The influence of admixtures type on the air-voids parameters of non-air-entrained and air-entrained...

Construction and Building Materials 41 (2013) 109–124

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Construction and Building Materials

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The influence of admixtures type on the air-voids parametersof non-air-entrained and air-entrained high performance SCC

Beata Łazniewska-Piekarczyk ⇑Silesian Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Building Processes, Akademicka 5 Str., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland

h i g h l i g h t s

" Admixtures type affects the properties of fresh and hardened HPSCC." SP type significantly influences the porosity of HPSCC." AFA type influences the porosity of non-air-entrained HPSCC." AEA type influences the porosity of air-entrained HPSCC." VMA type influences the porosity of air-entrained and non-air-entrained HPSCC.

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 1 March 2012Received in revised form 8 October 2012Accepted 21 November 2012Available online 8 January 2013

Keywords:High performance self-compacting concrete(HPSCC)Superplasticizer (SP)Air-entraining admixture (AEA)Anti-foaming admixture (AFA)Viscosity modifying admixture (VMA)WorkabilityPorosityAir-voids parameter

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a b s t r a c t

The influence of a type of new generation: superplasticizer (SP), air-entraining admixture (AEA), viscositymodifying admixture (VMA) and anti-foaming admixture (AFA) on the air-content, workability of highperformance self-compacting concrete (HPSCC), is analyzed in the paper. The purpose of this studywas to examine the influence of the type of admixtures on porosity and pore size distribution of HPSCCat constant water on cement ratio, type and volume of aggregate and volume of cement paste. Theparameters of the air-voids of hardened HPSCC are also investigated. The results presented in the articledemonstrated that admixtures from different sources cannot be used interchangeably, even if theyappear to have a similar chemical composition.

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1. Introduction causes reduction in total air-void surface areas and increases in

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has the ability to flow and con-solidate under its own weight, making it well suited for applica-tions with heavy reinforcement, complicated formwork, or wheremechanical vibration would be difficult. High fluidity of SCC cancause the mixture to be unstable; therefore, the concrete must alsobe cohesive enough to fill any shape without segregation or bleed-ing. The flow ability and viscosity of a SCC mixture are controlledthrough the use of superplasticizers (SPs) and viscosity modifyingadmixtures (VMAs), respectively [1].

SP should be compatible with cement, but it should not increasethe air content in SCC. The publication [2] indicates that the SP

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air-void spacing factors. Research results [3] indicated that certainsuperplasticizer (SP) of new generation produce an excessive air-entrainment remaining in the volume of the fresh mix and con-crete, although the mix meets commonly accepted criteria of tech-nical tests according to [4]. According to authors’ publication [5],polycarboxylate SPs usually have an air-entraining effect. Withthe use of polycarboxylate SPs, the air pores characterize withsmaller diameters than pores formed as a result of lingosulphonicor naphthalene SPs functioning [6]. The inclusion of SP (sodiumsalt of a sulphonated napthalene–formaldehyde condensate) in ce-ment paste, leads to a reduction in the total pore volume and to arefinement of the pore structures [7]. The dominant pore size isunaffected and the threshold diameter is reduced in the presenceof SP. Research results cited in publication [3] indicate that theair-content in hardened SCC, as a side effect of SP acting, mayamount to even 8.0%.

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110 B. Łazniewska-Piekarczyk / Construction and Building Materials 41 (2013) 109–124

The anti-foaming admixtures (AFAs) decrease effectively theair-content in SCC [8,9]. The components and their proportionsused in the anti-foaming admixtures, as in SP, are known only tothe producers. These ingredients could be mineral oils, silicone oils,organic modified silicones, hydrophobic constant molecules (silica,waxes, higher fatty acids soaps, alcohols and fatty acids), emulsifi-ers, polyalcohol or alcohol derivatives of organic compounds.Mixes of the active components mentioned above could have asynergetic effect. There are no research results on the impact ofAFA type on concrete’s porosity. Thus, it is advisable to carry onproper tests for verification of the influence of AFA type on theair-entrainment, rheological properties and porosity characteristicof concrete.

In case of air-entrained SCC, as with the non-entrained SCC,achieving the suitable air void characteristics is also a difficult task[10–12]. Air bubbles in fresh concrete are inherently unstable [13–16]. The air bubbles can move more freely in concrete when it ishighly fluid; therefore, there is increased occurrence of bubble coa-lescence and rupturing. To a certain degree, a SCC mixture with ahigh viscosity (usually accompanying a lower slump flow) preventsbubbles from rupturing or coalescing by creating a ‘‘cushion effect’’for the air voids to remain unaffected by mixing and other distur-bances [15]. Increasing slump flow increases the demand for AEAto entrain a given volume of air [17–19]. The flow ability and vis-cosity of a SCC mixture are controlled through the use of SP andviscosity modifying admixtures (VMAs), respectively. Research re-sults [12], showed that VMA influences on air-voids parameters ofthe air-entrained SCC. The question is whether another type ofVMA has a similar effect in this regard? Many inorganic electro-lytes and polar organic materials influence the foaming ability ofsurfactants [1,15]. Because of the complexity of modern AEAsand other chemical admixtures, it is impossible to generalize theeffects of their interactions with surfactants on the air entrain-ment. The results presented in study [1], demonstrated that admix-tures from different sources cannot be used interchangeably, evenif they appear to have a similar chemical composition.

Taking into account the above, the effects of the admixturestype in case of HPSCC should be examined. Furthermore, whetherthe type and interaction of SP, VMA, and AFA (in case on non-air-entrained HPSCC) and SP, AEA and VMA (in case of air-entrainedHPSCC) affect the values of air voids parameters?

The article presents the development of HPSCC with differenttypes of new generation SP: SP1 (with air entraining side effect)and SP2 (without entraining side effect) and different new genera-tion type of VMA, AEA and AFA. It establishes the following mainaim of the admixtures use (Table 1).

Table 1The main aim of use of the admixtures.

Combination ofadmixtures

The main aim of the admixtures use

‘‘Air-entraining’’ SP1 The air-entrained HPSCC (as a result of SP1sideeffect)

‘‘Air-entraining’’SP1 + VMA

Elimination of segregation as a result of SP1action

‘‘Air-entraining’’SP1 + AFA

Elimination of too high air-content (as a result ofSP1 side effect) in HPSCC

‘‘Air-entraining’’SP1 + AFA + VMA

Elimination of segregation as a result of SP1 andAFA action

‘‘Non-air-entraining’’ SP2 Non-air-entrained HPSCC‘‘Non-air-entraining’’

SP2 + VMAElimination of segregation as a result of SP2action

‘‘Non-air-entraining’’SP2 + AEA

Intentionally air-entrained HPSCC

‘‘Non-air-entraining’’SP2 + AEA + VMA

Elimination of segregation as a result of SP2 andAEA action

The study was then carried out on the fresh and hardened prop-erties of different HPSCC at constant water on cement ratio, typeand volume of aggregate and volume of cement paste.

2. Research significance

The research results [12] proved that the admixtures signifi-cantly influence air voids parameters of SCC and consequently af-fect its frost resistance. The effects of the admixtures in case ofHPSCC should be examined. It is important to determine the posi-tive and negative effects of SP type and modification of the non-air-entrained and air-entrained HPSCC by different type of VMA andAFA. The effects of different types of admixtures actions may influ-ence the values of HPSCC air-voids parameters, because the airvoids of concrete influence its frost resistance and compressivestrength.

3. Materials and description of the tests

The experimental investigation was carried out in two phases.In Phase 1, tests were carried out on fresh high performance self-compacting concrete with different type of SP, VMA, AEA andAFA. Phase 2 investigated the properties of the hardened HPSCC.

3.1. Examined materials

3.1.1. Cement, mineral additives and aggregatesA type CEM I 42.5 R cement was used. Chemical and physical

properties of cement are shown in Table 2. The chemical and phys-ical properties of a silica fume (SF) are shown in Table 3. Local nat-ural sand, fine and eight-millimeter maximum size gravelaggregates, were used in concrete mix, respectively. The propertiesof sand and gravel aggregate are presented in Tables 4 and 5. Sandcontent in the aggregate is 44.4%. Water was used according to EN1008.

3.1.2. Chemical admixturesThe main aim of the use of the admixtures was presented in Ta-

ble 1. The aim of the admixtures use, symbol of series of HPSCC andtype of admixtures are presented in Table 6.

The properties of admixtures are presented in Table 7–10. SP 1and SP 2 composed of different type of polycarboxyl ether, havingtotal solid content of 30.0% were used. The chemical compositionof SP, VMA, AEA and AFA is a proprietary commercial patent.

3.2. Phase 1: Mix proportion and its preparation

Twenty-six high performance self-compacting concrete mix-tures (Tables 11–17) were made to study the effect of type of SP,VMA, AFA and AEA on the properties of HPSCC. In comparison tonormal strength concrete, high performance concrete are muchmore homogenous and less porous. Strength and other propertiesof high performance concrete grow with the higher number of con-tacts among particles, reduced porosity and defects within thestructure. Reduction of porosity is achieved by using a lowwater/binder (w/b) ratio, adding SP (providing sufficient workabil-ity in fresh state), and replacing a portion of cement with pozzola-nic additives. Less water in the composition of high performanceconcrete than in normal strength concrete reduces the space be-tween cement grains and mineral additives in the fresh state. Inthis way capillary porosity is also reduced and so is the space tobe filled with the products of hydration [20,21]. A reduction inwater/binder ratio and the use of mineral additives have a positiveeffect on the improvement in the interface between cement matrixand aggregates as the weakest link in the concrete structure. The

Table 2The chemical and physical properties of CEM I 42.5 R.

Chemical analyses (%) Specific surfaceblaine (cm2/g)

Specific gravity(g/cm3)

Compressivestrength (MPa)

Setting time, vicat test (min)

SiO2 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Na2Oe SO3 Initial setting Final setting

21.61 64.41 4.46 2.24 1.25 0.4 3.1 3830 3.1 69.3 175 –

Table 3The chemical and physical properties of silica fume.

Chemical analyses (%) Specific surface (m2/kg)

SiO2 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Na2O SO3 K2O

92.8 0.7 0.6 0.3 1.32 0.3 0.8 0.5 18,000

Table 4The chemical and physical analysis of sand 0/2 mm.

Parameters Result

SiO2 >99.3%Fe2O3 300 ppm MaxAl2O3 2500 ppm MaxCaO 250 ppm MaxMgO 50 ppm MaxClay 0.3% MaxCaCo3 0.5% MaxMoisture <0.1% MaxLoss on ignition <0.3% MaxpH NeutralDensity 2.65 gm/cc

Table 5The properties of sand and gravel.

Property Sand 0/2 (mm) Gravel 0/8 (mm)

The content of mineral dust 0.67%, Category f3 0.48%, Category f3

The content of organic substances Absence AbsenceBulk density (qnz) 1.74 kg/dm3 1.69 kg/dm3

Flatness index – 6.2%, Category FI10

Absorptivity – 0.62%

Table 6Symbol of series of HPSCC and type of admixtures.

The aim of the admixtures use Symbol Type of admixtures

The air-entrained HPSCC (as a result of SP1side effect)

S1 SP1

Non-air-entrained HPSCC S2 SP2


S1V1 SP1 + VMA1S1V2 SP1 + VMA2S1V3 SP1 + VMA3


S2V1 SP2 + VMA1S2V2 SP2 + VMA2S2V3 SP2 + VMA3

Elimination of too high air-content (as aresult of SP1 side effect) in HPSCC

S1A1 SP1 + AFA1S1A3 SP1 + AFA3S1A4 SP1 + AFA4S1A5 SP1 + AFA5S1A6 SP1 + AFA6

Elimination of segregation as a result of SP1and AFA action

S1A1V1 SP1 + AFA1 + VMA1S1A2V1 SP1 + AFA2 + VMA1S1A3V1 SP1 + AFA3 + VMA1S1A3V2 SP1 + AFA3 + VMA2S1A1V2 SP1 + AFA1 + VMA2S1A1V3 SP1 + AFA1 + VMA3

Intentionally air-entrained HPSCC S2A1 SP2 + AEA1S2A2 SP2 + AEA2

Elimination of segregation as a result of SP2and AEA action

S2A1V1 SP2 + AEA1 + V1S2A1V2 SP2 + AEA1 + V2S2A1V3 SP2 + AEA1 + V3S2A2V1 SP2 + AEA2 + V1S2A2V2 SP2 + AEA2 + V2

B. Łazniewska-Piekarczyk / Construction and Building Materials 41 (2013) 109–124 111

most efficient admixture to cement is silica fume. Because of itsvery small grains (about 10 times smaller than a cement grain)and large specific area, silica fume has a positive effect on the in-crease in density of the area surrounding cement particles and, be-cause of higher reactivity, on accelerated hydration. Furthermore,silica fume reacts with free lime – the poorest component of ce-ment – thereby making CSH gel [22].

Considering that high performance concrete contain high quan-tities of binders, the size of maximum aggregate grain size shouldbe reduced. In case of the HPSCC, gravel 0/8 mm was used. The pro-portion of cement, silica fume, water, coarse aggregate and sandwas kept constant (Table 11).

The following admixtures were used (Table 12–17): SP1 (withair-entraining side effect), SP2 (without air-entraining side effect),AFA1–AFA6; AEA1, AEA 2; VMA1, VMA2 and VMA3. Because theconsistency of the fresh concrete influences the air-content inSCC [23], the dosages of the SP were conformed to the same slumpflow class (SF2) of SCC. AEA was conformed to the air content value4–7%. The VMA was used to reach a VS2 viscosity class and the AFAagent to reduce too high air content in case of non-air entrainedHPSCC (the air content less than 2%).

The concrete was produced in a horizontal pan mixer withcapacity of 0.070 m3. In each case, volume of this mixture was60 dm3.

Author’s research results showed that in case of a longer mixingtime of HPSCC, smaller dosage of SP is needed than in case of ashort mixing time. Short mixing time often leads to overdosingamount of SP. The sand and coarse aggregate were first mixedfor 1 min. Then, cement and silica fume were added with thewater. After mixing for 10 min, the SP was introduced and allowedto mix for an additional 5 min. Finally, remaining admixtures(according to Tables 11–17) were added and mixed for the addi-tional 3 min.

3.3. Methodology of test of HPSCC properties

3.3.1. Tests on fresh HPSCC propertiesThe tests of fresh high performance self-compacting concrete

were carried out after 20 min, because the SP liquefaction effi-ciency increases after time. Before the test concrete mixture wasmixed for 5 min.

The main aim of this step of the research is to compress theinfluence of admixtures type on workability and air volume of

Table 7The properties of SPs.

Property SP1 SP2

Main base Polycarboxylether

Polycarboxylether

Specific gravity at 20 �C (g/cm3) 1.07 ± 0.02 1.05 ± 0.02pH-value at 20 �C 6.5 ± 1.0 6.5 ± 1.5Chloride ion content (mass%) 60.1 1.3Alkali content (Na2O eqiv.) (mass%) 1.5 1.3

Table 8The properties of anti-foaming admixtures.

Symbol Main base

AFA1 PolyalcoholAFA2 Froth breaker on the PDMS basis/silicone oil/hydrophobic silicaAFA3 Froth breaker on the basis of alcohol derivative of saturated fatty

alcohol, mineral oil and PE waxAFA4 Modified polyalcoholAFA5 Alkoxyl derivative of fatty alcohol, 100%AFA6 Froth breaker on the basis of mineral oil or amidol wax

Table 9The properties of air-entraining admixtures.

Property AEA1 AEA2

Main base Syntheticsurfactants

Saponified acidresin

Specific gravity at 20 �C (g/cm3) 1.01 ± 0.02 1.00pH-value at 20 �C 8.8 10–12Chloride ion content (mass%) 60.1 –Alkali content (Na2O eqiv.)

(mass%)61.0 –

Table 10The properties of viscosity modifying admixtures.

Property VMA1 VMA2 VMA3

Main base Syntheticcopolymer

Silica Methylcellulose

Specific gravity at 20 �C (g/cm3)

1.0–1.02 1.30 No data

pH-value at 20 �C 6–9 9.5 –Chloride ion content (mass%) <0.1 – –Alkali content (Na2O eqiv.)

(mass%)– – –

Table 11The components of HPSCC.

CEM I42.5 R

Silicafume

Sand 0/2(mm kg/m3)

Gravel 0/8(mm)

Volume ofpaste (%)

w/c w/b

581.0 65.0 710.1 887.6 40.0 0.31 0.28

Table 12The dosage of SP by weight of total binder (%).

Symbol SP1 SP2

S1 2.75 –S2 – 4.34

S1 – SP1, ‘‘air-entraining’’, S2 – SP2, ‘‘non-air-entraining’’.

Table 13The dosage of SP and VMA by weight of total binder, %.

Symbol SP1 SP2 VMA1 VMA2 VMA3

S1V1 3.28 – 0.15 – –S1V2 3.67 – – 0.25 –S1V3 4.90 – – – 0.03S2V1 – 4.92 0.58 – –S2V2 – 5.22 – 1.37 –S2V3 – 5.05 – – 0.07

S1V1 – SP1 + VMA1, S1V2 – SP1 + VMA2, S1V3 – SP1 + VMA3, S2V1 – SP2 + VMA1,S2V2 – SP2 + VMA2, S2V3 – SP2 + VMA3.

Table 14The dosage of SP and AFA by weight of total binder, %.

Symbol SP1 SP2 AFA1 AFA3 AFA4 AFA5 AFA6

S1A1 2.40 – 3.61 – – – –S1A3 4.23 – – 3.40 – – –S1A4 3.67 – – – 3.48 – –S1A5 5.20 – – – – 3.48 –S1A6 3.67 – – – – – 4.06

S1A1 – SP1 + AFA1, S1A3 – SP1 + AFA3, S1A4 – SP1 + AFA4, S1A5 – SP1 + AFA5, S1A6– SP1 + AFA6.

Table 15The dosage of SP, AFA and VMA by weight of total binder, %.

Symbol SP1 SP2 AFA1 AFA2 AFA3 VMA1 VMA2 VMA3

S1A1V1 4.44 – 3.50 – – 0.26 – –S1A2V1 3.67 – – 3.45 – 0.25 – –S1A3V1 3.79 – – – 3.45 0.19 – –S1A3V2 3.67 – – – 3.45 – 0.25 –S1A1V2 4.28 – 3.45 – – – 0.25 –S1A1V3 4.95 – 4.07 – – – – 0.11

S1A1V1 – SP1 + AFA1 + VMA1, S1A2V1 – SP1 + AFA2 + VMA1, S1A3V1 – SP1 + A-FA3 + VMA1, S1A3V2 – SP1 + AFA3 + VMA2, S1A1V2 – SP1 + AFA1 + VMA2, S1A1V3– SP1 + AFA1 + VMA3.

Table 16The dosage of SP and AEA by weight of total binder, %.

Symbol SP1 SP2 AEA1 AEA2

S2A1 – 4.49 0.27 –S2A2 – 3.16 – 1.58

S2A1 – SP2 + AEA1, S2A2 – SP2 + AEA2.


fresh HPSCC. The slump flow test [4] was used to evaluate the freedeformability and flowability of SCC. Slump flow value representedthe mean diameter (measured in two perpendicular directions) ofconcrete after lifting the standard slump cone. The upper and low-er limits of slump-flow classes (SF) are the following [4]: SF1 –

slump flow from 50 to 650 mm, SF2 – slump flow from 660 to750 mm, SF3 – slump flow from 760 to 850 mm. While the upperand lower limits of viscosity classes (VS) are the following [4]:VS1 – T500 less than or equal to 2 s., VS2 – T500 higher than 2 s.

The air content in fresh HPSCC was measured by the pressuremethod according to EN 12350-7 [24]. The results of measure-ments presented in Tables 18–23 were an average of three mea-surements and the results were corrected to take into accountthe aggregates.

Table 17The dosage of SP, AEA and VMA by weight of total binder, %.

Symbol SP1 SP2 AEA1 AEA2 VMA1 VMA2 VMA3

S2A1V1 – 4.66 0.27 – 0.27 – –S2A1V2 – 4.58 0.26 – – 0.71 –S2A1V3 – 5.96 0.26 – – – 0.07S2A2V1 – 5.33 – 0.91 0.26 – –S2A2V2 – 3.25 – 1.32 – 0.71 –

S1A1V1 – SP1 + AEA1 + VMA1, S1A1V2 – SP1 + AEA1 + VMA2, S1A1V2 –SP1 + AEA1 + VMA3, S1A2V1 – SP1 + AEA2 + VMA1, S1A2V2 – SP1 + AEA2 + VMA2.

Table 19Properties of fresh non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of VMA.

Symbol SF(mm)

T500 (s) Slump-flowclasses

Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S1V1 650 4 SF1 VS2 2.4S2V1 730 3 SF2 VS2 1.8S1V2 770 4 SF3 VS2 2.7S2V2 640 4 SF1 VS2 1.9S2V3 580 7 SF1 VS2 3.6S1V3 680 8 SF2 VS2 2.6


Table 20Properties of fresh non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of AFA.

Symbol SF(mm)


Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S1A1 690 3 SF2 VS2 2.5S1A3 670 4 SF2 VS2 2.4S1A4 850 2 SF3 VS1 2.0S1A5 630 6 SF1 VS2 2.9S1A6 600 3 SF1 VS2 2.9


Table 21Properties of fresh non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of AFA and VMA.

Symbol SF(mm)

T500

(s)Slump-flowclasses

Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S1A1V1 700 4 SF2 VS2 2.4S1A2V1 650 5 SF1 VS2 3.9S1A3V1 730 6 SF2 VS2 2.7S1A3V2 790 4 SF3 VS2 1.2S1A1V2 730 5 SF2 VS2 2.3S1A1V3 500 9 SF1 VS2 4.9


Table 22Properties of fresh air-entrained HPSCC.

Symbol SF(mm)


Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S2A1 580 3 SF1 VS2 6.4S2A2 500 4 SF1 VS2 10.5

S2A1 – SP2 + AEA1, S2A2 – SP2 + AEA2.

Table 23Properties of fresh air-entrained HPSCC with different type of VMA.


3.3.2. Tests on hardened HPSCC propertiesThe temperature and relative humidity were respectively 20 �C

and 100% (in water). After 28 days, the tests were conducted todetermine the air-voids parameters of HPSCC.

The entrained air void distribution in hardened concrete wasdetermined using a computer-driven system of automatic imageanalysis (RapidAir). The RapidAir is an automatic system for ana-lyzing the air void content of hardened concrete. The analysis re-quires polishing of the concrete surface as described in ASTM C457 as well as a contrast enhancement of the surface. The systemcan automatically analyze the air void system according to theASTM C 457 and EN 480-11 [25] standards. Tests were performedusing polished concrete specimens 100 � 100 � 20 mm cut fromcube specimens. The sample preparation includes contrastenhancement steps ensuring white air voids in black concrete(aggregate and paste). Because it performs the linear traversemethod on a black and white surface the paste content cannot di-rectly be measured. The software, however, has recently been up-dated to include an application for semi-automatic point count,where the paste content can be determined and used directly inthe linear traverse analysis. Moreover the latest software has anintegrated module for performing the air void analysis accordingto EN 480-11 modified point count Procedure B. Since neither ofthese new applications were available at the start of this studythe paste content was determined manually by using EN 480-11modified point count Procedure B and the automatic air void anal-ysis by using the linear EN 480-11 Procedure A. Results of mea-surements were available as a set of standard parameters for theair void microstructure characterization:

– spacing factor (mm),– specific surface a (1/mm),– air content A (%),– content of air voids with diameter less than 0.3 mm A300 (%),– air void diameters distribution.

4. Test results and its discussion

4.1. The research results of fresh HPSCC

Test results of the test of properties of the fresh modified HPSCCby admixtures are summarized in Tables 18–23. The Figs. 2–27show the air void diameters distribution.

Table 18Properties of fresh non-air-entrained HPSCC.

Symbol SF(mm)


Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S1 660 6 SF2 VS2 3.5S2 680 3 SF2 VS2 2.2


Symbol SF(mm)

T500

(s)Slump-flowclasses

Viscosityclasses

Ac (%)

S2A1V1 570 4 SF1 VS2 5.2S2A2V1 630 5 SF1 VS2 3.5S2A2V2 570 4 SF1 VS2 9.0S2A1V2 530 5 SF1 VS2 9.5S2A1V3 500 10 SF1 VS2 7.0



The amount of admixtures (SP, VMA and AFA) according to theirtype was established iteratively in order to obtain the smallest aircontent and the biggest flow diameter of HPSCC. The relationshipbetween the quantities of the various admixtures (according to Ta-bles 11–16) and fresh-state results (according to Tables 17–22) de-pends on their type. Probably the interactions between admixturescause different results in the flow properties and compaction ofHPSCC.

The analysis of the test results in Table 18 suggests that the typeof the new generation SP influences essentially the air-content inthe fresh high performance self-compacting concrete. SP1 in-creases the air content in HPSCC but less than that shown by theresults of the research analyzed in the publication [12]. Withincreasing water content in the mixture, SP increases more theair-content in mixture. As it has been shown in the studies [12],the ‘‘air-entraining’’ SP1 is more effective in action (Table 12). Onthe other hand, the workability of HPSCC with, ‘‘non-air-entrain-ing’’ SP2 is better (Table 18).

The research results of the workability and air-content of HPSCCwith VMA1, VMA2, and VMA3 are summarized in Table 19. Theanalysis of the results indicates that VMA (regardless of the VMAtype) influences the air content in fresh HPSCC (compare Tables18 and 19). VMA2 and VMA3 result in the decrease of the air-con-tent in HPSCC with SP1. A different situation is the case of VMA3.Adding VMA3 to the HPSCC with SP2, results in a significant in-crease in the air content in HPSCC due to the increase of plastic vis-cosity (increase in T500) and yield stress (decrease of SF). Moreover,a combination of the type of SP and VMA is important because ofHPSCC workability. The workability of S1V2 and S2V1 is betterthan workability of S1 and S2. While, workability of S1V1 andS2V2 is similar to the workability of S1 and S2 (compare Tables18 and 19). The most beneficial to improve the workability is incase of HPSCC with SP2 and VMA3 (series S2V3). The most effectiveadmixture is VMA3, and then respectively VMA1 and VMA2 (com-pare Table 13).

The research results of the workability and air-content of HPSCCwith different type of AFA are summarized in Table 20. The analy-sis of the results shows that the type of AFA is important both interms of consistency and air content in HPSCC. The most beneficialeffect in this regard is characterized by AFA4 (compare Tables 18and 20). AFA4 causes the largest increase in diameter of the flowand reduce the air content in HPSCC. It should be noted thatS1A4 is HPSCC but not fluid concrete. Probably interactions be-tween SP1 and AFA4 are most beneficial to the workability ofHPSCC. AFA6 has the least positive influence in this regard. Onthe other hand, the addition of AFA5 does not contribute to areduction in time flow of HPSCC, as in case of AFA1, AFA3, AFA4and AFA6. The least effective in action is AFA6 (compare Table 14).

In Table 21, the research results of properties of HPSCC withAFA1, AFA2, AFA4 and VMA1, VMA2, VMA3 are summarized. Theanalysis of the results leads to the conclusion that the VMA causesvarious changes in HPSCC consistency, depending on both the AFAand VMA. The use of AFA3 with VMA2 is most suitable for work-ability and air content of HPSCC (compare Tables 20 and 21). Theleast favorable impact, as in case of S2V3 (Table 19), is character-ized by VMA3. S1A1V3 has a SF of 500 mm and a T500 of 9 s andin Table 22 concrete S2A1V3 has a SF of 500 mm and a T500 of10 s. These two last examples would not be classified as SCC.VMA3 (based on methylcellulose), increases the viscosity of non-air-entrained and air entrained SCC the most. VMA based on meth-ylcellulose is not recommended to obtain good workability ofHPSCC. Moreover, addition of VMA3 causes a significant increaseof the air content in HPSCC (compare Tables 20 and 21).

Test results of the properties of the air-entrained HPSCC aresummarized in Table 22. As shown in Table 9, AEA1 source was asynthetic AEA detergent, whereas AEA2 sources was saponified

acid resin, which utilize different mechanisms to entrain air, andthus react differently with the other mixture constituents (i.e. ce-ment, fly ash and admixtures) [26]. The analysis of the results sug-gests that the type of AEA is very important, because both of theconsistency and the effect of the air entrainment of HPSCC. Re-search results [1], showed that the air void characteristics pro-duced by the synthetic detergent AEA were more affected byincreasing slump flow than produced by the salt-type AEAs. Theair voids generated by salt-type AEAs are adhered to water-repel-lant precipitates (which are products of an immediate reaction be-tween the AEA and calcium ions in concrete), resulting in similarair void characteristics regardless of slump flow [1,38]. As the re-search results of SCC [12] have shown, the air entrainment ofHPSCC significantly reduces its diameter of flow. The flow time ofthe air-entrained HPSCC does not differ much from the flow timeof the not air-entrained HPSCC, regardless of the AEA (compare Ta-bles 18 and 22).

The research results in Table 17 show that VMA1 is about 2.5more efficient in action than VMA2. The test results of the proper-ties of the air-entrained HPSCC with different type of VMA aresummarized in Table 23. The results of the research carried outby Khayat [10], suggest an adverse effect of VMA on the air entrain-ment of concrete. The bubble-stabilizing capability of a syntheticdetergent AEA is highly dependent on the amount of admixturein the bulk liquid phase [15]. The research results (Table 23) indi-cate that VMA1 decreases intentionally the air-entrainment (as aresult of AEA1 and AEA2 acting) of the high performance self-com-pacting concrete mixture (compare Tables 22 and 23). The sameamount of AEA1 in case of S2A and S2AV1 was used (Tables 16and 17). VMA2 and VMA3 do not reduce the air entrainment ofHPSCC. On the contrary, VMA3 and VMA2 cause an increase inentrainment of HPSCC with AEA1. VMA2 does not cause significantchange in the air content of HPSCC with AEA2. In conclusion, theanalysis of the results in Table 23 shows that the type of AEAand VMA influences the air entrainment and consistency of HPSCC.

Lachemi et al. [27], indicted that the use of VMA leads to thereduction of the air content as a result of air-entraining admixtureaction in concrete, as it has been shown in Fig. 1. The results [28],seem to support this conclusion too. With an increased dosage ofVMA, more water was absorbed, providing less free water for theAEA to bond with water, resulting in a greater demand of AEA tosecure 6% air [28]. The analysis of the results indicates that VMA(regardless of the VMA type) influences the air content in freshHPSCC. VMA2 and VMA3 result in the decrease of the air-contentin HPSCC with SP1. A different situation is in case of VMA3. AddingVMA3 to the HPSCC with SP2 results in a significant increase in theair content in HPSCC due to the increase of plastic viscosity (in-crease in T500) and yield stress (decrease of SF).

Moreover, a combination of SP and VMA types is important be-cause of the HPSCC workability. The workability of S1V2 and S2V1is better than workability of S1 and S2. While, the workability ofS1V1 and S2V2 is similar to the workability of S1 and S2. The mostbeneficial to improve the workability is in case of SPSCC with SP2and VMA3 (series S2V3). The most effective admixture is VMA3,and then respectively VMA1 and VMA2.

Generally, the incorporation of a VMA can cause some delay insetting time because the VMA polymer chains can become ad-sorbed onto cement grains and interfere with the precipitation ofvarious minerals into solutions that influence the rate of hydrationand setting [29]. Author’s research results proved that VMA3(based on methylcellulose) adversely affect the setting time of ce-ment paste. HPSCC with VMA3 spent 24 h longer as compared toother types of VMA1 (based on synthetic copolymer) and VMA2(based on silica). In general, mixtures incorporating a cellulose-ether-type VMA can exhibit some delay in setting time, and thosemade with acrylic-type VMAs do not delay the setting time [30].

Fig. 1. Effect of VMA quantity on the air content of concrete [27]. A SP composed ofnaphthalene formaldehyde, VMA – polysaccharide-based admixture (suspension inwater).

Table 27The air-voids characteristics of non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of AFAand VMA.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S1A1V1 2.14 13.15 0.640 0.20S1A2V1 2.82 15.28 0.427 0.70S1A3V1 1.46 11.49 0.890 0.16S1A3V2 0.88 16.81 0.770 0.18S1A1V2 1.88 11.37 0.790 0.24S1A1V3 3.48 14.44 0.411 0.80


Table 28The air-voids characteristics of air-entrained HPSCC.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S2A1 6.37 31.02 0.16 4.54S2A2 8.18 28.63 0.16 3.85

S2A1 – SP2 + AEA1, S2A2 – SP2 + AEA2.

Table 29The air-voids characteristics of air-entrained HPSCC with different type of VMA.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S2A1V1 5.97 24.67 0.210 2.83S2A2V1 2.57 8.52 0.798 0.33S2A2V2 6.36 22.26 0.203 2.26S2 A1V2 6.10 32.01 0.170 4.26S2A1V3 7.17 26.11 0.164 4.26


It was found that the rheological properties of the pastes aremuch more sensitive to SPs than VMAs [31]. This has been inter-preted using the Krieger–Dougherty model for concentrated gran-ular suspensions. In fact, this model indicates that rheologicalproperties of the pastes would mainly depend upon the configura-tion of the granular skeleton and less on the fluid phase. The aboveresult can then be understood since VMAs mainly affect the aque-ous solution (by increasing it viscosity) while SPs can drasticallychange the granular phase configuration (dispersion of the flocs)[31].

4.2. The research results of hardened HPSCC

In Tables 24–29 and in Figs. 2–27, the air voids parameters re-search results are presented. The research results proved thatadmixture type is very important to the values of the HPSCC air-voids parameters.

Table 24The air-voids characteristics of non-air-entrained HPSCC.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S1 3.69 14.99 0.44 0.85S2 2.23 8.74 0.93 0.16


Table 25The air-voids characteristics of non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of VMA.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S1V1 2.53 18.03 0.430 0.87S2V1 2.66 11.21 0.670 0.36S1V2 1.36 14.52 0.720 0.09S2V2 1.68 10.23 0.920 0.15S2V3 2.18 19.27 0.379 0.75S1V3 3.00 9.51 0.667 0.37


Table 26The air-voids characteristics of non-air-entrained HPSCC with different type of AFA.

Symbol A (%) a (mm�1) L (mm) A300 (%)

S1 3.69 14.99 0.440 0.85S1A1 2.99 9.34 0.770 0.25S1A3 2.37 9.32 0.890 0.16S1A4 1.96 15.53 0.493 0.42S1A5 1.75 16.10 0.500 0.56S1A6 2.45 11.30 0.614 0.58



The analysis of the results summarized in Table 24 leads to theconclusion that the type of SP is very important because of theparameters values of the HPSCC air voids. The characteristics ofHPSCC porosity is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The air voids diametersdistribution in S2 also show the significance of the SP type impact.

SP1 increases the air content in HPSCC but less than that shownby the results of the research analyzed in the publication [12].With increasing water content in the mixture, SP increases theair-content in mixture more. As it has been shown in the studies[12], the ‘‘air-entraining’’ SP1 is more effective in action. On theother hand, the workability of HPSCC with, ‘‘non-air-entraining’’SP2 is better.

The molecules of SP should also modify the surface of solid par-ticles in order to keep its hydrophilic character. The air bubbles canadhere only to hydrophobic surfaces. The presence of listed func-tional groups (oxygen in the form of etheric group (–0–), hydroxylgroup (–OH) and carboxyl group) produce water surface tensiondecrease, producing flocculation of associated molecules and in-crease in moisture of not only grains of cement but also the wholemineral framework [32]. The results [33] proved that some type ofSP air-entrains the concrete mixture by reducing the surface ten-sion of the liquid phase in paste. However, in the SPs group thereare ones that show only dispersion functioning not decreasing sur-face tension. They are: hydrocarboxylen acid salts, sulphonic mel-amine-formaldehygenic resins and formaldehygenic picodensatssalts of beta-naphthalenesulphonic acid [34]. According to [6],the type of SP is crucial regarding the size and proportions of airpores participation, obtained as a result of its functioning, althoughthe time of hardening of concrete does make a difference to furtherchanges of these proportions. With the use of polycarboxylen SPs,air pores are characterized by diameters smaller than in case of

Fig. 2. The air voids diameters distribution in S1.

Fig. 3. The air voids diameters distribution in S2.

Fig. 4. The air voids diameters distribution in S1V.


pores formed as a result of the functioning of lingosulphonic ornaphthalene SPs.

Many studies have been carried out on the fluidizing mecha-nisms of these admixtures in cement paste, and some theorieshave been used to explain the mechanisms by which these admix-tures interact with cement particles, such as the DLVO Theory, theSteric Effect Theory, the Depletion Effect Theory and the TribologyEffect [35]. However, when systems contain blended ternary ce-ment in the presence of SP combined with VMA like the most for-mulations of SCC, it becomes more difficult to predict the evolutionof the systems and to explain the mechanisms of the resultinginteractions [36].

The research results of the air voids characteristics of HPSCCwith VMA1, VMA2, VMA3 are summarized in Table 25. The analy-sis of the results suggests that the type of VMA is very importantdue to the size of the air voids parameters of HPSCC. The type ofSP is also important because of the influence of VMA in this regard.The use of VMA leads to the reduction of the air content in concreteaccording to research results [8,10,27]. However, the research re-sults in Table 25 show that the parameters of the HPSCC air voidsare characterized by very different values, depending on what typeof SP and VMA was used. Comparing the porosity parameters ofHPSCC with SP1 and the different types of VMA (S1V1, S1V2 and

S1V3), it appears that the VMA2 causes the greatest reduction inthe air content in HPSCC (Fig. 6). VMA2 increases the size of theair voids spacing factor and decreases the content of voids smallerthan 300 lm (Table 25). VMA1 (based on synthetic copolymer)does not cause significant changes in parameters of the air voids,in addition to the total of their contents. VMA3 (based on methyl-cellulose) does not cause a significant reduction in the air contentof HPSCC. However, the research results summarized in Table 25and in Fig. 9 show that the pores are characterized by larger diam-eters (compare S1 and S1V3).

The addition of VMA to HPSCC with SP2 also changes theparameters of the air voids size, smaller or larger, depending onthe type of VMA. VMA3 (based on methylcellulose) causes thegreatest change in pore size (Fig. 8). Furthermore, the air voidsspacing factor is reduced almost three times. The specific surfaceof the voids is reduced more than doubled (compare S2 andS2V3, Table 25). The greatest reduction in porosity causes VMA2(based on silica), as in case of HPSCC with SP1 (Fig. 7).

The research results of the air-voids characteristics of HPSCCwith AFA1, AFA2 and AFA3 are shown in Table 26. The analysisof the results proves that the type of AFA is important because ofthe value of the parameters of the air voids in HPSCC. The mosteffective admixture in reducing the air content in HPSCC is AFA5,

Fig. 5. The air voids diameters distribution in S2V.

Fig. 6. The air voids diameters distribution in S1V2.




and the least efficient, AFA1 (compare Figs. 2, 10 and 13). Thegreatest increase in the air voids diameters is in case of HPSCC withAFA3 (compare Figs. 2 and 11 and Table 26).

Table 27 shows the research results of HPSCC porosity charac-teristics with AFA1, AFA2, AFA4 and VMA1, VMA2, VMA3. The anal-ysis of the results suggests that the type of AFA and VMA is

important because of the porosity of HPSCC. VMA1 and VMA2 de-crease the air voids content in HPSCC with AFA1, whereas VMA3increases the air voids content, especially with a diameter of0.5 mm (compare Tables 26 and 27, Figs. 19 and 20). VMA2 causesgreater reduction in porosity than VMA1 in case of HPSCC withAFA3 (Fig. 18, and Tables 26 and 27).


Fig. 10. The air voids diameters distribution in S1A1.




Both the AEA and polycarboxylate-ester SP1 and SP2 are surfac-tants, relying on adsorption to the cement particles to both stabi-lize air bubbles and to fluidize the cement paste [1]. Therefore,the increased dosage of SP at the higher slump flows competedwith the AEA for adsorption to the cement surface area, resultingin a poorer air void system [14]. Additionally, synthetic detergent

AEAs are influenced by increased fluidity due to their primary loca-tion at the air–water interface [15]. The results of the determina-tion of the air voids parameters of the air-entrained HPSCC aresummarized in Table 28. AEA2 has a smaller efficiency thanAEA1 (Table 16). While these air voids have been known to adsorbto cement particles, the analysis of the results in Table 28 shows



Fig. 15. The air voids diameters distribution in S1A1V1.



that the type of AEA is very important because of the air content inHPSCC. AEA1 source produced the smallest and most closelyspaced air voids, followed by AEA2 sources. Other parameters ofporosity of HPSCC with AEA 1 and AEA2 are similar. However,the air voids have a smaller diameter in case of HPSCC withAEA1 (compare Figs. 21 and 22). The bubbles created by AEA1source were more likely to coalesce than the bubbles produced

by salt-type AEAs [37]. Salt-type AEAs react immediately withthe ions in cement pastes, creating insoluble water-repellant pre-cipitates that, when caught in water–air interfaces, tend to remainpartially dry [37]. The salt-type AEAs tended to develop mid-sizebubbles, which are reflected in the moderate air void generatedcharacteristics. In contrast, synthetic detergents AEAs are pure sur-factants that are form a film at the air–water and air–water–ce-






ment interfaces and reduce the surface tension of water [37]. Thereduction of surface tension of water prevents the air voids fromcoalescing into larger air voids through the combined Gibbs–Marangoni effect, thus stabilizing them throughout the fresh con-crete [15].

The research results in Table 28 proved that higher air contentdoes not improve the air-void factor of concrete. This confirms theobservation by Plante, Pigeon and Foy that increased air content isnot necessarily representative of improved air void characteristics[17].






Increasing fluidity generally increased the required AEA dosage,other factors such as AEA type, and SP and VMA amount alsoplayed a role in determining AEA dosage. The common VMAs inconcrete include microbial polysaccharides (such as Welan gum),

cellulose derivatives (methyl cellulose), and acrylic polymers[39,40]. The mechanism of action in each case is different. SomeVMAs adsorb on cement particles and increase viscosity by pro-moting inter-particle attraction [22,27,41,42]. The VMAs can re-




Fig. 28. The relationships between the air-content in fresh and in hardened non-air-entrained HPSCC.


duce the ability of the air-entraining admixture (AEA) to create aproper air void system. Research results [10,27] proved that VMAinfluences the air-content in SCC. The research results [27] indi-cated that the air content seems to decrease with the increase ofVMA content in the SCC mixes. This suggests that the incorporationof VMA will probably need? greater additions of the air entrainingagents to secure a given air volume. The usage of admixtures such

as VMA and SP can reduce the ability of the air-entraining admix-ture (AEA) to create a proper air void system [14]. The other admix-tures can interfere with the ability of AEA to stabilize air voids inconcrete in a way in which they interact on a molecular level[14]. The research results of the porosity characteristics of theair-entrained HPSCC with VMA1, VMA2 and VMA3 are summa-rized in Table 29. The analysis of the results shows that VMA,

Fig. 29. The relationships between the air-content in fresh and in hardened air-entrained HPSCC.


depending on its type, is reducing or increasing the air content inHPSCC. The bubble-stabilizing capability of a synthetic detergentAEA is highly dependent on the amount of admixture in the bulkliquid phase [15]. VMA reduced the free water content, thus need-ing? increased amounts of the synthetic detergent AEA to entrainthe same amount of the air. VMA2 causes the smallest change inthe values of the air voids parameters of HPSCC with AEA1. Alsoin case of HPSCC with VMA2 and AEA2 the porosity parametersare similar to the air voids parameters of HPSCC without VMA2.VMA1 adversely affects the HPSCC air entrainment (Fig. 24).VMA3 causes an increase in the content of the air pores in HPSCC,while the remaining porosity parameters are not significantlychanged (Fig. 27). Therefore, from the viewpoint of the frost resis-tance of HPSCC, the use of VMA3 seems to be the most beneficial(compare Tables 28 and 29).

Many factors influence the air-voids stability in concrete [43].The relationships between the measurements of the total volumeof fresh and hardened air content was reported by severalresearchers. The comparison of data in Figs. 28 and 29 suggeststhat it is not possible to predict the air-content in non-air-en-trained HPSCC on the basis of the air-content in high performanceself-compacting concrete mixture. However, there are no signifi-cant differences between the air-content in fresh and in hardenedair-entrained HPSCC. It indicates that the air-content in non-air-entrained HPSCC is more unstable than the air entrainment fromthe AEA action.

5. Conclusions

In the range of investigation of the HPSCC, used admixtures andreceived research results it was indicated that the examinedadmixtures significantly affect the properties of fresh and hard-ened non-air-entrained and air-entrained HPSCC.

The research results of the admixtures influence the HPSCCproperties, proved that:

� The type of SP is very important because of the parameters sizeof HPSCC air pores. In case of HPSCC with ‘‘air-entraining’’ SP,the content of the air pores is higher only by 1.46%, but the spe-cific surface of the air voids, air voids spacing factor and contentof the air voids with diameters less than 300 lm are muchhigher.� The type of SP, VMA are important because of the workability of

the HPSCC. In addition, each of the analyzed admixtures has avery different efficiency in action. The VMA type also affectsvery significantly the content of the air in HPSCC. One type ofVMA reduces the air content in HPSCC, while another type ofVMA increases the air content in HPSCC. The type of VMA isvery important because of the parameters size of HPSCC airvoids. The influence of VMA also depends on the type of SP usedin HPSCC. The parameters of HPSCC air voids are characterizedby very different values, depending on what kind of SP and VMAwas used. Depending on the type of SP, the effect of the impactof the type of VMA is smaller or higher.

� The effects of modification by AFA of HPSCC depend on theirtype very significantly. The type of AFA impacts very signifi-cantly on the air content and workability of HPSCC. In case ofone AFA type, it is significant increase in diameter of flow whilereducing the air content in HPSCC. Other type of AFA does notimprove the workability and does not cause a significant reduc-tion in the air content in HPSCC. The type of AFA is also impor-tant because of the parameters values of the air voids of HPSCC.Depending on the type of AFA, the change of the size and con-tent of pores in HPSCC differs.� VMA, depending on the type of AFA and VMA, has more or less

beneficial effect on the air content in HPSCC. The use of one typeof VMA does not increase the air content in HPSCC with AFA.Another type of VMA significantly increases the air content inHPSCC with AFA. VMA affects the air content in HPSCC, alsodepends on the type of AFA. Depending on the type of VMAand AFA, a very different change in the characteristics of theair voids is observed. In one case, VMA does not change thecharacteristics of the porosity, in the second, significantlyaffects.� The type of AEA is very important due to the efficiency. The

analysis of the results shows that the type of AEA significantlyaffects the total air content in hardened HPSCC. Other parame-ters of HPSCC porosity, with different types of AEA, are similar.However, depending on AFA type, more or less frequently thereare the smallest air voids.� The effect of VMA on the air entrainment of HPSCC depends on

VMA type very significantly. One type of VMA reduces the air-entrainment of HPSCC. Another type of VMA contributes toincreasing the air-entrainment of HPSCC. Moreover, the impactof VMA air-entrainment also depends on the type of AEA. VMAcauses a reduction in the air-entrainment of HPSCC with sometypes of AEA. In case of other types of AEA, the same kind ofVMA does not adversely affect the HPSCC air-entrainment.The parameters values of the air voids also depend on the typeof AEA and VMA. Some types of VMA affect the values of the airvoids very adversely.

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The influence of admixtures type on the air-voids parameters of non-air-entrained and air-entrained...

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