this study were presented at the August 2002 meeting of theInternational Society for Study of Behavior Development, Ottawa, Canada, andNovember 2002 meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Houston,TX.

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