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The influence of the campesino a campesino movement in Cuban
agriculture during the “special period”.
By Dirk Fleischheuer
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Definitions:
Agro-ecology:”The scientific basis of alternative agriculture, synonymous in some circles with
collective action on the eco-management of the natural resource base; common usage in Latin
America.”
Campesino: “Traditional, peasant, small-scale, autonomous farmer.”
(Wright, 2009)
Introduction
In this report I reflect on the effects the Campesino a Campesino (CAC) movement had on the Cuban
agriculture and overall economy during the period after 1990 and the role it played in relation to
that economy. The report is devided into sub-sections. To fully understand the impact the CAC
movement had on the transformation of Cuban agriculture it is important to be aware of the special
circumstances Cuba faced during the time of the intervention. Likewise it is equally important to
understand the difference between the agro-ecological method of farming advocated by the CAC
promoters and the methods of the industrialized agriculture that had previously dominated Cuban
agriculture. I talk about these issues in section 1 and 2 respectively. Section 3 talks about the
measurable impacts on Cuban agricultural economy, while section 4 and 5 reflect more on the
“special” case Cuba. In section 6 I talk about the possible future developments in Cuban agriculture.
The moviemento Campesino a Campesino.
One of the key characteristics of the CAC’s movement is its focus on sustainable agricultural
development. Which according to Holt-Giménez can be defined as a method that: “…meets the
needs of present generations without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their
needs…” This concept emerged as an answer to the green revolution development methods which
failed to solve the problem of rural poverty in Latin America during the 1960’s and 1970’s. At the
same it time caused severe damage to the rural ecosystems through the use of heavy machinery,
agrochemicals and irrigation. As an alternative to these methods various international NGO’s
developed projects for sustainable agriculture in Mesoamerica during the 1970’s and 80’s. These
projects were carried out on village level and the agricultural techniques introduced to the small-
hold farmers were then put into practice. Over time these smallholders developed a strategy of a
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low-risk, modern/ traditional mix of alternative techniques to improve the agro-ecological resilience
and productivity of their farming. In so called intercambios de campesino a campesino (farmer to
famer meetings) the knowledge gained by the smallholders was then shared and collected and over
time developed into complex agro-ecological farming styles. (Holt- Giménez, 2006) It is this sharing
and developing of knowledge between the campesinos that is arguably another defining key
characteristic of the CAC movement.
Cuba and the beginning of the “special period”
After the Cuban revolution of 1959 the relationship between Cuba and the United States of America
deteriorated rapidly and culminated in the cessation of all diplomatic contacts and the imposition of
an almost total economic embargo in 1961. Even though trade between Cuba and other countries
continued, the value of trade from Latin American countries with Cuba dropped from $84 million in
1958 to about one million in the late 1960’s. During this time Cuba became almost totally dependent
on the Soviet Union. (Shkolnick, 2012) In 1988 Cuba imported 83.8% of its total imports from the
socialistic block countries of Eastern Europe while exporting 81.7% of its total exports to the same
countries. The agricultural dependency on the main export crops of tobacco, sugar and citrus was
significant and 50% of the agricultural land of Cuba was covered by the three crops. These
monocultures were characterized by a method of high external inputs of agrochemicals and large
scale mechanized production. In return Cuba received favourable terms for the import of petroleum,
machinery and raw materials. Of the Cuban protein requirements 57% were imported and over 50%
of meats, dairy products, edible oil, herbicides, fertilizers, feed concentrates for livestock were
imported as well. (Gliessman & Rosemeyer, 2010) While this model of agriculture and trade
provided food security to the Cuban population it did not provide food sovereignty. In 1989 the
socialistic block of Eastern Europe collapsed which led to a loss of 85% of Cuban trade relations and
now the country was neither capable of importing sufficient food, nor able to import the necessary
inputs (fertilizers etc.) to produce food under the old production methods. The Cuban government
declared the “special period”, an economic policy based on war-time austerity measures,
implemented in peace time. Part of these measures was the break- up of large state-owned farms
into Basic Units of Cooperative Production (UBPCs) in order to speed up the adoption of new low
external input practices. (Rosset et al, 2011) This was based on the recognition that production on a
smaller scale was more efficient and led to the incorporation of approximately 150.000 workers into
the UBPCs. (Gliessman & Rosemeyer, 2010) However, this transition produced mixed results as the
former state employed farmers were slow to adapt to the new requirements. Therefore the more
important changes took place at the small-hold farmer level itself. Practically all campesinos of Cuba
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belong to one of two types of cooperatives, either to the Credit & Service Coops (CCSs), or to the
Agriculture Production Coops (CPAs). The CCS’s are made up of campesino families. They own their
farms and work the land individually, but through the Coop membership they can act as a group if it
comes to obtaining credit, marketing of their produce, the combined use of farm machineries and
the achievement of economics of scale. The CPAs are collective farms where all assets including land
and machinery are owned collectively. Almost all Cuban farmers whether CCS or CPA members
belong to the National Association of Small Farmers the ANAP. (Rosset et al, 2011) During the crisis
those small-hold farmers were less affected because they engaged in a more diversified agriculture
which was more locally orientated and less dependent on external inputs. (Gliessman & Rosemeyer,
2010) It was to those farmers the ANAP turned in order to meet the immediate demand for food
with traditional methods of production. They needed campesinos who still remembered how to
plough with animal traction and how to use the manure as fertilizer. It was the first step in the
transformation of Cuban agriculture. (Holt-Giménez, 2006)
The campesino a campesino movement comes to Cuba
In 1995 the first agricultural workshop in Cuba was held. In the middle of the “special period” a team
of three promoters gave a workshop on water and soil conservation which was attended by 12
farmers. Two of these farmers put the methods they had been taught into practice and in August of
1996 they passed on their experiences to their neighbours in the first Cuban campesino a campesino
workshop. With the help of the ANAP and the German NGO Bread For The World the workshops
were extended to all Cuban municipalities and within a year 600 farmers were trained in the new
methods. (Holt-Giménez, 2006) The results were a better connection of the people with the land and
higher incomes because the quality of the work had improved. (Rosset et al, 2011) Particular success
was achieved with livestock. During the period from 1995 to 2000 the livestock under campesino
management increased while livestock managed by state and UBPC farms could not recover. In 2006
the campesino sector of Cuba owned over 43% of Cuban livestock while only owning 13% of the
land. (Gliessman & Rosemeyer, 2010)
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Eight years after its introduction the Cuban campesino a campesino movement had grown to over
100,000 participating smallholders. (Holt-Giménez, 2006) Even though the data to prove cause and
effect is not available, as neither the Ministry for Agriculture nor the ANAP maintains such data, the
data shown in Figure 1. seems to reflect the connection between the CAC movement and its new
methods of production and the increase in total production. (Rosset et al, 2011)
Figure 1. Total production from the Cuban campesino sector between 1988 and 2009. The
production in 2008 was affected by three hurricanes. Source: Rosset et al, 2011
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Figure 2.compares the percent contribution the campesino sector had in farmland and its total
national contribution to the production of key food crops in 1989 and 2008. In all crop categories the
numbers of production improved significantly and to a much bigger proportion than the increase in
farmland cultivated by campesinos would suggest. (Rosset et al, 2011)
Based on the above statistics it can be said that the Cuban campesinos were an important link in
preserving livestock and traditional crop varieties which, from a local perspective, are extremely
important for a sustainable agriculture. (Gliessman & Rosemeyer, 2010)
If we look at the numbers relating to the food production by campesinos and the use of
agrochemicals we also gain some useful insight into the benefits of the new methods of production.
The production numbers of vegetables (a typical campesino crop) for example declined in the period
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from 1988 to 1994 by 65%. In 2007 those numbers had climbed back to 145% of the 1988 levels,
despite a reduction of agro chemical usage of 72% compared to 1988 levels. Other campesino crops
like beans or roots and tubers showed similar patterns. This is in stark contrast to sugar cane (not a
campesino crop) were yields fell by 28% compared with 1988 levels even though the reduction in
agro chemical inputs was only 5%, which is practically insignificant. (Rosset et al, 2011)
See Figure 3. for details. (Source: Sosa et al, 2013)
Note: All data in comparison to 1988 data.
The overall participation rate of campesinos which used new, organic methods of fertilization and
pest control was for some techniques as high as 95%.
See figures 4 and 5 for details.
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Figure 4 shows to which extent surveyed farmers in Cuba used organic inputs and techniques to
improve soil fertility.
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Figure 5 shows to which extent farmers used organic inputs and techniques to control pest and
diseases.
Source: Wright, 2009
Other methods promoted by the CAC movement were the increased use of animal traction. While at
the end of the 1980’s the number of tractors in Cuba was around 90,000 the number of operational
tractors soon dropped significantly due to a lack of fuel, missing parts and maintenance. That’s why
about 300,000 oxen teams were trained reducing the dependency on fossil fuels, improving the
mechanical control of weeds and thereby substituting herbicides. To further improve soil fertility and
control pests more effectively crop rotations and polycultures were developed. This led to an
increase in the yields of important crops such as cassava or beans. (Gliessma n & Rosemeyer, 2010)
One of the reasons for such improved yield in polycultures is that insects which are harmful to one
crop are fought off by insects attracted by the other crop. (Patel, 2007)
Another positive side effect of campesino farming is its improved adaptability to climate change and
better resilience to extreme climate events. Agro-ecological CAC farms in Cuba suffered less
hurricane damage in 1998 than farms practicing more conventional methods of farming. The CAC
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farms suffered less erosion, landslides and fewer plants knocked down, the latter due to a more
multi-storied farming system where only the tallest plants were knocked down and where the lower
story crops quickly benefited from the added sunlight. Further to that a lot of trees blown over were
quickly stood up again by the campesino families. (Rosset et al, 2011)
The role of the ANAP
The initial role of the ANAP in Cuban agriculture was that of a supporter of the revolution and
promoter of peasant integration into Cuban society. In 2001 it took on the role of a promoter of the
strategic nationwide implementation of agro-ecology. The ANAP is the only organisation of Cuban
campesinos and it reaches into the most remote corners of the island of Cuba. It is able to mobilise
and guide farmers through its network and has great educational influence. (Sosa et al, 2013) The
political mass-mobilisation methodology of the ANAP made it possible that every cadre and militant
of the organisation could be held responsible for the promotion and facilitation of the movement in
their respective area. By 2003 the agro-ecological Campesino a Campesino movement had spread to
all Cuban provinces. (Rosset et al, 2011)
Why is Cuba a special case?
The scaling up of sustainable agriculture on a state-wide basis is mainly a political project that will
require the collaboration of the farmers and the countries institutions like its government ministries,
markets, banks and other social institutions. (Holt-Giménez, 2006) In socialist Cuba in the 1990’s
such collaboration was arguably easier to achieve than for example in Venezuela in the early 2000’s.
As Linton Page argues the Venezuelan state failed, for some time to increase participation in a
repeasantization process because people had to shift from a capitalist way of thinking to a more
socialist way. Neither was Venezuela under a trade embargo and did therefore not face hunger and
food shortages as Cuba did. (Linton Page, 2010) It can therefore be argued that the political
influence on the movement in Cuba was a significant factor in its huge success, even though the
campesino a campesino movement was successful elsewhere as well – as is well documented.
It is also interesting that, after the initial crisis, the Cuban economy did much better than other post-
Soviet economies. This might have only been possible due to the political system in Cuba that was in
a position to administer the dramatic decline of living standards in the early 90’s without being
subjected to political unrest or protests. (Hoffmann and Whitehead, 2006)
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The future of Cuban agriculture
Despite the success of the campesino a campesino movement Cuba is still a country dependent on
food imports. Increased food production through locally available resources is officially promoted to
reduce this dependency. However it seems that in reality the focus is on the promotion of industrial-
agriculture schemes instead of local peasant production. This return to conventional agriculture
suggests that agro-ecological production methods are, at least by some decision makers, only
viewed as “alternatives” during times of scarcity. It is estimated that Cuba has approximately 7
million hectares of land suitable for crop production. If this land would be farmed with diversified
agro-ecological methods, this would be sufficient to make Cuba not only food self-sufficient, but also
turn it into a food exporting nation. (Alteni and Funes-Monzote, 2012) One potential market for
Cuban products could be the United States (once the embargo is lifted) with its demand for natural,
organic products. Renewed trade with the U.S. would also reduce the costs for imports, as the U.S. is
Cuba’s closest neighbour. (Shkolnick, 2012) A return to industrial agriculture or a possible
involvement with genetically modified crop products, as alleged by Alteni and Funes, seems
therefore a rather short sighted and paradoxical approach.
Conclusion
The campesino a campesino movement of Latin-America is as much about agro-ecological farming as
it is a social movement and about the escape from old power structures and poverty. In this respect
Cuba is a somewhat different case. The Cuban government identified the small-hold farmers as a
vital tool in the combating of a threatening famine. By drawing on the knowledge of the campesinos
the economic crisis could be mitigated and the agriculture of the country could be adapted to the
new realities. The turn towards more ecologically sustainable methods of production was borne out
of necessity rather than conviction. It proved however that organic agriculture can be viable on a big
scale and that it can be sufficient to feed a whole country. It is highly questionable if this could have
been achieved without the centralised structure of the Cuban political system and the vital role the
ANAP played in implementing, monitoring and evaluating the reforms. The interventions in
agricultural policies during the special period turned a potential catastrophe into a success story for
the supporters of agro-ecological farming and also consolidated a socialist regime during a time
when other socialist regimes around the world collapsed. One should not forget however, that at the
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root of the success were the peasant farmers with their abilities, knowledge and a will to produce
food.
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