276 Jefferson Era 1800–1816 Why It Matters In 1801 the Democratic-Republican Party took control of the nation’s government. The Federalists—the party of Alexander Hamilton and John Adams—were now on the sidelines and played the role of critics to the Republican administration. The Impact Today Politicians today operate within the party system that took shape at that time. • While the two main parties have changed, each still works to win votes and gain power. • If the people vote to change the party in power, the newly elected representatives take office peacefully and the government continues. The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 9 video, “The True Story of Sacagawea,” tells the story of the Shoshone woman who helped guide the Lewis and Clark expedition. 1803 • Supreme Court establishes judicial review 1804 • Lewis and Clark begin expedition 1807 • Congress passes Embargo Act 1804 • Napoleon names himself emperor of France 1808 • Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony performed Jefferson 1801–1809 The CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era 1800 1804 1808
Transcript
276
Jefferson Era 1800–1816
Why It MattersIn 1801 the Democratic-Republican Party took control of the nation’s government.
The Federalists—the party of Alexander Hamilton and John Adams—were now on the sidelines and played the role of critics to the Republican administration.
The Impact Today Politicians today operate within the party system that took shape at that time.
• While the two main parties have changed, each still works to win votes and gain power. • If the people vote to change the party in power, the newly elected representatives take
office peacefully and the government continues.
The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 9 video, “The TrueStory of Sacagawea,” tells the story of the Shoshone woman who helped guide theLewis and Clark expedition.
1803• Supreme Court
establishes judicialreview
1804• Lewis and Clark
begin expedition
1807• Congress passes
Embargo Act
1804• Napoleon names
himself emperorof France
1808• Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony performed
Jefferson1801–1809
The
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
1800 1804 1808
277
1812• U.S. declares
war on Britain
1815• Battle of
New Orleans
1814• Congress of
Vienna meets
1815• Napoleon
defeated atWaterloo
HISTORY
Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 9—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.
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Battle of North Point by Don Troiani American soldiers battledBritish forces advancing on Baltimore.
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
1812 1816
1811• Battle of
Tippecanoe
1812• Napoleon
invades Russia
Madison1809–1817
Jeff
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Polic
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Jeff
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& Co
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12
Fold it so the leftedge lies about inch from the
right edge.
Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half from sideto side.
Step 2 Turn the paper and fold it into thirds.
Step 3 Unfold and cut the top layer only alongboth folds. Then cut each of the three tabs in half.
Step 4 Label your foldable as shown.
This will makesix tabs.
Organizing Information Study FoldableMake this foldable to organize information and sequence events about the Jefferson era into a flowchart.
Reading and Writing As you read, select keyfacts about the events of the Jefferson era andwrite them under the tabs of your foldable.
1800Thomas Jefferson and JohnAdams contend for presidency
1801Judiciary Act expandscourt system
March 1801Jefferson is inaugurated
1803Marbury v. Madison setsprecedent for judicial review
The RepublicansTake Power
In 1801 Washington, D.C., was slowly rising from a swampy site on the PotomacRiver. The nation’s new capital had only two noteworthy buildings—the president’smansion (later called the White House) and the still-unfinished Capitol. Between themstretched about two miles of muddy streets on which pigs and chickens roamed freely.
Very few people liked being in Washington. It was hot and steamy in the summer,and the river and swamps were a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Abigail Adamscalled the new capital “the very dirtiest Hole.”
The Election of 1800The Federalist and Republican parties fought a bitter election campaign in
1800. Federalists supported President Adams for a second term and CharlesPinckney of South Carolina for vice president. Republicans nominated ThomasJefferson for president and Aaron Burr of New York as his running mate.
The election campaign of 1800 differed greatly from campaigns of today. Nei-ther Adams nor Jefferson traveled around the country making speeches about
Abigail Adams in theunfinished White House
278 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
✦ 1800 ✦ 1801 ✦ 1802 ✦ 1803
Main IdeaThe election of 1800 marked thetransfer of power from one politicalparty to another through a demo-cratic election.
Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, use a diagram like theone shown here to identify waysRepublicans tried to reduce the roleof government.
Read to Learn• how the election deadlock of 1800
was resolved.• how John Marshall strengthened
the Supreme Court.
Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Jeffer-son believed that a large federal gov-ernment threatened liberty.
Ways the Republicansreduced government
“All my wishes end,where I hope my days will end, at Monticello.”—Thomas Jefferson
America’s Architecture
Monticello Thomas Jefferson had many talents,including being a skilled architect. He designed buildingsat the University of Virginia and his home at Monticello.Construction on Monticello began in 1769, following Jef-ferson’s first design. Remodeling and enlarging the housebegan in 1796 and was completed by 1809.
why he should be elected. That would havebeen considered in bad taste. Instead the candi-dates and their allies wrote hundreds of lettersto leading citizens and friendly newspapers topublicize their views. The letter-writing cam-paign, however, was not polite.
Federalists charged the Republican Jefferson,who believed in freedom of religion, as being“godless.” Republicans warned that the Federal-ists would bring back monarchy. Federalists,they claimed, represented the interests ofwealthy people with property.
Election DeadlockWhen members of the Electoral College voted,
Jefferson and Burr each received 73 votes.Because of this tie, the House of Representativeshad to decide the election. At the time the electorsvoted for each presidential and vice-presidentialcandidate individually rather than voting for aparty’s candidates as a team.
In the House, Federalists saw a chance to pre-vent the election of Jefferson by supporting Burr.For 35 ballots, the election remained tied. Finally,at Alexander Hamilton’s urging, one Federalistdecided not to vote for Burr. Jefferson becamepresident, and Burr became vice president.
To prevent another showdown between apresidential and a vice-presidential candidate,Congress passed the Twelfth Amendment to theConstitution in 1803. This amendment, ratifiedin 1804, requires electors to vote for the presi-dent and vice president on separate ballots. ;(See page 246 for the entire text of the Twelfth Amendment.)
Jefferson’s InaugurationOn March 4, 1801, the day of the inaugura-
tion, Jefferson dressed in everyday clothes. Heleft his boardinghouse and walked to the Senateto be sworn in as president. President Adamsdid not attend the ceremony. He had slipped outof the presidential mansion and left the city sohe would not have to watch Thomas Jeffersonbecome president.
In his Inaugural Address, Jefferson tried tobridge the gap between the developing politicalparties and reach out to Federalists with healingwords. “We are all Republicans, we are all Feder-alists,” he said. Then he outlined some of hisgoals, which included “a wise and frugal govern-ment” and “the support of state governments inall their rights.” Jefferson had long been a sup-porter of states’ rights. He believed that a largefederal government threatened liberty and thatvigilant states could best protect freedom.
Jefferson believed in reducing the power andsize of the federal government. These ideas weresimilar to the French philosophy of laissez-faire (leh•say FEHR), which means “let (people)do (as they choose).”
Describing What does the TwelfthAmendment to the Constitution require?
Jefferson’s PoliciesThomas Jefferson had strong ideas about how
to make the United States a success. He believedthat the strength of the United States was its inde-pendent farmers. As long as most people ownedtheir own property, they would fight to protecttheir rights and to preserve the republic. For thisreason, Jefferson favored expanding the nationwestward to acquire more land. He also believedthe federal government should be kept small. Hedistrusted standing armies and wanted to reducethe size of the military.
280 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
The United States government moved to the newcapital city of Washington, D.C., in 1800. Beinglocated along the Potomac River, Washington wasexpected to emerge as a great trading city. How-ever, growth was so slow that many thought thegovernment should move to a larger city.
Instead of trade, the driving force of thecity’s economy has become the federalgovernment.
The Nation’s Capital,Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., today
Washington, D.C., in 1803
Jefferson’s CabinetWhen Jefferson entered office, he surrounded
himself with men who shared his Republicanprinciples. His secretary of state was his friendand fellow Virginian, James Madison. For secre-tary of the treasury, he chose Albert Gallatin.This Pennsylvanian had a grasp of financialmatters that equaled Alexander Hamilton’s.
The new government soon ended two unpop-ular Federalist measures. It allowed the Alienand Sedition acts to expire and repealed the Nat-uralization Act. For Republicans both acts weresymbols of a federal government that threat-ened individual liberties.
Cutting CostsJefferson and Gallatin aimed to reduce the
national debt that the Federalists had left. Theyscaled down military expenses. They cut thearmy by one-third and reduced the navy from25 to 7 ships. By slashing spending Jefferson andGallatin significantly lowered the national debtwithin a few years.
Jefferson and Gallatin also persuaded Con-gress to repeal all federal internal taxes, includ-ing the hated whiskey tax. At that pointgovernment funds would come only from customs duties—taxes on foreign importedgoods—and from the sale of western lands.
The entire federal government in 1801 con-sisted of only a few hundred people. This wasexactly how Jefferson thought it should be. Inhis view the responsibilities of the national gov-ernment should be limited to delivering themail, collecting customs duties, and conductinga census every 10 years.
Explaining How did the changesthat Jefferson made when he became president reflect hisviews about government?
Jefferson and the CourtsJefferson hoped that some Federalists would
support his policies. However, bitter feelingsbetween the parties continued during hisadministration. Much of the ill will resultedfrom a fight over control of the federal courts.
Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph
in which you explain the terms laissez-faire, customs duties,and judicial review.
2. Reviewing Facts Explain how Jeffer-son cut government spending.
Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy How
did the judicial branch under Jeffer-son serve as a check on the executiveand legislative branches?
Critical Thinking4. Identifying Central Issues How was
the deadlock in the presidential elec-tion of 1800 finally resolved?
5. Determining Cause and EffectRe-create the diagram below. In theboxes list the effects that came fromthe appointment of the “midnightjudges.”
Analyzing Visuals6. Analyzing Architecture Examine the
photograph of Monticello on page279. Who lived there? What do youthink gives Monticello its uniquelook? Explain.
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era 281
Expository Writing A letter of rec-ommendation is written to discussthe positive qualities of a person.Write a letter from John Adams toThomas Jefferson about John Mar-shall. Address Marshall’s skills andleadership qualities.
Judiciary Act of 1801Before Jefferson took
office, the Federalistspassed the Judiciary Actof 1801. The act set upregional courts for theUnited States with 16judges and many otherjudicial officials. In his
last days as president, John Adams made hun-dreds of appointments to these positions, andthe Federalist-controlled Congress approvedthem. Adams also asked John Marshall, his sec-retary of state, to serve as chief justice of theUnited States. By these actions Adams shut President-elect Jefferson out of the appointmentprocess and ensured that Federalists would con-trol the courts.
Adams and Marshall worked around theclock in the final hours of the Federalist govern-ment, processing the papers for these judicialappointments. The appointments could not takeeffect, however, until the papers (commissions)for these last-minute “midnight judges” weredelivered. When Jefferson became president onMarch 4, a few of the commissions had not yetbeen delivered. He told Secretary of State Madi-son not to deliver them. One commission wasaddressed to William Marbury.
Adamsappointsjudges
HISTORY
Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 9—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the his-tory of the Supreme Court.
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Marbury v. MadisonTo force the delivery of his commission, Mar-
bury took his case directly to the Supreme Court,which he claimed had jurisdiction as a result ofthe Judiciary Act of 1789. John Marshall wrote anopinion turning down Marbury’s claim. Henoted that the Constitution did not give theCourt jurisdiction to decide Marbury’s case.
In his opinion, Marshall set out three princi-ples of judicial review: (a) The Constitution isthe supreme law of the land. (b) When there is aconflict between the Constitution and any otherlaw, the Constitution must be followed. (c) Thejudicial branch has a duty to uphold the Consti-tution. It must be able to determine when a fed-eral law conflicts with the Constitution and tonullify, or cancel, unconstitutional laws.
Marshall not only extended the power of theCourt, he also broadened federal power at theexpense of the states. In McCulloch v. Maryland(1819), the Court held that the elastic clauseallows Congress to do more than the Constitu-tion expressly authorizes it to do. In Gibbons v.Ogden (1824) the Court held that federal lawtakes precedence over state law in interstatetransportation. ; (See the Supreme Court Case Summaries
beginning on page 624 for more on these cases.)
Summarizing Summarize the courtcase that established judicial review.
Why did Americans risk everything they had to travel west? An English visitor, Harriet Martineau, observed: “The pride and delight of Americans is intheir quantity of land. . . . The possession of land is the aim of all action . . .and the cure for all social evils. . . . If a man is disappointed in politics or love,he goes and buys land. If he disgraces himself, he betakes himself to a lot inthe West. . . .”
Western TerritoryDuring the early 1800s, more and more Americans moved west in search of
land and adventure. These pioneers headed over the mountains into Kentuckyand Tennessee and the less settled areas of the Northwest Territory. Most ofthese pioneers were farmers. They made a long and exhausting journey over theAppalachian Mountains. Pioneers had to trudge along crude, muddy roads orcut their way through dense forests.
282 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Conestoga wagon
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
✦ 1804 ✦ 1805 ✦ 1806 ✦ 1807
October 1803Senate ratifies LouisianaPurchase treaty
May 1804Lewis and Clark begin expedition
Main IdeaThe Louisiana Purchase opened a vastarea to exploration and settlement.
Key TermsConestoga wagon, secede
Reading StrategyClassifying Information As youread, re-create the diagram belowand describe the areas that Lewis andClark, and Zebulon Pike explored.
Read to Learn• how the United States expanded in
the early 1800s.• how Lewis and Clark led an expedi-
tion to explore the Louisiana Territory.
Section ThemeGeography and History The purchase of the Louisiana Territorydoubled the nation’s size.
Explorer Region explored
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark
Zebulon Pike
283CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Settlers loaded their household goods into Conestoga wagons, sturdy vehicles topped withwhite canvas. For these westward-bound pio-neers, their two most valued possessions were arifle for protection and hunting and an ax tohack their way through the dense forests.
In 1800 the territory of the United Statesextended only as far west as the MississippiRiver. The area to the west of the river—knownas the Louisiana Territory—belonged to Spain.It was an enormous area of land, anchored to thesouth by the city of New Orleans and extendingwest to the Rocky Mountains. Its northernboundaries remained undefined.
Many of the pioneers settled down and estab-lished farms along rivers that fed into the upperMississippi River. They needed the river to shiptheir crops to markets. The Spanish allowed theAmericans to sail on the lower Mississippi andtrade in New Orleans. For the western farmers,this right was vital. The goods they sent down-river were unloaded in New Orleans and sentby ship to markets on the East Coast.
The French ThreatIn 1802 the Spanish suddenly changed their
policy. They refused to allow American goods to move into or past New Orleans. That sameyear, President Jefferson confirmed that Spain and France had made a secret agreement thattransferred the Louisiana Territory to France.
This agreement posed a serious threat for the United States. France’s leader, NapoleonBonaparte, had plans for empires in Europe and the Americas. Jefferson was alarmed. Hebelieved French control would jeopardizeAmerican trade on the Mississippi River. Jeffer-son authorized Robert Livingston, the new min-ister to France, to offer as much as $10 millionfor New Orleans and West Florida in order togain control of the territory. Jefferson believedthat France had gained Florida as well asLouisiana in its secret agreement with Spain.
Revolt in Santo DomingoNapoleon had recognized the importance of
Santo Domingo as a Caribbean naval base fromwhich he could control an American empire.Events in Santo Domingo ended Napoleon’s
dream of a Western empire. Inspired by the ideasof the French Revolution, enslaved Africans andother laborers in Santo Domingo had revoltedagainst the island’s plantation owners. After fierceand bitter fighting, the rebels, led by Toussaint-Louverture (TOO•SA LOO•vuhr•TYUR), declaredthe colony an independent republic. Toussaint setup a new government.
In 1802 Napoleon sent troops to regain control. The French captured Toussaint butcould not regain control of the island. By 1804,the French were driven out of Santo Domingoand the country regained its original name of Haiti.
Explaining Why was the MississippiRiver important to western farmers?
The Nation ExpandsWithout Santo Domingo, Napoleon had little
use for Louisiana. The French also neededmoney to finance Napoleon’s plans for waragainst Britain. The French believed they hadsomething to sell that the United States mightwant to buy.
French foreign minister Charles de Talleyrandinformed the American diplomats that the entireLouisiana Territory was for sale. Livingston andJames Monroe, Jefferson’s new special represen-tative, were taken completely by surprise.Accepting the offer went far beyond what theywere authorized to do, but the deal was toogood to pass up. After a few days of negotiation,the parties agreed on a price of $15 million.
The Louisiana Purchase pleased Jefferson.The new territory would provide cheap andabundant land for farmers for generations tocome. He worried, however, whether the pur-chase was legal. The Constitution said nothingabout acquiring new territory. By what author-ity could he justify the purchase? Livingstonwrote from Paris, urging Jefferson to accept thedeal before Napoleon changed his mind. Jeffer-son decided the government’s treaty-makingpowers allowed the purchase of the new terri-tory. The Senate gave its approval in October1803. With the ratification of the treaty, the sizeof the United States doubled.
284 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
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men of mixed Native American and French her-itage served as interpreters. An African Americannamed York rounded out the group.
The expedition left St. Louis in the spring of1804 and slowly worked its way up the Mis-souri River. Lewis and Clark kept a journal of theirvoyage and made notes on what they saw and did.
Along their journey they encountered NativeAmerican groups. One young Shoshone womannamed Sacagawea (SA•kuh•juh•WEE•uh)joined their group as a guide. After 18 monthsand nearly 4,000 miles, Lewis and Clark reachedthe Pacific Ocean. After spending the winterthere, both explorers headed back east alongseparate routes.
Lewis and Clark
Return trip
Pike
Fort
The Louisiana Purchase and Western Exploration
GeographyLewis and Clark
Jefferson wanted to know more about themysterious lands west of the Mississippi. Evenbefore the Louisiana Purchase was complete, hepersuaded Congress to sponsor an expedition toexplore the new territory. Jefferson was particu-larly interested in the expedition as a scientificventure. Congress was interested in commercialpossibilities and in sites for future forts.
To head the expedition, Jefferson chose his pri-vate secretary, 28-year-old Meriwether Lewis.Lewis was well qualified to lead this journey ofexploration. He had joined the militia during theWhiskey Rebellion and had been in the armysince that time. The expedition’s co-leader wasWilliam Clark, 32, a friend of Lewis’s from mili-tary service. Both Lewis and Clark were knowl-edgeable amateur scientists and had conductedbusiness with Native Americans. Together theyassembled a crew that included expert river men,gunsmiths, carpenters, scouts, and a cook. Two
The purchase of the Louisiana Territory doubled the size of theUnited States. Americans quickly set out to explore the regionand lands farther west.1. Place What geographical barrier did Lewis and Clark
have to cross in order to reach the Pacific Ocean?2. Region What rivers flowed through the Louisiana
Territory?
Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph
in which you describe the terms Conestoga wagon and secede.
2. Reviewing Facts What Europeancountries controlled the Louisiana Territory up until 1800?
Reviewing Themes3. Geography and History Why were
the Mississippi River and NewOrleans important to the UnitedStates?
Critical Thinking4. Determining Cause and Effect How
do you think the Lewis and Clarkexpedition helped to prepare peoplewho wanted to move west?
5. Organizing Information Create adiagram like the one below that liststhe benefits of acquiring theLouisiana Territory in 1803.
Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Review the map
on page 284. What was the farthestwestern point that the Lewis andClark expedition reached? What isthe straight-line distance between St. Louis and Pikes Peak?
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era 285
Descriptive Writing Accuratedescriptions and drawings in theirjournals made Lewis and Clark’sobservations valuable. Find anexample of plants or animalsnearby. Carefully draw anddescribe what you see.
Benefits
When the expedition returned in September1806, it had collected valuable information onpeople, plants, animals, and the geography ofthe West. Perhaps most important, the journeyprovided inspiration to a nation of people eagerto move westward.
Pike’s ExpeditionEven before Lewis and Clark returned, Jeffer-
son sent others to explore the wilderness. Lieu-tenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditionsbetween 1805 and 1807, traveling through theupper Mississippi River valley and into theregion that is now the state of Colorado. In Col-orado he found a snow-capped mountain hecalled Grand Peak. Today this mountain isknown as Pikes Peak. During his expeditionPike was captured by the Spanish but was even-tually released.
Federalists Plan to SecedeMany Federalists opposed the Louisiana
Purchase. They feared that the states carvedout of the new territory would become Repub-lican, reducing the Federalists’ power. A groupof Federalists in Massachusetts plotted tosecede—withdraw—from the Union. Theywanted New England to form a separate“Northern Confederacy.”
The plotters realized that to have any chance ofsuccess, the Northern Confederacy would haveto include New York as well as New England.The Massachusetts Federalists needed a powerfulfriend in that state who would back their plan.They turned to Aaron Burr, who had been castaside by the Republicans for his refusal to with-draw from the 1800 election. The Federalists gaveBurr their support in 1804, when he ran for gov-ernor of New York.
Burr and HamiltonAlexander Hamilton had never trusted Aaron
Burr. Now Hamilton was concerned aboutrumors that Burr had secretly agreed to leadNew York out of the Union. Hamilton accusedBurr of plotting treason. When Burr lost the elec-tion for governor, he blamed Hamilton and chal-lenged him to a duel. In July 1804, the twomen—armed with pistols—met in Weehawken,New Jersey. Hamilton hated dueling and pledgednot to shoot at his rival. Burr, however, did fireand aimed to hit Hamilton. Seriously wounded,Hamilton died the next day. Burr fled to avoidarrest.
Summarizing Why did France sellthe Louisiana Territory to the United States?
286
Ft. Mandan(winter camp)
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Lewis collects the bitterroot and some 240 other plant specimens on the journey.
Sacagawea helpsguide the expeditionand communicateswith many of theNative Americans they meet along the route.
As they travel through the GreatPlains, the expedition sees animalsthat are unknown in the East,including prairie dogs, coyotes, andantelope. The men capture a prairiedog to ship to President Jefferson.
23
6
4
5
Area enlarged
St. Louis
PacificOcean
AtlanticOcean
LOUISIANAPURCHASE
UNITEDSTATES
andTerritories
Lewis and ClarkThe Journey West
BritishTerritory
Claimed byBritain, Spain,
and Russia
SpanishTerritory
0 400 miles
0 400 kilometers
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
2. Write a paragraph that describes the importance ofteamwork in helping the Corps of Discovery reachits goals.
L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y
ST. LOUIS
L a k e S u p e r i o r
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The explorers travel up theMissouri River in a largekeelboat and smaller boatscalled pirogues.
INTO THEUNKNOWNLEWIS AND CLARK In 1803 President Jeffersonset up the Corps of Discovery to find a water route to the Pacific and explore the recently acquiredLouisiana Purchase. In the spring of 1804, WilliamClark and Meriwether Lewis, with a company ofrecruits, set off from St. Louis.
1804 THE JOURNEY WEST
1 MAY 14 The members of the Corps of Discovery,which number over 45, embark on the expedition,which would eventually cover nearly 7,700 miles.
2 NOVEMBER The explorers set up a winter camp near the villages of the Mandans and Hidatsas. Sacagawea,a Shoshone woman who had been kidnapped by theHidatsa, joins the expedition.
18053 APRIL 7 Lewis and Clark send a group back on the
keelboat with reports and specimens of some of the plants and animals that were unknown in the East.The expedition continues in smaller boats.
4 AUGUST 12 Lewis realizes that there is no NorthwestPassage—or river route—to the Pacific. The Corps continues on horseback.
5 DECEMBER 25 The expedition celebrates Christmas in its new winter quarters, Fort Clatsop.
1806 THE RETURN TRIP
6 JULY 3 The expedition splits into smaller units toexplore more of the Louisiana Territory. They reuniteon August 12.
7 SEPTEMBER 23 The Corps of Discovery finally arrivesback in St. Louis. The explorers had established peace-ful contact with many Native Americans and accumu-lated a wealth of geographic information. Fur tradersand others, armed with the new knowledge, soon startheading west.
1. What obstacles do you think would have been themost difficult for the expedition?
288 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
1804Barbary pirates seize theU.S. warship Philadelphia
1807The British navy attacks the American vessel Chesapeake;Congress passes the Embargo Act
1811Harrison defeats the Prophet atTippecanoe
1812Madison asks Congress to declarewar on Britain
A Time of Conflict
The floors of the oceans are littered with the remains of once-mighty ships and theunmarked graves of unlucky sailors who sank with them in the 1700s. Seafarer FrancisRogers described the terror of a storm in this journal entry: “The sky seemed all on fireand [all around] were such swift darting rays of lightning, flying in long bright veins,with inexpressible fury as was very frightful.”
Americans in Foreign SeasDespite the dangers of sea travel in the early 1800s, the livelihoods of many
Americans depended on trade with foreign nations. In 1785 the American shipEmpress of China returned to New York from China with a highly prized cargoof tea and silk. The goods sold for a fabulous profit. Soon ships from New York,Philadelphia, and especially New England were sailing regularly to China andIndia carrying furs and other goods. In the following years, American merchantships sailed far and wide, making calls in South America, Africa, and landsalong the Mediterranean Sea.
American sailors
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
✦ 1804 ✦ 1808 ✦ 1812
Main IdeaBetween 1800 and 1815 the UnitedStates experienced rapid expansion aswell as the challenge of war.
Key Termstribute, neutral rights, impress-ment, embargo, War Hawks,nationalism
Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and describe in the box theactions the United States took in eachof these situations.
Read to Learn• why Tecumseh built a confederacy
among Native American nations.• why the War Hawks wanted to go
to war.
Section ThemeGlobal Connections The nation’sneutrality was challenged.
Demand for tribute
Attack on Chesapeake
Tecumseh’s confederationU.S. actions
Mill
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Exports:goods sold
Imports:goods purchased
Balance of trade: difference between the value of a nation's exports and its imports
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War of 1812
Panic of 1819
Imports and Exports, 1800–1820
War between the French and British in themid-1790s gave an additional boost to Americanshipping. Rather than risk capture or destruc-tion by the enemy, many French and Britishmerchant ships remained at home. Americanshippers profited from the situation andincreased their trade. By 1800 the United Stateshad almost 1,000 merchant ships trading aroundthe world.
Barbary PiratesSailing in foreign seas was not without dan-
ger. In the Mediterranean, for example, shipshad to be on guard for pirates from Tripoli andthe other Barbary Coast states of North Africa.For years these Barbary pirates had been ter-rorizing the Mediterranean. They demandedtribute, or protection money, from Europeangovernments to let their ships pass safely.
War With TripoliThe United States, too, had paid tribute
for safe passage—but not enough. In 1801 theruler of Tripoli asked for more money from the United States. When President Jefferson
refused, the ruler chopped down the flagpoleof the American consulate—a declaration ofwar. Jefferson sent ships to the Mediterraneanand blockaded, or closed off, Tripoli. TheAmerican fleet, however, was not powerfulenough to defeat the Barbary pirates, and theconflict continued.
In 1804 the pirates seized the U.S. warshipPhiladelphia and towed it into Tripoli Harbor.They threw the captain and crew into jail.Stephen Decatur, a 25-year-old United StatesNavy captain, took action. Slipping into theheavily guarded harbor with a small raidingparty, Decatur burned the captured ship to pre-vent the pirates from using it. A British admiralpraised the deed as the “most bold and daringact of the age.”
Negotiations finally ended the conflict withTripoli in June 1805. Tripoli agreed to stopdemanding tribute, but the United States had topay a ransom of $60,000 for the release of theAmerican prisoners.
Explaining Why did Tripoli declarewar on the United States?
1. Analyzing Information When did U.S.exports reach their lowest level?
2. Determining Cause and Effect How didthe Embargo Act affect imports andexports?
290 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Freedom of the SeasRiding the wave of four successful years as
president, Jefferson won reelection easily in 1804.Jefferson received 162 electoral votes to only 14for his Federalist opponent, Charles Pinckney.His second term began with the nation at peace.Across the sea, however, Great Britain and Francewere already involved in a war that threatened tointerfere with American trade.
The thriving foreign trade of the United Statesdepended on being able to sail the seas freely.The nation had resolved the threat from the Bar-bary pirates. Now it was challenged at sea bythe two most powerful nations in Europe.
Neutral Rights ViolatedWhen Britain and France went to war in 1803,
America enjoyed a prosperous commerce withboth countries. As long as the United Statesremained neutral, shippers could continuedoing business. A nation not involved in a con-flict had neutral rights—the right to sail the seasand not take sides.
For two years American shipping continued toprosper. By 1805, however, the warring nationshad lost patience with American “neutrality.”Britain blockaded the French coast and threat-ened to search all ships trading with France.France later announced that it would search andseize ships caught trading with Britain.
American Sailors KidnappedThe British needed sailors for their naval
war. Conditions in the British Royal Navy wereterrible. British sailors were poorly paid,poorly fed, and badly treated. Many of themdeserted. Desperately in need of sailors, theBritish often used force to get them. Britishnaval patrols claimed the right to stop Ameri-can ships at sea and search for any sailors onboard suspected of being deserters from theBritish navy.
This practice of forcing people to serve in thenavy was called impressment. While some ofthose taken were deserters from the British navy,the British also impressed thousands of native-born and naturalized American citizens.
Attack on the ChesapeakeQuite often the British would lie in wait for
American ships outside an American harbor.This happened in June 1807 off the coast of Virginia. A British warship, the Leopard, inter-cepted the American vessel Chesapeake anddemanded to search the ship for British desert-ers. When the Chesapeake’s captain refused, theBritish opened fire, killing 3, wounding 18, andcrippling the American ship.
As news of the attack spread, Americansreacted with an anti-British fury not seen sincethe Revolutionary War. Secretary of State JamesMadison called the attack an outrage. Manydemanded war against Britain. Although Presi-dent Jefferson did not intend to let GreatBritain’s actions go unanswered, he sought acourse of action other than war.
A Disastrous Trade BanBritain’s practice of impressment and its vio-
lation of America’s neutral rights had led Jeffer-son to ban some trade with Britain. The attackon the Chesapeake triggered even stronger meas-ures. In December 1807, the Republican Con-gress passed the Embargo Act. An embargoprohibits trade with another country. AlthoughGreat Britain was the target of this act, theembargo banned imports from and exports to allforeign countries. Jefferson wanted to preventAmericans from using other countries as go-betweens in the forbidden trade.
With the embargo, Jefferson and Madisonhoped to hurt Britain but avoid war. Theybelieved the British depended on Americanagricultural products. As it turned out, theembargo of 1807 was a disaster. The measurewiped out all American commerce with othernations. Worse, it proved ineffective againstBritain. The British simply traded with LatinAmerica for its agricultural goods.
The embargo clearly had not worked. OnMarch 1, 1809, Congress repealed it. In its placeCongress enacted the much weaker Noninter-course Act. The new act prohibited trade onlywith Britain and France and their colonial pos-sessions. It was no more popular or successfulthan the Embargo Act.
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
OREGONCOUNTRY
VT.1791
KY.1792
TENN. 1796
Washington,D.C.1791
(SpecialStatusArea)
OREGONCOUNTRY
OHIO1803
LOUISIANAPURCHASE
1803
WESTFLA.
EASTFLA.
1800
1810
OREGONCOUNTRYU.S.-Britishoccupation
MO.
MAINE1820
ILL.1818
IND.1816
LA.1812
MISS.1817
ALA.1819
FLORIDACESSION
1819
RED RIVER BASIN 1818British Treaty
Line of 1818
Spanish TreatyLine of 1819
1820
Territorial Growth,1800–1820
Jefferson Leaves OfficeFollowing Washington’s precedent,
Jefferson made it clear in mid-1808 thathe would not be a candidate for a thirdterm. With Jefferson’s approval theRepublicans chose James Madison astheir candidate for president. The Feder-alists nominated Charles Pinckney andhoped that anger over the embargowould help their party. Pinckney carriedmost of New England, but the Federalistticket collected little support from theother regions. Madison won with 122electoral votes to Pinckney’s 47 votes.
Evaluating How effectivewas the Embargo Act?
War FeverJames Madison did not take office as
president under the most favorable con-ditions. At home and abroad, the nationwas mired in the embargo crisis. Mean-while Britain continued to claim theright to halt American ships, and criesfor war with Britain grew louder.
Closer to WarIn 1810 Congress passed a law permit-
ting direct trade with either France orBritain, depending on which countryfirst lifted its trade restrictions againstAmerica. Napoleon seized the opportu-nity and promised to end France’s traderestrictions.
Unfortunately for Madison, Napoleonhad tricked the American administra-tion. The French continued to seizeAmerican ships, selling them and pock-eting the proceeds. Americans weredeeply divided. To some it seemed as ifthe nation was on the verge of war—butit was hard to decide if the enemy shouldbe Britain or France. Madison knew thatFrance had tricked him, but he contin-ued to see Britain as the bigger threat tothe United States.
Between 1790 and 1820, the United States doubled its size andadded 10 new states.1. Region When did Indiana become part of the United States?2. Human-Environment Interaction Describe the
changes in French territory between 1800 and 1820.
State
Territory
Claimed area
Special status
Area added to U.S.
Present-day boundary
United States
Spanish
Foreign
State
Territory
Claimed area
Present-day boundary
United States
Spanish
French
Foreign
State
Territory
Claimed area
Area added to U.S.
Present-day boundary
United States
Spanish
Foreign
292 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Frontier ConflictsWhile Madison was trying to decide how to
resolve the difficulties with European powers,news arrived about problems in the West. Ohiohad become a state in 1803. Between 1801 and1810, white settlers continued to press for moreland in the Ohio Valley. Native Americans hadgiven up many millions of acres. Now the set-tlers were moving onto lands that had beenguaranteed to Native Americans by treaty.
As tensions increased, some Native Ameri-cans began renewing their contacts with Britishagents and fur traders in Canada. Others pur-sued a new strategy. A powerful Shawnee chiefnamed Tecumseh (tuh•KUHM•suh) built aconfederacy among Native American nations inthe Northwest. Tecumseh believed that a strongalliance—with the backing of the British inCanada—could put a halt to white movementonto Native American lands.
A commanding speaker, Tecumseh possessedgreat political skills. In his view, the United States
government’s treaties with separate Native Amer-ican nations were worthless. “The Great Spiritgave this great island to his red children,” he said.No one nation had the right to give it away.
Tecumseh had a powerful ally—his brother,known as the Prophet. The Prophet urgedNative Americans everywhere to return to thecustoms of their ancestors. They should, he said,give up practices learned from the whiteinvaders—wearing western dress, using plowsand firearms, and especially drinking alcohol.The Prophet attracted a huge following amongNative Americans. He founded a village at a sitein northern Indiana, near present-day Lafayette,where the Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers meet.It was called Prophetstown.
A Meeting With HarrisonThe American governor of the Indiana Terri-
tory, General William Henry Harrison, becamealarmed by the growing power of the twoShawnee brothers. He feared they would forman alliance with the British.
In a letter to Tecumseh, Harrison warned thatthe United States had many more warriors thanall the Indian nations could put together. “Donot think that the redcoats can protect you; theyare not able to protect themselves.” Tecumsehsent word that he would reply in person.
A few weeks later, Tecumseh came to Harrisonand spoke to the white people assembled there:
“Brothers: Since the peace was made, youhave killed some of the Shawnees, Winneba-goes, Delawares, and Miamis, and you havetaken our land from us; and I do not see howwe can remain at peace if you continue to doso. You try to force the red people to do someinjury; it is you who are pushing them on to domischief. You try to keep the tribes apart, andmake distinctions among them. You wish to pre-vent the Indians from uniting.”
The Battle of TippecanoeIn 1811 while Tecumseh was in the South
trying to expand his confederacy, Harrisondecided to attack Prophetstown on the
“They havedriven us fromthe sea to the lakes—we can go no farther.”—Tecumseh
CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Tippecanoe River. After more than two hours ofbattle, the Prophet’s forces fled the area indefeat. The Battle of Tippecanoe was pro-claimed a glorious victory for the Americans.Harrison acquired the nickname “Tippecanoe”and used it as a patriotic rallying cry when heran for president in 1840.
Harrison’s victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe,however, resulted in something the Americanpeople had hoped to prevent. Tecumseh nowjoined forces with the British troops. White set-tlers in the region claimed that the British hadsupplied Tecumseh’s confederacy with guns. Asa result, the rallying cry of the settlers became“On to Canada!”
Six to eight draft horses or adozen oxen pull the wagon.The driver rides or walksbeside the animals.
A toolbox attached tothe side of the wagonholds spare parts forneeded repairs.
1 2 3
A white canvas clothstretches over the hoops,or wagon bows. Thiscover protects passengersand cargo from heat, rain,and snow.
4
The boat-shapedwagon’s high front andback keep goods fromfalling out on steepmountain trails.
The average Conestogawagon was 21 feet long,11 feet high, and 4 feet inwidth and depth. It couldcarry up to 12,000 poundsof cargo.
5 Broad wheels help keepthe heavy wagon frombeing mired in the mud.
War HawksBack in the nation’s capital, President Madi-
son faced demands for a more aggressive policytoward the British. The most insistent voicescame from a group of young Republicanselected to Congress in 1810. Known as the WarHawks, they came from the South and the West.The War Hawks pressured the president todeclare war against Britain.
While the War Hawks wanted to avengeBritish actions against Americans, they were also eager to expand the nation’s power. Theirnationalism—or loyalty to their country—appealed to a renewed sense of American patri-otism. The leading War Hawks were Henry
293
The ConestogaWagonBy the mid-1700s, sturdyConestoga wagons trans-ported settlers and theirfreight over the AppalachianMountains. These wagonswere first built in the Con-estoga Creek region of Lan-caster, Pennsylvania. Aspeople pushed even fartherwestward, the Conestogawas seen rolling across theplains toward Oregon andCalifornia. Why did Con-estoga wagons have ahigh front and back?
1
2
3 4
5
toolboxtoolbox wagon bowswagon bows
wheelswheels
Gulf of
Mexico
Atlantic
Ocean
40°N
30°N
70°W
80°W90°W
Mississippi
R.
Red R.
OhioR
.
Penobscot
AbnakiIroquois
WampanoagNarraganset
PequotErie
MoheganSusquehanna
Leni-Lenape
Powhatan
Cherokee
CreekChickasaw
Natchez
Osage
KansasMissouri
Kickapoo
Shawnee
IllinoisMiami
Seminole
500 kilometers0
500 miles0
Albers ConicEqual-Area projectionN
S
EW
Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write two paragraphs
in which you use all of the followingterms: tribute, neutral rights,impressment, embargo, WarHawks, nationalism.
2. Reviewing Facts Describe the nego-tiations that ended the war betweenthe United States and Tripoli.
Reviewing Themes3. Global Connections How did the
conflict in Europe help the Americanshipping industry prosper?
Critical Thinking4. Determining Cause and Effect How
did frontier battles with Native Amer-icans intensify Americans’ anti-Britishfeelings?
5. Sequencing Information Re-createthe diagram below and list keyevents in the nation’s effort toremain neutral in the war betweenFrance and Britain.
Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Examine the maps
that appear on page 291. When didTennessee gain statehood? Which ofthe maps shows the territory gainedfrom the Louisiana Purchase? In whatyear was Florida ceded to the UnitedStates?
294 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
June Dec. 1805 1807 1807 1809
Art Choose a side in the argumentabout war with Great Britain. Drawa political cartoon supporting yourpoint of view.
Land taken before 1750
Land taken 1750 – 1783
Land taken 1784 – 1810
Land Taken from Native Americans
Clay from Kentucky and John Calhoun fromSouth Carolina, both in their 30s. Hunger forland heightened war fever. Westerners wantedto move north into the fertile forests of south-ern Canada. A war with Britain might makeCanadian land available. Southerners wantedSpanish Florida.
The War Hawks urged major military spend-ing. Through their efforts Congress quadrupledthe army’s size. The Federalists in the Northeast,however, remained strongly opposed to the war.
Declaring WarBy the spring of 1812, Madison concluded
that war with Britain was inevitable. In a mes-sage to Congress on June 1, he cited “the specta-cle of injuries and indignities which have beenheaped on our country” and asked for a decla-ration of war.
In the meantime the British had decided toend their policy of search and seizure of Ameri-can ships. Unfortunately, because of the amountof time it took for news to travel across theAtlantic, this change in policy was not known inWashington. Word of the breakthrough arrivedtoo late. Once set in motion, the war machinecould not be stopped.
Explaining Why did the War Hawkscall for war with Britain?
1. Region During which of the three time periods was thelargest amount of land taken along the Atlantic coast?
2. Location Which people lived nearest to the Red River?
295CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Ignatia Broker (1919–1987)Ignatia Brokerwas born on theWhite Earth Ojib-way Reservationin Minnesota.
She grew up hearing the storiesof her people. She decided thatone day she would tell othersabout Ojibway traditions.Through her writing, Brokerpassed on many Ojibway talesabout “the purity of man andnature and keeping them in balance.”
READ TO DISCOVERNight Flying Woman tells thestory of Oona, Ignatia Broker’sgreat-great-grandmother. Oonawas still a child when the Ojib-way were forced to leave theirland and find a new home. Asyou read, look for the ways inwhich Oona overcomes herfear of her latest home. Whatgives the Ojibway people faiththat they will continue as apeople?
READER’S DICTIONARYfretful: worrisome, anxious,
uneasyA-wa-sa-si: a storyteller travel-
ing with Oona’s peopleOjibway: a Native American
nation
The next morning, very early,Grandfather, Oldest Uncle,and Father walked into the
thick forest. Oona did not see themleave, for she was sleepingsoundly. When Mother told herthat they were gone, Oona lookedat the forest fearfully. It seemedvery unfriendly. She thought, “It hasswallowed up my grandfather andfather.” She became fretful.
Mother said, “Daughter, look atthe forest again but do not look andsee only the dark and shadows.Instead, look at the trees, each one,as many as you can. Then tell mewhat you think.”. . .
As Oona looked at the trees, sheheard the si-si-gwa-d—the murmur-ing that the trees do when theybrush their branches together. It wasa friendly sound, and the sun sentsparkles through the si-si-gwa-d thatchased the shadows. Suddenly theforest seemed different to Oona, andshe knew that Grandfather, OldestUncle, and Father had gone into afriendly place. . . .
A-wa-sa-si said, “The forestshave never failed the Ojibway. . . .As long as the Ojibway are beneath,the trees will murmur with content-ment. When the Ojibway and the Animal Brothers are gone, theforest will weep and this will bereflected in the sound of the si-si-gwa-d. . . . In each generation of
Ojibway there willbe a person whowill hear the si-si-gwa-d, who will lis-ten and rememberand pass it on to thechildren. Remem-bering our past andacting accordinglywill ensure thatwe, the Ojibway,will always peoplethe earth. The trees have patienceand so they have stood and haveseen many generations of Ojibway.Yet will there be more, and yet willthey see more.”
sound did Oona hear in the for-est? How did the sound affectOona’s feelings about the forest?
2. Evaluate and Connect Whatdoes Ignatia Broker in Night Fly-ing Woman say about the impor-tance of the past? Explain youranswer.
Interdisciplinary ActivityArt Create a painting or drawingthat shows the forest as Oona saw it.Use symbols to hint at the coming ofthe Europeans.
296 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Main IdeaBeginning in 1812 the United Stateswas at war with Britain. Fighting tookplace in the United States, in Canada,and at sea.
Key Termsfrigate, privateer
Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read the sec-tion, re-create the diagram below andin the boxes describe each battle’soutcome.
Read to Learn• how the British seized and set fire
to Washington, D.C.• why Andrew Jackson fought a bat-
tle after the war was over.
Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Theend of the War of 1812 produced anew spirit of nationalism.
June 1812United States declareswar on Britain
August 1814The British burnWashington, D.C.
January 1815American forces win theBattle of New Orleans
September 1813Perry defeats the Britishnavy on Lake Erie
While President Madison awarded peace medals to Native Americans who supportedthe United States against the British, Congressional War Hawks could be heard singing:
War BeginsDespite their swaggering songs, the War Hawks did not achieve the quick
victory they boldly predicted. The Americans committed a series of blundersthat showed how unprepared they were for war. The regular army now con-sisted of fewer than 7,000 troops. The states had between 50,000 and 100,000militia, but the units were poorly trained, and many states opposed “Mr. Madi-son’s war.” The military commanders, veterans of the American Revolution,were too old for warfare, and the government in Washington provided no lead-ership. The Americans also underestimated the strength of the British and theirNative American allies.
The War of 1812
Madison peace medal
Battle Outcome
Lake Erie
Washington, D.C.
New Orleans
Ye Parliaments of England,Ye lords and commons, too,
Consider well what you’re about, And what you’re goin’ to do;
You’re now at war with Yankees,And I’m sure you’ll rue the day
Ye roused the sons of liberty, In North Americay.
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
✦ 1812 ✦ 1813 ✦ 1814 ✦ 1815
297CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
The war started in July 1812, when GeneralWilliam Hull led the American army fromDetroit into Canada. Hull was met by Tecumsehand his warriors. Fearing a massacre by theNative Americans, Hull surrendered Detroit to asmall British force in August. Another attemptby General William Henry Harrison was unsuc-cessful as well. Harrison decided that the Amer-icans could make no headway in Canada as longas the British controlled Lake Erie.
Naval BattlesOliver Hazard Perry, commander of the Lake
Erie naval forces, had his orders. He was toassemble a fleet and seize the lake from theBritish. From his headquarters in Put-in-Bay,Ohio, Perry could watch the movements of theenemy ships. The showdown came on Septem-ber 10, 1813, when the British ships sailed out toface the Americans. In the bloody battle that fol-lowed, Perry and his ships defeated the Britishnaval force. After the battle, Perry sent GeneralWilliam Henry Harrison the message, “We havemet the enemy and they are ours.”
With Lake Erie in American hands, the Britishand their Native American allies tried to pull backfrom the Detroit area. Harrison and his troops cutthem off. In the fierce Battle of the Thames onOctober 5, the great leader Tecumseh was killed.
The Americans also attacked the town of York(present-day Toronto, Canada), burning the par-liament buildings. Canada remained uncon-quered, but by the end of 1813 the Americanshad won some victories on land and at sea.
To lower the national debt, the Republicanshad reduced the size of the navy. However, thenavy still boasted three of the fastest frigates, orwarships, afloat. Americans exulted when theConstitution, one of these frigates, destroyed twoBritish vessels—the Guerrière in August 1812 andthe Java four months later. After seeing a shotbounce off the Constitution’s hull during battle, asailor nicknamed the ship “Old Ironsides.”
American privateers, armed private ships,also staged spectacular attacks on British shipsand captured numerous vessels. These victorieswere more important for morale than for theirstrategic value.
B Brother Jonathan represents the United StatesA John Bull represents Britain
A B
The cartoon shows Brother Jonathan forcing John Bullto drink a tankard of American medicine. BrotherJonathan was used to represent Americans in manycartoons, beginning with the American Revolution.Why is the name “Perry” on the tankard?
Analyzing Political Cartoons
298
33
44
22
11
66
55
The British navy blockades
the coast, 1812
Perry defeats the British on
Lake Erie, 1813
Harrison defeats British and
Native American forces at
the Battle of Thames, 1813
The British burn Washington,
D.C. Americans recapture the
city and defeat the British
at Ft. McHenry, 1814
Americans win the Battle of
Lake Champlain, 1814
Jackson defeats the British
at New Orleans, 1815
66
33
22
55
44
11
Oh
ioR
.
Wabash R.
MississippiR
.
La
ke
Mich
iga
n
Lak
eH
uron
Lake Ontario
St.Law
renceR.
Lake
Champlain
Lake
Superior
Lake Erie
ATlantic
OCEaN
Chesapeake
Bay
Gulf of Mexico
Washington, D.C.
NewOrleans
Pensacola
Montreal
HorseshoeBend
York(Toronto)
Baltimore
Ft. Dearborn
Ft. Niagara
Ft. Detroit
Ft. McHenry
40°N
70°W
90°W
VT.N.H.
MAINE(Mass.)
N.Y.MASS.
CONN.R.I.
N.J.PA.
DEL.
MD.
VA.
N.C.
S.C.
GA.
TENN.
KY.
OHIO
LA.
IND.TERR.
MICH.TERR.
ILL.TERR.
MISS.TERR.
FLA.(Spanish)
IND.TERR. CANADA
300 kilometers0
Albers Conic Equal-Area projection
300 miles0
N
S
EW
The British OffensiveBritish fortunes improved in the spring of
1814. They had been fighting a war withNapoleon and had won. Now they could sendmore forces to America.
Attack on Washington, D.C.In August 1814, the British sailed into Chesa-
peake Bay. Their destination was Washington,D.C. On the outskirts of Washington, D.C., theBritish troops quickly overpowered the Ameri-can militia and then marched into the city. “Theyproceeded, without a moment’s delay, to burnand destroy everything in the most distantdegree connected with government,” reported aBritish officer.
Setbacks for Native AmericansWith the death of Tecumseh in 1813, hopes for
a Native American confederation died. In histravels two years before his death, Tecumsehhad discussed plans for a confederation with theCreeks in the Mississippi Territory.
In March 1814, a lanky Tennessee planternamed Andrew Jackson attacked the Creeks.Jackson’s forces slaughtered more than 550 ofthe Creek people. Known as the Battle of Horse-shoe Bend, the defeat broke the Creeks’ resist-ance and forced them to give up most of theirlands to the United States.
Evaluating Do you think the UnitedStates was prepared to wage war? Explain.
British naval
blockade
American forces
British forces
Fort
American victory
British victory
The War of 1812
1. Movement How did the British navy strengthen the British land troops?
2. Analyzing Information Who won the Battle of New Orleans?
299CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Born in North Carolina,Dolley Payne grew up inVirginia until, at age 15,her family moved toPhiladelphia. There shemarried John Todd, Jr. AsDolley Todd, she gavebirth to two children, butlost her husband and onechild in 1793 during ayellow fever epidemic.
The following year shemarried James Madison.While her husband wassecretary of state, DolleyMadison served as unoffi-cial first lady for the wid-ower president, ThomasJefferson. She became thenation’s official first ladywhen James Madison waselected president in 1808.During the War of 1812
she showed remarkablebravery. In 1814, as theBritish approached thecapital, she refused toleave the executive man-sion until she had packedup many valuable govern-ment documents, a paint-ing of George Washington,and other pricelessvaluables.
The Capitol and the president’s mansion wereamong the buildings burned. Watching fromoutside the city, President Madison and his cab-inet saw the night sky turn orange. Fortunatelya violent thunderstorm put out the fires beforethey could do more damage. August 24, 1814,was a low point for the Americans.
Baltimore Holds FirmMuch to everyone’s surprise, the British did
not try to hold Washington. They left the city andsailed north to Baltimore. Baltimore, however,was ready and waiting—with barricaded roads,a blocked harbor, and some 13,000 militiamen.The British attacked in mid-September. Theywere kept from entering the town by a deter-mined defense and ferocious bombardmentfrom Fort McHenry in the harbor.
During the night of September 13–14, a youngattorney named Francis Scott Key watched asthe bombs burst over Fort McHenry. Finally “bythe dawn’s early light,” Key was able to see thatthe American flag still flew over the fort. Deeplymoved by patriotic feeling, Key wrote a poemcalled “The Star-Spangled Banner.” In 1931, Con-gress designated “The Star-Spangled Banner” as the National Anthem. ; (See page 616 of the Appen-
dix for an excerpt from “The Star-Spangled Banner.”)
Defeat at PlattsburghMeanwhile, in the north, General Sir George
Prevost led more than 10,000 British troops intoNew York State from Canada. The first Britishgoal was to capture Plattsburgh, a key city onthe shore of Lake Champlain. The invasion wasstopped when an American naval force on LakeChamplain defeated the British fleet on the lakein September 1814. Knowing the American shipscould use their control of the lake to bombardthem and land troops behind them, the Britishretreated to Canada.
After the Battle of Lake Champlain, the Britishdecided the war in North America was too costlyand unnecessary. Napoleon had been defeated inEurope. To keep fighting the United Stateswould gain little and was not worth the effort.
The War EndsAmerican and British representatives signed a
peace agreement in December 1814 in Ghent,Belgium. The Treaty of Ghent did not changeany existing borders. Nothing was mentionedabout the impressment of sailors, but, withNapoleon’s defeat, neutral rights had become adead issue.
Before word of the treaty had reached theUnited States, one final—and ferocious—battle
Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph
in which you use the terms frigateand privateer.
2. Reviewing Facts Who won the Bat-tle of Lake Champlain? Why was it animportant victory?
Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy Why
did the Federalist Party lose supportafter the War of 1812?
Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Why did peo-
ple from the North, South, and theWest feel differently about going towar with Britain?
5. Determining Cause and Effect Re-create the diagram below. In theovals, list four effects that the War of1812 had on the United States.
Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the map on
page 298. On what lake did Perrydefeat the British? Which battle—Lake Champlain or Thames—tookplace later in time?
300 CHAPTER 9 The Jefferson Era
Music Imagine if Francis Scott Keyhad been at the Battle of NewOrleans instead of in Baltimore.Rewrite the first verse of “The Star-Spangled Banner” based on whatoccurred in that battle.
occurred at New Orleans. In December 1814,British army troops moved toward New Orleans.Awaiting them behind earthen fortifications wasan American army led by Andrew Jackson.
On January 8, 1815, the British troopsadvanced. The redcoats were no match for Jack-son’s soldiers, who shot from behind bales of cot-ton. In a short but gruesome battle, hundreds ofBritish soldiers were killed. At the Battle of NewOrleans, Americans achieved a decisive victory.Andrew Jackson became a hero, and his famehelped him win the presidency in 1828.
American NationalismNew England Federalists had opposed “Mr.
Madison’s war” from the start. In December1814, unhappy New England Federalists gath-ered in Connecticut at the Hartford Convention.A few favored secession. Most wanted to remainwithin the Union, however. To protect theirinterests, they drew up a list of proposedamendments to the Constitution.
After the convention broke up, word came ofJackson’s spectacular victory at New Orleans,followed by news of the peace treaty. In thismoment of triumph, the Federalist grievancesseemed unpatriotic. The party lost respect in theeyes of the public. Most Americans felt proudand self-confident at the end of the War of 1812.
The young nation had gained new respect fromother nations in the world. Americans felt a newsense of patriotism and a strong national identity.
Although the Federalist Party weakened, itsphilosophy of strong national government wascarried on by the War Hawks who were part ofthe Republican Party. They favored trade, west-ern expansion, the energetic development of theeconomy, and a strong army and navy.
Analyzing Did the Treaty of Ghentresolve any major issues? Explain.
The First Star-Spangled Banner,1779–1818 The Stars and Stripes flaggained two more stars and two morestripes in 1795, after Kentucky and Ver-mont joined the Union.
Congress realized that the flag would become toolarge if a stripe were added for every new state. Itdecided in 1818 to keep the stripes at 13—for the thirteen original colonies—and to add a star for each new state.
America’s Flags
Effects of the War of 1812
Writing a JournalWhy Learn This Skill?
Journal writing is personal writing with a casualstyle. What you write on is not as important as whatyou write about—your experiences, interests, andeven your feelings.
Learning the SkillA journal is a written account that records what
you have learned or experienced. In the journal youcan express your feelings about a subject, summarizekey topics, describe difficulties or successes in solv-ing particular problems, and draw maps or othervisuals. To help you get started writing in your jour-nal, follow these steps:
• As you read your textbook, jot down notes orquestions about a specific topic or event. Thenlook for details and answers about it as you con-tinue reading.
• Describe your feelings as you read a selection orlook at a photograph. Are you angry, happy, frus-trated, sad? Explain why.
• Ask yourself if drawing a map or flowchart wouldhelp you understand an event better. If so, drawin your journal.
Practicing the SkillThe following excerpt describes the burning ofWashington, D.C., during the War of 1812. Readthe excerpt, then use the following questions tohelp you write entries in your own journal.
“ [T]his was a night of dismay to the inhab-itants of Washington. They were taken com-pletely by surprise. . . . The first impulse ofcourse tempted them to fly. . . . [T]he streetswere . . . crowded with soldiers and senators,men, women, and children, horses, carriages,and carts loaded with household furniture, allhastening towards a wooden bridge whichcrosses the Potomac. The confusion . . . wasterrible, and the crowd upon the bridge wassuch to endanger its giving way.”
1 What is particularly interesting about thisdescription?
2 What are your feelings as you read the excerpt?
3 Draw a map or other visual to help you under-stand the situation described here.
Study & WritingStudy & Writing
William Clark’s journal
301
Applying the SkillWriting a Journal Imagine that you have hadthe chance to take part in an American adventure.Make notes for a journal entry describing what youhave done and seen.
Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Work-book CD-ROM, Level 1, provides instruc-tion and practice in key social studies skills.
302
The Jefferson Era
1801• Thomas Jefferson
inaugurated as third president
1813• Perry defeats British
navy on Lake Erie
• Tecumseh killed atthe Battle of theThames
1814• British burn Wash-
ington, D.C.
• Treaty of Ghent endswar with Britain
1812• U.S. declares war on
Britain
• British navy block-ades coast
1811• Harrison defeats
the Prophet atTippecanoe
1809• James Madison
becomes president
1807• American ship
Chesapeake attackedby British navy
• Congress passes theEmbargo Act
1804• Twelfth Amendment
ratified
• Lewis and Clarkexpedition sets offfrom St. Louis
• Thomas Jeffersonwins reelection
1803• Marbury v. Madison
sets precedent for judicial review
• Louisiana Territory purchased fromFrance
• Ohio becomes astate
Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use all of the following terms to writeseveral short, historically accurate paragraphs related tothe information in the chapter. Use standard grammarand punctuation.1. laissez-faire 4. nationalism2. impressment 5. judicial review3. embargo 6. secede
Reviewing Key Facts7. What did Congress do to prevent a deadlock in presi-
dential elections?8. How did events in Santo Domingo (Haiti) influence
American expansion?9. How did the Embargo Act of 1807 hurt the United
States?10. Who were the War Hawks?11. What effect did Tecumseh’s death have on Native
Americans?
Critical Thinking12. Analyzing Themes: Government and Democracy
Summarize the importance of the Marbury v. Madi-son decision.
13. Analyzing Information What were the boundaries ofthe Louisiana Territory?
14. Comparing Re-create the diagram below. In the boxes,describe the differences between the War Hawks andFederalists in their views of the War of 1812.
Geography and History ActivityStudy the maps of territorial growth on page 291 andanswer the following questions.15. Location In what year did Mississippi become a state?16. Region What three Southern states were admitted to
the nation between 1810 and 1820?
War of 1812
View of War Hawks View of Federalists
Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 9—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.
tx.tarvol1.glencoe.com
HISTORY
303
Practicing Skills 17. Writing a Journal By the late 1700s, more than 55,000
Americans had crossed the mountains into Kentucky andTennessee. Write entries for a journal for such a trip.Explain why you are enduring such hardships to move tonew land.
Citizenship Cooperative Activity18. Analyzing Current Events With a partner, choose a
recent event for which you will be able to locate primaryand secondary sources of information. Compare the pri-mary source with one secondary source. Prepare a reportfor the class in which you describe the event and com-pare the information in the primary and secondarysources.
Economics Activity19. Work in small groups to prepare an international trade
map. Your map should show United States imports dur-ing the early 1800s from each of the major continents.What major ports were merchants sailing to during thistime? What products were they bringing back to theUnited States? Your map should include the names ofimportant ports, the countries where they were located,symbols to represent the different products, a map key toexplain the symbols, and other information such as dis-tances or major shipping routes.
Technology Activity20. Using a Spreadsheet Search the library for information
about the modern city of New Orleans. Make a databaseusing the spreadsheet. Beginning in column B, label fourcolumns as follows: 1) Street names; 2) Buildings; 3) Foods; 4) Sites. Beginning in row two, label rows asfollows: 1) Spanish; 2) French. Fill in the spreadsheet with the information you find.
Alternative Assessment21. Portfolio Writing Activity Review the chapter for infor-
mation about the expedition of Lewis and Clark. Imaginethat you had the chance to accompany them on theiradventure. Write a letter home describing what you havedone and seen. Be sure to include how you were affectedby the land and the people you encountered.
Use the map below to choose the best answer to the question.
Which of the following statements about the elec-tion of 1800 is true?
F Federalists won Georgia’s electoral votes.G New Hampshire supported the Democratic-
Republican ticket.H Connecticut had seven electoral votes.J Pennsylvania was one of the states that split
its votes.
Test-Taking Tip:
Double-check all answer choices to make sure that youhave chosen the best answer. Make sure that your
answer choice is supported by information on the map.Check each choice against the map. Only one is correct.
