The impacts of radio telemetry on the behavior of lynx canadensis
Cochrane Ecological Institute (CEI)
International Forest Ecosystem Management (B.Sc.)
University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde
The impacts of radio telemetry on the behavior of lynx canadensis
Internship report
Sep 1st
2011 till Feb 29th
2012
Lavinia Haase
Cochrane Ecological Institute (CEI)
Cochrane, Alberta, Canada
International Forest Ecosystem Management (B.Sc.)
University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde
The impacts of radio telemetry on the behavior of lynx canadensis
2
Table of contents
Acknowledgement 3
1. Introduction 4-5
1.1. Canada 4
1.2. The Cochrane Ecological Institute (CEI) 5
2. Projects 6-12
2.1. Lynx project 6-10
2.1.1. Project design 6
2.1.2. Ethograms 7
2.1.3. Scat Analysis 7-8
2.1.4. Preference of trees 8
2.1.5. Hair traps 8-9
2.1.6. Potential release sites 10
2.2. Bate Analysis swift fox and lynx 11
2.2.1. Project design 11
2.2.2. Results 11
2.3. Survey 12
2.3.1. Concept 12
2.3.2. Outcome 12
3. Conclusion 13
4. References 14
5. Appendix 15-23
5.1. Behavior Catalog 15
5.2. Scat list 16-17
5.3. Map: Preference of trees 18
5.4. Map: Hair trap locations 19
5.5. Map: Trap locations for Bate Analysis (fox pen) 20
5.6. Map: Trap locations for Bate Analysis (lynx pen) 21
5.7. Data sheet Bate Analysis 22
5.8. Survey design 23
3
Acknowledgement
I would like to say thank you to Ken and Clio for having me at the CEI and making me feel very much
at home. I had a great time and feel very fortunate that they gave me the opportunity to work with
those amazing animals so closely. Also thank you for always having an open ear for my ideas and
problems and for the support I got with my project whether it was theoretical or technical advice or
equipment I needed. Thank you to Mike for being a great teacher and giving me the opportunity to
take on responsibility and trusting in my abilities.
Another thank you goes out to the HNEE for the PROMOS scholarship I received. It helped me to
cover the expensive flight to Canada.
Last but not least thank you to my parents who always support me and who made my internship in
Canada happen in the first place by supporting me financially and equipping me with the right gear
for the freezing winter.
Ken Weagle, Erin Meagher, Lavinia Haase
4
1. Introduction
1.1. Introduction to the region: Alberta, Canada
Alberta is the fourth largest province in Canada. It is known as a prairie province although
three quarter of the province is covered with trees.
Agriculture has historically been a core industry. Since the discovery of large deposits of oil
and natural gas they are Alberta’s main economic drivers.
Alberta has the widest variety of physical features of any province in Canada and is the only
place in North America where prairie, northern forest and mountain regions meet. There are
some of the most spectacular natural landscapes in North America, including desert
badlands, the world's only boreal forest songbird observatories, the largest collection of
Aboriginal rock art on the North American Plains, glaciers and mountains.
With its 530 parks and protected areas- including 70 Provincial Parks, five National Parks and
five UNESCO World Heritage Sites- it has more than any other province.
The fastest growing industries are the oil and gas, construction, and professional, scientific
and technical services sectors. Because of Banff National Park and Kananaskis Provincial Park
the region is Alberta’s top tourism destination.
Bison & elk
5
1.2. The Cochrane Ecological Institute (CEI)
The Cochrane Ecological Institute- Cochrane Wildlife Reserve Society is devoted to the
preservation of biodiversity through the conservation and breeding of endangered
indigenous species, environmental impact evaluation, ecosystem restoration through the
reintroduction of extirpated flora and fauna, rescue and rehabilitation and release of injured
and orphaned wildlife, public education and field research, and the monitoring of habitat
and species through the development of non intrusive survey methods.
The CEI is a family founded, charitable, not -for -profit organization which was founded in
1971 by Miles and Beryl Smeeton and is now run by their daughter, Clio Smeeton. Miles and
Beryl Smeeton were internationally known sailors, mountaineers, and explorers.
The Smeetons initiated the swift fox reintroduction program in Canada in 1972, six years
before the species was declared extirpated in Canada. All animals held at the CEI are
destined for reintroduction. They are not maintained for public exhibit, trade, or sale. Over
the 26 years of its existence the CEI has also been an integral part of the Canadian Wildlife
Service's Trumpeter swan (Cygnus bucinnator) and wood bison (B.b.athabascae)
reintroduction programs, as well as playing a key role in the Canadian swift fox
reintroduction program. The CEI is unique in that it holds the world's longest established
(1972), largest (20 pairs), and only captive breeding colony of swift fox. These animals are
bred solely for reintroduction as part of the CEI's ecosystem restoration program.
Internationally, as species and habitat vanish, the concept of ecosystem restoration through
the reintroduction of indigenous flora and fauna, is gaining greater and greater prominence.
The preservation of habitat without those species, which made that habitat a viable whole,
is a sterile exercise.
Inside compound of the CEI
(January 2012)
6
2. Projects
2.1. Lynx project
2.1.1. Project design-“The impact of radio telemetry on the behavior of lynx Canadensis”
Research topic: Impacts of radio telemetry on the behavior of Lynx Canadensis
Hypothesis: The behavior of Lynx Canadensis is being influenced by radio
telemetry (collaring).
Abstract: Establish a post-collaring ethogram of the lynx to compare with the
pre-collaring behavior as well as the behavior during the time the
lynx were collared.
Procedure: Observe the lynx from two locations (Bear Pool & Car dump) 2h /
location / day. Note their behavior every 5 minutes (see Appendix
5.1 for behavior catalog). All 24 hours of a day must be covered to
get a general idea of their behavior during all hours of the day. For
this study four 24 hour cycles have been completed.
Expected results: It is expected to see visible changes in the behavior of the lynx in a
collared state in comparison to their “natural” behavior. Those
behavioral changes could influence the animal`s physical, social as
well as mental condition.
Equipment: - notebook & pen, stop watch
- Binocular, night vision binocular
- Camera, video camera, Spy cam
- sound recording, Computer/software (Ethoscribe)
Location #1: Bear Pool Location #2: South fence line
7
2.1.2. Ethogram
An Ethogram is a behavior protocol which contains a quantitative description of an
animal`s normal behavior. First of all a catalog of possible behaviors is being created.
For that the animal is being observed and all behaviors are being noted. It is
important to describe the action not the intention behind it. After the behavior
catalog has been established a hypothesis is being formulated and the study planed.
The last step is to build the final ethogram that tests your hypothesis.
The analysis of the final ethograms as well as the results and conclusion will be
presented in my bachelor thesis in a broad context to find out whether radio collars
do influence the behavior of lynx Canadensis and what influence this has on the
reintroduction of Canadian lynx in North America.
Lynx getting drugged
Lynx waking up in trap
Lynx collared ©CEI
2.1.3. Scat Analysis
To further back up the hypothesis that radio collars do influence the behavior of lynx
Canadensis, scat has been collected to test it for stress hormones. We collected scat
starting at the day of collaring (June 30th
2011), during the time the lynx were
collared as well as after the time they were collared until the end of February 2012.
8
The samples are going to be sent to a University to be tested for stress hormones and
we hope the results are going to confirm the findings we made with the ethograms.
See the Appendix 5.2 for the scat list.
Lynx scat Lynx Canadensis(© Joanne Thibault)
2.1.4. Preference of trees
Due to the evergreen spruce trees in the lynx pen it was sometimes hard to make out
the lynx in the trees. For that reason I had the idea to put up spy cams on the trunks
of all trees to find out if there are any trees they prefer to climb. Those results I
wanted to use for my observations to know which trees to focus on and where to
look for the lynx. See the Appendix 5.3 to view a map with the locations of the spy
cams. The outcome of the study though was rather disappointing. Due to the lynx
way of jumping up trees and being very quick about it, it wasn’t able for the spy cam
to catch them climbing up because from the time the camera detected a movement
to the actual release the lynx were already up the tree.
2.1.5. Hair Traps
Research topic: Hair trap study for lynx Canadensis
Research question: Which lures encourage rubbing?
Abstract: Test catnip spray, Red fox urine, beaver gland extract, Coyote
urine and anise oil for effectiveness to lure lynx to rub on post
to collect hair samples for DNA analysis.
Procedure: Put up five posts in the lynx pen along the south fence line
with a distance of 4m in between each post (see Appendix 5.4
for the Hair Trap location). The posts are wrapped with barb
wire to help collect hair from the lynx. Each post is being
9
sprayed with one of the five different lures and two spy cams
are being put up to capture the encounters of the lynx
rubbing on the posts.
Expected results: It is expected to see a preference of one lure
Equipment: - 5 posts
- Lures (catnip spray, Red fox urine, beaver gland extract,
Coyote urine, anise oil)
- 2 Spy cams
Results/Conclusion: There were two definite encounters captured on spy cam #1.
One with post#1 (catnip spray), which was being sprayed and
one with post#2 (red fox urine) which looks like was being
rubbed on with the lynx cheek. Due to an incident spy cam #1
stopped recording on March 4th
. Spy cam #2 which was
focused on post #3 (anise oil),4 (coyote urine) and 5(Beaver
gland extract) didn’t record any significant encounters. First
of all it wasn’t able to capture all three posts (post#3 anise oil
wasn’t captured) and the distance to the posts was too big
and therefore the night pictures didn’t turn out well. I
therefore recommend to use three spy cams for the project
as well as to reduce the distance from the spy cams to the
posts. The project should also run for a longer period (in this
case it was 6 days) and the lures should be reapplied every
other day to ensure maximum encounters.
Hair Trap wrapped with barbed wire; Spy cam Picture encounter spy cam #1
10
2.1.6. Potential release sites
Habitat requirements
- Large home range (60-85 square miles/animal)
- Don’t cross large areas of cleared land
- Dense climax forests with heavy undergrowth
- May range into mountains, rocky areas, tundra, edge of arctic prairie
- Boreal forests of North America (mainland of North America)
- Used to range down to Nevada, Utah, Colorado
- Uneven-age forests with relatively open canopy as well as “patchy” areas of disturbed
forest (Quinn&Parker, 1987)
- Old gap-phased forests → provide moderate density of hares & high density of squirrels
+ ample supply of blowdown for den sites
- Tree types: white & black spruce, paper birch, willow, quaking aspen (Alaska); white
spruce dominated forests (S/W Yukon); quaking aspen, balsam poplar, spruce stands
(central Alberta)
- Appear to avoid large open areas (Rolley 1987, Koehler&Aubry 1994)
- Densest stands impenetrable by lynx (Wolff 1980)
- Factors for habitat selection: prey abundance, protection from severe weather,
availability of resting/denning sites, dense cover for hunting & escape, freedom from
disturbance (Pollack 1951)
- Tolerant of human presence & disturbance, although less likely to occur in areas with
year-round human habitation (Staples 1995)
- Translocated individuals more vulnerable to traffic deaths (Brocke 1991)
- Don’t avoid crossing roads in Washington (McKelvey 2000); in BC radio-collared resident
lynx crossed highways less frequently than expected (Apps 2000)
- Lynx use some roads for hunting & travel (Koehler & Aubry 1994)
Two Reintroduction attempts in North America:
- Adirondack Mountains (New York State), 1989-1991, 83 lynx translocated from Yukon,
wide dispersal by lynx → high mortality & movement away from study site, within 2
years nearly half died (16 killed by collision with vehicles), no lynx were found
- Colorado, 1998, by Colorado Division of Wildlife, 96 lynx captured in BC, Yukon & Alaska
(57 ♀, 39 ♂), released in S/W Colorado 1999-2000, as of 2001: 37 mortalities, 24% due
to starvation, 14% hit by vehicles, 14% shot, reproduction has not yet been documented
(Shenk 2001)
11
2.2. Bate Analysis swift fox and lynx
2.2.1. Project design
Research topic: Bate Analysis for swift fox and Canadian lynx
Research question: Which small animals do swift fox and Canadian lynx prey on
Abstract: Establish a reference booklet with names, hair samples and
pictures of potential prey to identify hair found in scat in the
process of analyzing what the swift fox and lynx hunt next to
the food we feed them and how much it makes up of their
whole food intake
Procedure: Put up live traps around the lynx and fox pen (see Appendix
5.5 & 5.6 for trap locations) and stack the traps with peanut
butter. Check the traps once a week and identify the catches
as well as taking measurements, pictures and hair samples.
Expected results: It is expected to catch different kinds of small rodents
Equipment: - live traps
- measuring tape, camera, envelopes, data form
2.2.2. Results
Catches included bank voles, white-footed/deer mouse and a shrew, but the most
frequent caught was the bank vole. The collection of hair samples will be extended
and used to create a booklet to help analyze scat better in the future. See Appendix
5.7 for complete data sheet.
Bank vole Shrew White-footed/Deer Mouse
12
2.3. Survey
2.3.1. Concept
The aim of this survey is a qualitative study on people’s views and perceptions of
wildlife rehabilitation and release back into the wild in Alberta.
Reason for this survey is the fact that the Alberta department of Sustainable
Development (SRD) made the decision in 2010 to prevent certain species from
rehabilitation and release back into the wild. “Lynx, bobcat or cougar kittens, bear
cubs, moose, elk, and caribou calves, wolf and coyote cubs and the lambs and kids of
Bighorn sheep and Mountain goats are now prohibited from being rescued,
rehabilitated and released back into the wild in Alberta. Other species, amongst
them skunks, salamanders, frogs, toads and raccoons are even more unlucky. They
are to be killed upon arrival at any Wildlife rehabilitation centre” (Liberty 16,
November 2010, Newsletter CEI, Clio Smeeton). One argument is that the SRD does
not think that (a) the public cares about rehab one way or another, (b) that the
public is worried about "nuisance animals". So the idea is to find out what the public
thinks. See Appendix 5.8 for the Survey design.
2.3.2. Outcome
The survey is at this point still running and the result of this project -The human
dimension of wildlife rescue, rehabilitation and release back into the wild- may be
presented to the government of Alberta upon completion.
Representing the CEI & introducing our survey to the public
13
3. Conclusion
All in all I can say that I had, from my side, a successful internship. I was able to get practical
experience in wildlife rehabilitation as well as a lot of background knowledge on the status of
conservation in Canada and as it turns out there is lots of room for improvement. There are
many environmental problems and conservation needs that have to be approached in the future.
Starting with the government who doesn`t put a focus on preserving what makes Canada so
special and that is its stunning natural beauty and fascinating flora and fauna.
I was also able to gain experience in scientific field work, having conducted a couple of research
projects. In my opinion learning by doing is still the most effective way of learning, at least for
me. You remember your mistakes as well as the successes and there is always lots of room for
improvement. I am happy with the outcomes of the projects and hope that they are going to be
continued as they are just a first step towards a bigger goal.
With the Bate Analysis we started a hair sample and data collection that should be turned into a
reference book to help better analyze hair samples found in scat to identify what an animals` diet
is made up of.
The survey on people’s views and perceptions of wildlife rehabilitation and release back into the
wild in Alberta will hopefully help to make people on the one hand aware of the fact that wildlife
rehabilitation is not funded by the government although it should be their concern and on the
other hand help in negotiations with the government to do make wildlife rehabilitation eligible
for funding by the government.
The hair trap study which I conducted in the last two weeks of my internship definitely needs
improvement. The time frame was too short and the effectiveness of the lures must be
improved. This project has a lot of potential but needs a lot of time for many test runs to find out
which lures do actually attract the lynx to rub (also consistently) on ensure the regular collection
of hair samples.
The lynx project, which was my main project, I hope to turn into a bachelor thesis on “The
impacts of radio telemetry on the behavior of lynx Canadensis and how it affects reintroduction in
North America”. The lynx project was just the beginning of a big project. In the future the CEI
plans to create further ethograms on other species like swift fox and deer using the same
methods, doing a pre-, during and post-collaring ethogram to assess the impacts of radio
telemetry on different species and with that knowledge develop less intrusive monitoring
methods.
I hope that my bachelor thesis is going to deliver the expected results and that it is going to help
me in my future career steps, either getting a job in wildlife management /conservation/zoology
or pursuing a Master in a similar field.
14
4. References
Book:
- Clio Smeeton, Hearts ease comes in a box
- Adrian Forsyth (1999), Mammals of North America-Temperate and Arctic Regions, Firefly
Books
- George A. Feldhamer, Bruce C. Thompson, Joseph A. Chapman (2003,Second Edition), Wild
Mammals of North America-Biology, Management and Conservation, Johns Hopkins
University Press
Internet sources:
- Government of Alberta, 2008-2010, Calgary, http://www.albertacanada.com/about-
alberta/calgary.html (03.04.2012)
- Government of Canada, 2012, About Canada, http://www.canada.gc.ca/aboutcanada-
ausujetcanada/menu-eng.html (03.04.2012)
- Clio Smeeton & Ken Weagle, 2009, http://www.ceinst.org (03.04.2012)
- Creighton Smith, 2010, How to Create a Useful Ethogram: a Comprehensive List of Animal
Behaviors, http://biology-nature.knoji.com/how-to-create-a-usefull-ethogram-a-
comprehensive-list-of-animal-behaviors (08.08.2011)
- Department of Biology Kenyon College, The Ethogram: quantifying behavior and testing
Hypotheses,
http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol261/Ethogram/EthoBody.htm#Hypothesis
(08.08.2011)
- Gregory W. McDaniel, Kevin S. McKelvey, John R. Squires, and Leonard F. Ruggiero, 2000,
Efficacy of lures and hair snares to detect lynx,
http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/publications/Lynx_Response_to_Lures_McDaniel/Lynx_Response_
to_Lures_McDaniel.pdf (12.01.2012)
15
5. Appendix
5.1. Behavior Catalog
Abbreviation Behavior Definition
APP Actively Pursuing Prey Crouched to the ground, stalking prey,
(eyes focused on prey, ears pointed,
muscles taut)
S Sleeping lying down with eyes closed
ST Sleeping in tree
Lying down with eyes closed in tree on
a branch
RES Resting muscles relaxed, eyes partially closed,
sitting or lying
G Grooming Licking/biting own fur
W Walking Moving slow forward
R Running Moving fast forward
A Alert eyes wide open, muscles taut – sitting,
crouching or standing
AP Alert to presence of people Focused on people (eye contact, ears
pointed, muscles taut)
IT Interacting with each other playing, smelling, grooming, chasing
IV Investigating sniffing, digging, appears to be
searching
RFP Retrieving food (food given by people) Picking up food from the ground,
carrying it away/crouching down to
eat
GF Guarding food staying near food
NV Not visible subject under observation is out of
observers sight
C Climbing Jumping up trunk, clawing into bark &
then jumping up tree from branch to
branch
F Feeding Crouching down, eating
provided/hunted food
SM Scent marking Standing with their butt turned to the
object intended to be sprayed, lifting
their tail and spraying object with
urin/rubbing their cheek on objects
STR stretching Cat like, front legs down on the
ground, butt & nose up in the
air/arching their back
16
5.2. Lynx scat list 2011/2012
Date Notes
June 30th Day of collaring (1 sample each(yellow & red collar))
July 1st
July 2nd
July 3rd
July 4th
July 5th
July 6t
July 7th
July 8th
July9th
July 10th
July 11th
July 12th
July 13th
July 14th
July 15th
July 16th
July 17th
July 18th
July 19th
July 20th
July 21st
July 22nd
July 23rd
July 27th Removing of collars (2 samples from night in cage)
July 29th
July 30th
August 1st
August 2nd
August 5th 2 samples stomp, 2 samples under tree
August 7th 2 samples
August 16th 2 samples
August 19th 2 samples
August 24th 2 samples
August 27th 2 samples
September 2nd 5 samples (from lynx that escaped into bear pool)
September 3rd
September 30th
October 1st
October 3rd
October 4th
October 6th
October 7th
October 8th
October 9th
October 10th
October 11th
October 15th
October 22nd
October 25th
17
October 26th
October 27th
October 31st
November 1st
November 4th
November 5th
November 6th
November 11th 2 samples
November 12th
November 14th
November 19th
November 21st
November 23rd
December 1st
December 10th
December 15th
December 23rd
December 28th
January 4th
January 11th
January 14th
January 24th
January 27th
February 7th
February 19th
18
5.3. Map: Preference of trees
Bear
Pool
P
o
l
e
B
a
r
n
fake
rock
pond
#1 #2
#3
#4
#6 #5
#9
#7
#8
Poop tree
Poop stomp
Video cam 24h
Video cam 24h
Car dump
Rabbit hutch
Lynx den
19
5.4. Map: Hair traps locations
Bear
Pool
P
o
l
e
B
a
r
n
fake
rock
pond
Poop tree
Poop stomp
Car dump
#6
#5
#4
#3
#1
#2
Rabbit hutch
Lynx den
Beaver gland extract
Coyote urine
Anise oil
Red fox urine
Catnip spray
4m
4m
4m
4m
Spy cam #1
Spy cam #2
20
5.5. Map: Trap locations for Bate Analysis (Fox pen)
#9
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
D
R
I
V
E
W
A
Y
2
0
A
C
R
E
F
O
X
P
E
N
10m
6m
50m
19m
50m
50m
50m
50m
25m
21
5.6. Map: Trap locations for Bate Analysis (Lynx pen)
Bear
Pool
P
o
l
e
B
a
r
n
fake
rock
pond
Poop tree
Poop stomp
Car dump
#6
#5
#4
#3
#1
#2
Rabbit hutch
Lynx den
22
5.7. Data Sheet Bate Analysis
Date Trap Species Length
(Body)
Height Tail Head Front
feet
Hind
feet
Hair
samples
taken?
Pictures
taken?
07.11.2011 Lynx
pen
trap#2
Bank
vole
- - - - - - Yes Yes
11.11.2011 Fox
pen
trap#1
Bank
vole
- - - - - - Yes Yes
29.11.2011 Fox
pen
trap#7
? 3 inch 1 ¼
inch
1.5
inch
1 inch 1/8
inch
¼
inch
Yes Yes
29.11.2011 Fox
pen
trap#9
?(2) 3 inch 1 ¼
inch
1.5
inch
1 inch 1/8
inch
¼
inch
Yes Yes
29.11.2011 Lynx
pen
trap#3
White-
footed/
Deer
Mouse
6.5 cm 3 cm 6.5
cm
2.5
cm
1 cm 2 cm Yes Yes
05.12.2011 Fox
pen
trap#1
Bank
voles
(3)
2
inches
1 inch 1
inch
1 inch 3/8
inch
¾
inch
No Yes
13.12.2011 Fox
pen
trap#1
Arctic?
shrew
2 ¼
inch
1 inch 1 ½
inch
7/8
inch
½
inch
¾
inch
Yes Yes
28.12.2011 Fox
pen
trap#8
Bank
vole (2)
- - - - - - No No
09.01.2012 Lynx
pen
trap#5
Bank
vole
- - - - - - No No
09.01.2012 Lynx
pen
trap#6
Bank
vole (2)
- - - - - - No No
23
5.8. Survey design
-The human dimension of wildlife rescue, rehabilitation and release back into the wild-
Canadian Other?
1) VISITOR TO CANADA: Are you visiting Canada for its wilderness and wildlife? Yes No
2) Please name three things that are typically Canadian to you:
3) Please name 1-3 animals/environmental elements which represent Canada the best to you:
4) Which characteristics about these animals/environmental elements are typically Canadian?
5) What do you connect emotionally with those animals/environmental elements?
6) How many hours per week do you spend a)With animals?_____ b)Outdoors?_____ c)Communing with
nature?_____
7) Do you know wild animals have become extinct in Canada in the 20th century? Yes No
8) If so, do you know any wild Canadian animals that are threatened with extinction in the 21st Century
(name max. 3):
9) Is the Conservation of the Environment important to you? Yes No
10) Is Alberta’s wildlife important to you? Yes No
11) Should the populations of Albert’s wildlife be regularly monitored to ensure sufficient management and
maintain their population levels? Yes No
12) If so: who by?
Government Non Government organizations
Universities Individuals
Commercially (Environmental Consultants paid by industry – oil & gas, logging, mining, hydro,
recreation, industrial development, road & rail - to do the work)
13) Should wildlife that is harvested by hunters and trappers be the only wildlife that is managed to maintain
population levels? Yes No
14) Who do you think is responsible for the protection of Alberta’s wildlife, wildlife habitat and conservation of
the Environment?
Alberta Government Government of Canada
Non Government Organizations Individuals
15) Who do you think should fund wildlife conservation?
Alberta Government Government of Canada
Non Government Organizations Individuals
Industry
16) Should injured or orphaned wildlife be rescued, rehabilitated and released back into the wild?
Yes No
17) Do you have concerns that rehabilitated and released birds or wildlife, released back into suitable habitat
and away from human communities, will pose a danger to the public? Yes No
18) If you believe that the rescue, rehabilitation and release of orphaned or injured wild birds and animals is a
conservation action, who should fund it?
Alberta Government Government of Canada
Non Government Organizations Individuals