Sara Gabarró Rubio
Business Sciences-Management | Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona
CODE: EME10
TUTOR: Olga Epitropaki | Durham University, Durham, UK
Academic year: 2019-2020
Date: 05/11/2020
THE LABYRINTH METAPHOR OBSTACLES FOR WOMEN’S ADVANCEMENT TO HIGH-MANAGERIAL AND EXECUTIVE POSITIONS
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3
I. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 4
II. Antecedents .............................................................................................................. 6
III. Navigating the labyrinth ....................................................................................... 8
I. PATHS THROUGH THE LABYRINTH ...................................................................... 8
Discrimination ........................................................................................................... 8
Stereotypes ......................................................................................................... 10
Double Bind ......................................................................................................... 11
Leadership Styles and Behaviours ........................................................................ 13
Organizational Obstacles ....................................................................................... 14
Institutional Barriers ........................................................................................... 14
The Effect of Hostile and Benevolent Sexism ................................................... 15
Social Capital ...................................................................................................... 16
A Reprise ................................................................................................................. 17
II. PATHWAYS OUT OF THE LABYRINTH ................................................................ 17
The Balancing Act of Communal and Agentic Performances .............................. 18
Organizational Changes to Foster Gender ............................................................ 20
Investing in Social Capital ...................................................................................... 21
Final thoughts ............................................................................................................... 23
References .................................................................................................................... 24
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ABSTRACT
This project explores why women remain underrepresented in high-ranking
leadershiprolesaswellaswhatcanbedoneinanattempttofacilitatetheirindirect
pathsinattaininginfluentialandpowerfulpositions.Menhavefewerchallengesin
obtaining leadership roles because they match agentic stereotypes normally
associatedwiththoseroles.Incontrast,womenfindthemselvesnavigatingthrough
indirect and obstructed pathways or even dead ends when attaining executive
managerial roles. Using “the Labyrinth Metaphor” has been the basis to give a
completeexplanationandanalysewhatmakesmorechallengingtheiradvancement.
This metaphor relates to how issues of discrimination, gendered mental
associations and organizational obstacles are connected to women’s hurdling
advancementinmanagement.Hence,thesolutionsgivenintheprojectaredirectly
relatedtothereasonsandissuesexplored.
Keywords: women leaders, gender, leadership, organizational obstacles,
discrimination
Ihopethisprojectinspiresandthatwillinspirewomen,asitinspiresme,thataspire
to attain an executive leadership role someday. This is themain reasonwhy I had
chosentostudy,asprofoundlyaspossible,thisissueandthereforetorecognisewhat
arethechallengeswomenmayfacenavigatingthedifferentpathsoftheircareers.I
believethatbyacknowledgingcontextualandmore-specificfactorsthathaveaneffect
onleadership,womencanbestronger,fierceandmorepersistenttokeepclimbingand
feelingempowered.
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I. INTRODUCTION
Sincethesecondpartofthe20thcentury,womenhavebeenfightingagainstthe
gendersegregationofthelabourmarket,thatexpectedfromthemnotmorethan
beingcaringandniceathome.Nevertheless,becauseoftheevolutionofsocieties
andthedifferentlabourmarkets,womenhavebeenabletointroducethemselvesas
managersandleaderswithmoreresponsibilityrolesthroughouttheyears.Overthe
last fiveyears1, theproportionofglobalbusinessesthatemployedonewomanin
high-ranking management has increased. Moreover, 87% of companies were
accountedin2019tohaveatleastonefemaleinaseniorleadershiprole.Yet,women
representedthatyear,only29%ofseniorexecutivepositionsintheglobe.Also,only
the2,8%ofthecompaniesfromtheFortuneGlobal5002,hadafemaleCEOin2019
(Fortune2019).Globally,theaverageofwomeninseniorrolescontinuestoincrease
but, although representing the highest numbers ever on record, itmight not be
enough. Moreover, the leadership roles may be gendered-segregated as women
foundthemselvesmoreoftenbeingchiefofthehumanresourcesdepartment(43%)
than in others, which could relate to more feminine qualities such as being
compassionateorempathetic.Then,womenwouldstillbediscriminatedbecauseof
theirgenderandthiscouldcauseaneffectoneveryfield, includingmanagement.
Thisprojectsurges fromthenecessityandcuriosity tounderstandwhat leads to
women’slesseradvancement.Therefore,theaimofthisstudyistocomprehendwhy
women are still underrepresented in influential positions in business and why
womenarestillbeingaccountedasthe“firstfemale”tobecomeaCEOorhigh-level
managers.Hence,itrelatesdirectlytothisissueandlimitsthestudyintheupper
levelsofhierarchicalstructures.
Thisprojecthasitsbasisondifferentstudiesandexplanationsthat,overtheyears,
theAmericanscholarsAliceH.EaglyandLindaL.Carli3gaveasaresponsetothis
1AllthestatisticaldatafromtheIntroductionhasitssourceon(GrantThornton2019).If,insomecases,ithasnotbeentakenfromthisreport,thesourcewillbeexplicitlycited.2TheFortuneGlobal500isanannualrankingofthelargest500corporationsworldwideasmeasuredbytotalrevenue.ThepercentagehastakenfromfilteringtherankingwithfemaleCEO.3AliceH.Eaglyisanotedsocialpsychologistandprofessorofbothdisciplinespsychologyandmanagement.Herresearch interests are gender (especially sex differences in similarities in leadership, prosocial behaviour,aggression,partnerpreferences,andsocio-politicalattitudes)andotherssuchasthecontentofstereotypes.LindaH.CarliisaSeniorLecturerEmeritainPsychologyandherinterestsincludethestudyofwomenleaders,socialinfluence,genderdifferencesininteractionandinfluence,andreactionstovictimization.
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issue.EaglyandCarliquotedthemetaphorofTheLabyrinthastogiveadetailed,
rigorous,andoveralldefinitiveexplanationofthoseobstacleswomenfacethatmen
donot(Harquail2008).Besides,otherscholars'academicpapersandresearchhas
beenusedtosupporttheirstatements.
Thestudyofthelabyrinthwilltakethereaderthroughdifferentsections.Thefirst
blockrelatestothepathwaysthatleadtothelabyrinthandthatchallengewomen’s
competence and responsibilities along with an understanding on how common
culturalbeliefsandorganizationalpracticescanlesserthatrecognitionofwomenas
leaders.Asamatterofresponse,thesecondblockrelatestowhatallwomen,men
andorganizationalstructurescoulddoinordertofacilitatethoseobstructedpaths.
Hence,thisissueisstudiedfromamanagerialandpsychologicalperspectiveasboth
researchersareexpertsinthesefields.Althoughanalysingthisamountofwork,the
projecthasitslimitations.First,thelimitedlengthoftheprojecthasaffectedinthe
senseofnotbeingcapabletogivemoreexplanationonsomethemes.Consequently,
intheattempttoclarifytheseissuessomefootnoteshavebeenadded.Nonetheless,
allinformationhasbeensohelpfultoaddresstheissueinaclearerway.Second,the
labyrinthmetaphorisstudiedinanon-geographicallyperspective,whichmeansthat
everythingexposedintheprojectisinageneralistmanner,whichdoesnothelpin
addressingspecificissuesofspecificsocialcollectivesordiversesocieties.Hence,it
needs to be taken into account that this puzzle that women have to solve in
leadershiphasitsaddedchallengesdependingonwherewomenareleadingandin
context-specific issues. Because of that, an important consideration has to be
expressed: this project explains the labyrinth from the perspective of white
privilegedwomenthattrytoaccessto leadershipandexecutiveroles.Therefore,
thisaretheobstaclesthatnon-racializedandstigmatizedwomenface.Then, it is
opentothereadertothinkandbemoreinformedabouthowracial,transgendered
andxenophobicbiasesaffectthosewomenthatsufferfromthemandthatalsotry
toreachtothehigh-managerialpositions.
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II. ANTECEDENTS
Over the years, the explanation of why women are not able to establish
themselves in high-level managerial positions has taken different paths and
perspectives. Therefore, it is crucial to understand where the issue has its
beginnings and the idea behind the obstacles women face in reaching those
leadershippositions.Hence,thispartoftheprojectwilladdresstheseantecedents,
startingfromthe“concretewall”andthen,movingtothe“glassceiling”andwhatis
goingtobetherealissueoftheproject:“TheLabyrinthMetaphor”.
Fromaneraofthehistorywiththenon-recognitionofwomenaspartofthelabour
force and either their rights to vote4, in the 1970s,women’s exclusion from the
businessworld, politics and labour, in general,was still a reality. Although they
gainedtherighttovote,societywasnotpreparedtochange.Aspartofthatera’s
natural order, the division of labour implied women to accept that an absolute
barrierwasinfrontofthem,notlettingthemworkaspartofaculturalmindset.In
consequence, the “concretewallmetaphor” had its sense. Hence, the division of
labourrestedintheideaofwomenbeinghomemakersandmenthebreadwinners
(Carli and Eagly 2018) along with continuing with disqualifying their not-paid
labour(EaglyandCarli2007a).Asaresult,theyfacedliterallyawall,withwritten
andexplicit rulesandnormsagainst theiradvancement in leadership(Eaglyand
Carli2007a).Butbarriersshiftedasmorewomenwerehiredand, consequently,
theywerenotfacinganisolationbarrieranymore.Hence,thewallmovedgradually
frombeingvisibletotheinvisibility.In1986,twojournalistsfromtheWallStreet
Journal introduced the labelof “glassceiling”,an invisiblebarrier thatprevented
womenfromgainingaccesstotopleadershippositions(RyanandHaslam2007).In
otherwords,itwasdefinedasafixedlimitthatkeptminoritiesandwomenoutof
the race for high-level managerial jobs regardless of their achievements or
qualifications(Cotteretal.2001).Henceforth,womenweredeniedsolelyfortheir
sexandgendercondition (EaglyandCarli2007a).At thesame time thatwomen
were held in organizational lower levels, men were escalating rapidly. This
4Thehistoryofwomen’srecognitioninthisprojectasanactivepartofthesocietyhasitsrootsinthelate19thcenturyandbeginningofthe20th,coincidingwiththeimplementationoftheWomen’sSuffrage(Paxton,Hughes,andGreen2006).
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phenomenon, named the “glass escalator”, describes the advantages that helped
men rapidly succeedabovewomen in even female-dominatedoccupations (Carli
andEagly2015;Maume1999).Consequently,menfoundadvantagesinescalating
tothetop-managementpositionsinbothgender-dominatedprofessions(Williams
2013).However, thebeliefsaround the ideaof thatdivisionof labourcontinued,
provokingmanagersnot invest inwomen’s advancement as theymightbemore
interestedinbeinghomecaregivers.Infact,theassumptionsofthewomen’srolein
societydidnotchange(EaglyandCarli2007a).Butsomethinghappened.Entering
the2000s,womenstart tobecomeCEOsofhigh-reputational companies suchas
CarlyFiorinainHewlett-Packardin1999(Sellers2009)orMegWhitemanineBay
in1998(BortandLeskin2020).So, theconceptof theunseenandunsanctioned
barrier(Maume1999)couldnolongerbesustained,aswomenwerebreakingthe
glassceiling.Hence, theexplanationagainstwomen'sprogression inbusinessno
longer fitted, asmorewomenwere advancing in attaining power and authority.
Eagly and Carli (2007) appointed that the “glass ceiling metaphor” was indeed
misleading. It erroneously implied equal condition for allwomen to access such
positionsandassumedanabsoluteandhomogeneousbarrierataspecificlevelof
the hierarchy ignoring possible complexities. Moreover, it did not recognize
possiblestrategiesthatwomenusedtobecomeleaders.Besides, itprecludedthe
possibilityforthemtoovercomethosebarriersandfailedtostudythosepathsto
facilitatewomen’srise(Bruckmülleretal.2013).
Havingsaidthat,itisundoubtedthatpathsforwomentothetopexist.Nevertheless,
itisclearthattheobstaclesthattheymayfaceareincontinuousevolution.Itmight
seem that all past metaphors result discredited, but some features, such as
discriminationandprejudices,canberelatedtotheissueofthisproject.Besides,the
factswereinneedofanother imagetodescribethemandthat iswhatEaglyand
Carli(2007)didinputtingforththeimageofalabyrinth,asthemetaphortodescribe
the“journeyriddledwithchallengesallalongtheway” (Hoyt2010:485).Thenext
sections of the project, occupying the core of it, will be giving a concrete and
extensive explanation of the Labyrinth Metaphor to illustrate, as profoundly as
possible, the challenges and the complexity of women securing top leadership
positions.
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III. NAVIGATING THE LABYRINTH
Despitethenotableadvancesthatwomenhavemadeinescalatingtothetopof
managerialpositionsoverthelastdecades,womenstillneedtonavigatethrough
moredemandingpathwaystoleadershipthantheirmalecounterpartswithequal
capabilities(Harquail2008).Therefore,thesenextsectionswilladdressquestions
around why women remain underrepresented as leaders and which forms can
thislabyrinthtake. Then, the core of the projectwill studywhich paths confront
womenwhenadvancingtothatlabyrinthicconditionandhowtosolvethem.Giving
ananalysisof the challengesandobstacles they facewillhelp tounderstand the
issue. Also, evidence on how to try and achieve the pathways out of it will be
analysed.
I. PATHS THROUGH THE LABYRINTH
The routes through the labyrinth are considered those that affectwomen
enough tomake themnot succeed inupperhierarchical levels,which challenges
their capabilitiesandcompetences.Thesepathwaysareamixof culturalbeliefs,
patriarchal behaviours, prejudices around particular leadership styles and
identities, andorganizational structures.This section isdedicated to studyingall
thesethemesandtherefore,spreadlightinwhichcouldbethemotivesthatkeep
womenoutofthathighspheres.
DISCRIMINATION
Discriminationisdefined,inpsychology,astheusuallynegativebehavioursagainst
an individual or group of people (McLeod 2008). Additionally, gender
discrimination, or gender bias, is, in fact, the act of treating a person, usually a
woman,unfairlybecauseoftheirsex (CambridgeUniversityPress2020). Inwhat
relates to thisproject, then,discriminationhappenswhen,and if,womenreceive
fewerleadershipopportunitiesthantheirmalecounterpartsevenwhenhavingthe
same competences (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Therefore, when this occurs, it
contributestowomen’slesseradvancementthroughthelabyrinth.Althoughthere
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existsanextendedamountofresearchdoneinthisfield, it isofhighurgencythe
continuedacknowledgementofwhythishappens,ascompaniesfromalloverthe
world, such asWall-Mart and Nike, and the MobileWorld Congress, have been
facing, among others over the years, gender-discriminatory lawsuits (Fernández
Campbell 2018; Martinez, Castro, and Amiel 2019; Sainato 2019). Furthermore,
discriminationgetsincreasinglydifficulttoavoidwhenwomentrytonavigatethe
different pathways to authority positions (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Hence,
prejudices, stereotypes and perceptions affect theways discrimination influence
womenintheirascent.Moreover,theincongruitythatiscreatedwhenthesefactors
arenotalignwiththeimagethatpeoplehaveofaneffectiveleader,whichnormally
relates to a masculine identity, influences the image of women as leaders in a
disqualifyingmanner(Koenigetal.2011).Inotherwords,theprejudicethatwomen
suffer derives from gender roles, expectations that the society has about what
women andmen should be (Eagly and Karau 2002). The identity that has been
associatedwiththeleadingroleismasculineandtherefore,peopleascribemostof
the features of a leader as masculine (Carli and Eagly 2011). As a result, when
womendonotmatchwiththisillusionofthemasculineleader,themisfitprovokes
anegativeeffectontheirpromotions(EaglyandKarau2002).Thesemismatches
are created as part of brain associations. Moreover, everyday psychological
processesareassociatedwithalevelofprejudicecreation(EaglyandCarli2007a).
Furthermore,someofthosementalassociationsunderlieprejudicetowardwomen
leaders.Infact,theprincipalbiasofclassifyingpeopleiscategorizingthemdirectly
bygenderorsex5(Stangoretal.1992).Thisimmediatelyevokesassociationsand
expectationsofwhat societyunderstands in termsofmasculinity and femininity
(EaglyandCarli2007a).InastudydonebyKoenigetal.(2011)itwasconcluded
thattherewasa“strongandrobusttendencyforleadershiptobeviewedasculturally
masculine” (Koenig et al. 2011:637). Additionally, the amount of unpaid labour
carryingfamilyresponsibilitieshasagreaterimpactonthisstatementasitisviewed
asoneoftheelementsofwhatconformsthegendergapinorganizations(Carliand
Eagly2011)Indeed,“onaverage,womenspendmoretimethanmenonchildcareand
5Genderisnotthesameassex.“Genderreferstotheroles,behaviours,activities,attributesandopportunitiesthatanysocietyconsidersappropriateforgirlsandboys,andwomenandmen.Genderinteractswith,butisdifferentfrom,thebinarycategoriesofbiologicalsex”(WHO2020b).Otherwise,sex“referstothebiologicalcharacteristicsthatdefinehumansasfemaleormale”(WHO2020a).
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houseworkinallnations”(CarliandEagly2011:249).Again,mentalassociationscan
resultpervasiveandinfluentialevenwhenpeoplearenotawareofthem.Ifpeople
arenotabletorecognizethisculturalconstructions,thebeliefsandbehavioursthat
emergefromthosepre-judgementscouldhelptomaintaintheideaofmenasnatural
leaders (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Moreover, the perceptions that constitute the
relationships between management and more masculine leader roles relate to
implicittheoriesthatresultfromstereotypes(RyanandHaslam2007).Thenegative
outcomeofmentalassociations,therefore,canberapidlylinkedwithstereotypes
attributedtothefeminineandmasculinerole.
Stereotypes
Stereotypesaresocialconstructionsthatpeopleadoptintheirmindsandthatare
highly resistant to be changed (Harquail 2008; Heilman and Eagly 2008). Thus,
stereotypescanbeclassifiedintodescriptiveandprescriptivebeliefs6(Cialdiniand
Trost1998).Then,descriptivestereotypesdescribewomenaswarmandcommunal
(Heilman2001),whereasprescriptive stereotypesdictate thatwomenshouldbe
communal (Eagly and Karau 2002). Consequently, social psychologists had
examined towhat extend it is crucial to limit their influenceby recognizing that
thosestereotypeshavebeenactivatedsimplyasaculturalconstruction(Blairand
Banaji1996;KundaandSpencer2003).Thedamagingeffectsofstereotypesseem
to be a paradox (Eagly and Mladinic 1994; Koenig et al. 2011; Langford and
Mackinnon2000).Women,whichareperceivedrelatedwithmorepositivecultural
stereotypessuchaskindness,experienceworkplacediscriminationasa resultof
arolecongruitytheorymismatch(EaglyandKarau2002).Thistheoryexplainshow
biasedevaluationsexistasaconsequenceofframingwomenascommunalandmen
andleadersasagentic7.Asaresult,often,womenareexpectedtotakecareandmen
totake charge. Hence,these associations comprise the basis for gender
stereotypes(EaglyandCarli2007a). Indeed, the internalizationof thesenegative
6Descriptivebeliefs: consensualexpectationabouthowa socialgroupactuallydoes;andprescriptivebeliefs:consensualexpectationsofwhatgroupmembersshoulddo.7Communalqualitiesare referredas those suchas concern forothers, sensitivity,warmth,helpfulnessandnurturance(EaglyandKarau2002;Heilman2001);agenticqualitiesarereferredasthosesuchasconfidence,assertiveness,independence,rationality,anddecisiveness(EaglyandCarli2007a).
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perceptionsofmismatchoccursandisknownasthestereotypethreat.Then,itmay
affectnegativelytowomen’saspirationsandefficiencyasleaders(HoytandMurphy
2016).
Whenpeopleassociatemenwitheffectiveleaders,theparadigmofthinkmanager-
thinkmale (Scheil 1973) is observed. This paradigm focuses on traits shared by
managerswithmenandwomenindependently.Then,itconcludedthatmenshared
moremanagerialattributesthanwomendidasagenticrolesweremorelinkedto
leadership.Additionally,thethinkmanager-thinkmaleassociationsupportsmany
ofthegenderinequalitiesintheorganization(Ryanetal.2011).Yet,thisparadigm
has weakened somewhat throughout the years as contemporary descriptors of
leadership contemplate more feminine stereotypical qualities (Epitropaki and
Martin2004).Despitethis,recentstudiesstillviewmanagementaspossessingmore
agentic, and therefore masculine, characteristics (Sczesny 2003). Then, these
cultural stereotypes provide men with a palpable advantage as they will be
immediatelyrecognizedasmale,andconsequently,masculineassociationswillbe
activated.Hence,menwillbeseenasapossibleeffective leader (EaglyandCarli
2007a). So,whilegender stereotypesassistmenon theirway toelite leadership
roles,theycomplicatethenavigationforwomenthroughthelabyrinth(Wigboldus,
Dijksterhuis, and Van Knippenberg 2003). Precisely,women carrying leadership
positionsstereotypicallymasculinefeeldevaluatedastheyarecomparedtotheir
malecounterparts(Eagly,Makhijani,andKlonsky1992).
Double Bind
As previously discussed, the mismatch of women performing communal
behaviours and the demand of agentic roles in leadership contributes to
discrimination in theworkplace. The dilemma that arises from this is known as
thedouble bind.Furthermore, the double bind leads to a double standardwhen
womenreceivelowerevaluationsthanmaleleadersequallycompetent(Eaglyetal.
1992). Understanding this dilemmamight help in learning how to balance both
roles, and therefore, have the ability to navigate the labyrinth (Eagly and Carli
2007a).Ontheonehand,womeninrolesofpowermightbeseenasnotsufficient
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warm or sensitive when displaying an agentic performance, because of female
stereotypesassociationstocommunalattributes.Ontheotherhand,womenmight
notbeperceived as agentic enough inbecoming effective leaderswhen fulfilling
somehowthefemininegenderrole(CarliandEagly2011;EaglyandCarli2007a;
Ibarra,Ely,andKolb2019).Then,theymightbedislikedwhenshowingtoomuch
agency(Bowles,Babcock,andLai2007)andperceivedasineffectiveleaderswhen
displaying amore communal role (Hoyt2010).More concretely, thedouble bind
penalizeswomeninbothways.Womenhavetraditionallybeenassociatedwiththe
caring andnurturing attributes, so, pleasingbehaviours arenot a bonus in their
performance.Inotherwords,itdeniesthemthepowerandbenefitsofbeingentirety
communal(EaglyandCarli2007a).
Given thedouble bind, it is not surprising to imagine that resistance against the
influence8ofwomen leaders exists. This resistance causesmore obstacles in the
labyrinth forwomenseekingauthoritarianand influentialpositions(Carli2001).
Hence, the double bind creates resistance in different domains (Eagly and Carli
2007a).However,themostimportantoneisthemen’sresistancetomoreagentic
womenleaders. Inthiscase,menespeciallyopposeandresistwomenwhotryto
influenceinthesamewaymenaresupposedtolead.Thatisshowingpowerbymore
authoritarianmanners (Carli 2004). In some cases, resistance can sadly lead to
sexualharassmentintheworkplace(Bondetal.2004;EaglyandCarli2007a).Also,
thedouble bindcarries concerns around women leadership competence when
observingalackofagency.Hence,towomenthatdisplayexceptionalperformances,
additional demands are asked.However, and because of the double standard,
women might be impeded to obtain the desired job position and to attaining
leadership(CarliandEagly2011).Additionally,thisdoublestandardissometimesa
hurdleandcanbe tough toeliminateorevenreduce.Whendescribingamanor
womanas“competent”,itdoesnotneedtoevoketothesameideaforbothgenders
(Biernat 2003). Therefore, even when evaluating the same abilities, group
stereotypesmayinfluencethemeaningsofcompetence.Nevertheless,womenmay
takeadvantageofthisdoublestandardbecausepeopleareawareofalltheobstacles
8 Influence is one of the requirements of effective leadership and, therefore, is crucial in the display of amanagerial role. Moreover, influence assists in achieving collective efficacy as well as reinforcing the self-conceptofleaderandenhancingteamperformance,amongothers(Hannahetal.2008).
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andchallengesthatshehasfacedtooccupythathighmanagerialrole.So,shecould
beseen,atsomepoint,asmorecompetentastheirmalepeers(RosetteandTost
2010).Moreover,womenareawareofthisreality(EaglyandCarli2007a).Then,for
women to become influential, the double bind requires a balancing act between
thosecommunalandagenticroles.Hence,womenleadersneedtoconsiderhowto
equallydisplayagenticcharacteristicsregardedasessentialforleadershipwithout
infringingthegenderstereotypesassociatedtothefeminineact(Gipsonetal.2017).
LEADERSHIP STYLES AND BEHAVIOURS
Concerningwomen’scommunalexpectation,theassumptionaroundhowwomen
shouldbehaveasleaders,andasaconsequencetheirleadershipstyles9,alsoneeds
acomment.Thereexistsavastbodyofpastresearchthatconcludesthatthereare
nogenderdifferencesinleadershipstyles,however,somefindingsexplainedthat
thismightnotactuallybetrue(BurkeandCollins2001;EaglyandJohnson1990).
Since individuals beliefs of leadership roles are more related to masculine
attributes, women are seen as less effective in comparison to their male peers
(Powell,Butterfield,andBartol2008).Hence,womenleadersfacethechallengeof
cultivating an effective leadership style, in response to the double bind and the
balancing act of communal and agentic qualities (Eagly and Carli 2007b).
Stereotypically, women are more engaged in participative and people-oriented
managerialroles,byinvolvingemployeesinthedecisionmaking(EaglyandJohnson
1990;Mast2004).Asgendernormstendedtoclassifymenintask-orientedstyles,
performing in an authoritarian way was more commonly effective than the
participativeonedisplayedbywomen(EaglyandCarli2007a).Despitethisgender-
biasedclassification,somestudieshaveconcludedthatwomenandmenareequal
in their task-orientedcompetence.Moreover,bothgendersperformedequally in
task-orientationwhenpositionswerealignedwiththegenderconventions.Evenso,
women slightly exceed in intrapersonal qualities (Eagly and Johnson 1990).
Therefore,somecouldarguethatthismightsupposeanadvantageifleadershiphad
no gender prejudices. There exists a growing tendency that displaying more
9Aleadershipstyleisdefinedasthesetofcharacteristicsdisplayedbyamanager(EaglyandCarli2007a).
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leadership behaviours considered communal, such as the individualized
consideration component of transformational leadership (Bass 1985), helps in
being an effective leader (Rosette and Tost 2010). Nonetheless, because some
behavioursinthisstyleareculturallyfeminineandconsistentwiththefemalerole
insocietyofcaringandbeingsupportive,itcaneventuallypresentapitfall(Eagly
andCarli2007a).Asmentionedabove, ifwomen leadersareexpected tobehave
communallyaspartoftheirnature,itcouldresultinadenialofpromotionsforthem.
Consequently,fewerwomenwouldbeabletoascenttohighermanagerialpositions.
ORGANIZATIONAL OBSTACLES
Mentalassociationsleadto,notonlydiscriminatebecauseofculturalbeliefsbutalso
influence organizational policies and practices (Eagly and Carli 2007a).
Organizations have their own structures and culture. Therefore, obstacleswhen
navigating the labyrinth can also be found in gender inequalitywithin primarily
institutional processes and human resources (HR) related decision-making
(StamarskiandSonHing2015).Also,thelevelofdecision-makers’sexismcanaffect
thelikelihoodtodisplaygender-baseddiscriminatoryactions.Womenhavegained
a lot of leadership territory inworldwide organizations. Even so, a considerable
transformationneedstotakeplacebeforewomencouldenjoyequalityinaccessing
leadership (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Inequal treatment among women can be
observed inmany forms, however, only a few of themwill be explained in this
section.
Institutional Barriers
Thefour-featuremodelofStamarskiandSonHing(2015)willbeused,along
withadditionalresearch, in theattempt toexplainhowinstitutionalbarrierscan
provokesynergiesthatcouldbeaffectingwomen’sadvancement.Theorganization
is governed by people,whichmeansHR and institutional policies could directly
affect a group of people regardless of skills, competences or abilities. Then,
discrimination against women can appear in policies such as evaluations,
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opportunities that foster performance reward and hiring, among others. Hence,
whenthereexistgenderdifferencesintheapplicationofthesepolicies,itcouldbe
asaresultofexplicitwrittengenderedHRpractices.Itisneededtotakeintoaccount
thatsuchdecisionsaroundtheHRdepartmenthave“significanteffectsonwomen’s
career” as they determine terms such as “selection, performance evaluation, and
promotions”(StamarskiandSonHing2015:4).Inaddition,suchdecisioncanbelot
more disadvantageous and amplifiedwhenwomen are not found in congruence
withthefemininerole.Besideswhenwomenactinamoreagenticmannerthanthey
should behave (Eagly et al. 1992). Consequently, women performing more
assertivelymightberatedinferiorlythantheircomparablemalepeers(Heilmanand
Okimoto 2007). Leadership can affect in the institutionalizing process of gender
inequalities (Stamarski and SonHing 2015). Likewise, leaders communicate and
incorporatebusinesspolicies.Hence, theyareresponsible foraligning thevalues
andcultureoftheorganizationthroughemployees'functions.Underrepresentation
ofwomenleaderscan,indeed,beperpetuatedasthegenderofmanagementleaders
“affectsthedegreetowhichthereisgenderdiscrimination,gendersupportivepolicies,
andagenderdiversitysupportiveclimatewithinanorganization”(Ostroff,Kinicki,
andMuhammad2012;StamarskiandSonHing2015:6).Inadditiontothesefacts,
organizationsaskformoreinvolvementofemployeesintermsofdemandinglong
shifts and more devotion (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Therefore, as higher the
managerialposition,themoretimeisrequired.Asaconsequence,forwomen,who
aresubjecttomorefamilyresponsibilities(CarliandEagly2011),itcomplicatesthe
reconciliationbetweenpersonalandmanagerialtasks.
The Effect of Hostile and Benevolent Sexism
Inanattempttodeeplyevaluatehowthestructureofanorganizationmay
affect women’s performance through the labyrinth, this project also comments
sexismwithintheorganization.Thisthemeistheresultofthosementalassociations
and expectations on women’s as carers in accordance to the feminine role.
Theambivalentsexismtheoryclassifiessexismintotwodifferenttypes:hostileand
benevolentsexism(GlickandFiske1996).Hostilesexismrelatestonegativefemale
stereotypes –such as incompetency, emotional instability or even sexually
EME10 16
manipulative– whereas benevolent sexism is defined as that desire to “protect”
themand therefore,keep them frompositionsodpower.Besides,hostile sexism
involves the supremacy ofmen amongstwomen. In contrast, benevolent sexism
signalspositivityinwomenworkers,aslongastheyoccupytraditionallyfeminine
roles and therefore, they actually are weak and in need of male’s protection
(Stamarski and Son Hing 2015). Then, if decision-makers are, in effect, sexists,
discriminatory institutional decisions will continue to be made in both directly
(hostile sexism involves negative consequences for women’s access to high
authoritarianmanagerialpositions)andindirectly(ine.g.preventingtheiraccessto
morecomplicatedtasks)ways(Kingetal.2012;MasserandAbrams2004).Thus,
levels of these sexist attitudes addmore obstacles to women’s pathways to the
excellenceastop-ratedmanagers.
Social Capital
Managers spend significant time in informal interactions, and these are
sometimes even more important when escalating to positions of power in
hierarchicalcompaniesthanhavinganextensiveskillset(EaglyandCarli2007a;
Seibert,Kraimer,andLiden2001).Thesespecificinformalinteractionsarereferred
as social capital. Then, “social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential
resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less
institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition which
provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively-owned capital”
(Bourdieu1986:21).Womenareawareoftheimportanceofbuildinganetworkof
relationships even though these may lack bureaucratic rationality. Nonetheless,
theymightfacedifficulties.Notbylackingunderstandingofhowtheseinteractions
work,butbecauseoffamilyresponsibilityneedsimplyinggendersegregation(Eagly
and Carli 2007a). Moreover, even if women do not have these types of
responsibilities, theymight be aminority in the organization,which alsowould
obstacletheirpathwaysandsocialcapitalbuilding.If,therefore,womenareinmale-
dominated fieldsorcompanies,womenwouldusuallyhave less legitimacyanda
decent power position in those networks. Nevertheless, it is in those fields that
mentoring,bynormallymen,couldhelpingainingmorerecognitionandsupport
EME10 17
(Moore 1988, 1990). In addition, because men are those that control these
interactions, they base their networks in masculine activities (Eagly and Carli
2007a). Although networks are typically segregated, in more gender-integrated
organisations, women might be more successful in establishing supportive
relationshipswiththeirmalecounterparts.Furthermore,itisnottosaythatwomen
canalsobenefitfromtheirrelationshipswithotherwomen.Then,inthisgender-
based interactionswomenwouldbeclosely tohavingrolemodels,gainingsocial
supportandinformationabouthowtodealwithdiscriminatoryissues.
A REPRISE
Thisfirstpartoftheprojecthashighlightedthepathwaysthatleadtothelabyrinthic
obstacleswomenhavefacedthroughouttheyears,andcontinuetoface,inmanagerial
andleadershippositions.Theseobstacles,althoughcategorizedinthreedifferentsub-
sections,aremainlydescribedasbeingpartofan intrinsicpaternalistic, sexistand
discriminatoryviewofhowwomenaresupposedtobehave.Thesegenderedbiasand
prejudices expand and create other added challenges to women’s advancement in
executivepositions.However,womenarecontinuouslyescalatingtotop-managerial
echelons so, itmight seem, that they cangainprestigeandauthority regardless of
thesehard-to-beatimpediments.
II. PATHWAYS OUT OF THE LABYRINTH
Thislabyrinthisnotpossibletobesolvedonlyforwomenbutalsowiththe
helpofbehaviouralandorganizational-orientedpractices(EaglyandCarli2007a).
Notwithstandinganddespitetheslowness,womenareadvancingintomorevisible
executive roles.Moreover, the presence ofwomen into elite leadership jobs has
recentlyboosted.Indeed,havingwomenleadersisseenasasymbolofmodernity
and future-oriented stewardship among companies (Carli and Eagly 2011). This
sectiongivesageneralansweronhowtoovercometheobstaclesanddeadends
previously explained in theproject. Therefore, the challenges are linked towhat
seemstobeeffectivesolutionsforwomenleaders.Overall,thisprojectwillexamine
EME10 18
threedifferentpathwaysoutof the labyrinth thatare the followingones:howto
balance those more communal qualities with the agentic ones expected from
leaders;thestructuralchangesthatwouldhelptoencouragewomentonavigatethe
labyrinth;andfinallyhowtoinvestinthosenecessarysocialinteractionswithother
executivecolleagues.
THE BALANCING ACT OF COMMUNAL AND AGENTIC PERFORMANCES
Therestillexistsamoreassociatedvisionoftheleadershiproletothemasculine
character,andthatseemstobeoneofthethoughtsbehindgenderprejudicesand
discriminationinbusiness.However,thisonesecond-generationbias10hasdeclined
becauseofamoreextended,butnotenough,divisionof labourandtheshift toa
more communal effective leading style (Carli and Eagly 2011; Rosette and Tost
2010).Moreover,womenmustdecidewhichleadershipstyleandbehaviourtotake
properly as the doubts that surge from stereotypes of communion and agency
converge in the double bind (Eagly and Carli 2007a). Hence, this is one of the
principal obstacleswithin the navigation of the labyrinth. First, women need to
developanexcellentlevelofcompetencetoconvincetheirmalepeersthattheyare
equally competitive in terms of ability. Then, to some extent, women can try to
weakenthelineofchoosingbetweendisplayinganassertiveorcaringperformance.
Todoso,blendingbothstylesbybeingbothdirectiveandverballysupportiveand
warmwoulddiminishthosedoubtsabouthertalentandagreeableness(Heilman
andOkimoto2007).Then,mixingbothmaleandfemalestereotypedtraitssuchas
assertiveness, competence, sensitivity, compassion and empathy would be key
(Eagly and Carli 2007a). Furthermore, the communal qualities often related to
women’sbehaviourcanincreasetheirinfluenceandsuccessasleaders(Carli1999).
Because womenmay face resistance if they present aggressive behaviours (see
double bind sub-section), displaying “an amalgam of agentic and communal
qualities”mighthelptopreventthatresistanceandtherefore,“gaininfluenceand
lead effectively” (Carli and Eagly 2011:259). However, resistance to women’s
managementistoughandevenstrongerinmale-dominatedpositions.Itisinthose
10Second-generationbiasreferstostereotypesandorganizationalpracticesthatcanbehardtodetect(Ibarra,Ely,andKolb2013).
EME10 19
job positions that demands on more authoritarian style reside, making more
challenging thebalancingact.Then,womenneed to learnhow to take credit for
accomplishments inanattempt to showothershowcompetent theyarewithout
feelinguncomfortableandunauthentic.Inreferencetothat,itisalsoneedtotake
intoaccountthatself-promotingstrategiesarerisk-takingforwomenasthedouble
bindremainspresentinthemindsofpeersandmanagementsuperiors(Eaglyand
Carli2007a).Hence,increasingpeople’sawarenessaboutthepsychologicaldrivers
ofprejudicetowardfemaleleaderscouldbehelpfulwhenworkingtodissipatethose
pre-judgments (Eagly and Carli 2007b:16). Also, learning how to negotiate
effectivelycanaffectinobtainingabetterleadershippositionorothermanagerial
and career advantages (Bowles and Flynn 2010). Moreover, negotiation is a
fundamentalformofcoordinationincompaniesandcontainssomefeaturesthrough
whichgenderinequalities,beingapervasiveandcrucialsourceofdiversityinthe
workplace,canemerge(BowlesandMcGinn2008).Becauseofthat,negotiationisa
significant issue of the navigation11 . Obtaining asmuch information as possible
could reduce or even avoid the pitfalls of underestimating women’s work.
Additionally,ifwomendonotfeelauthenticwhendisplayingsuchexecutiveroles
because of everything exposed during the first part of the project, the labyrinth
mightbeimpossibletonavigate(EaglyandCarli2007a).Hence,findingtheirways
toseethemselvesaseffectiveandrealleaderswouldalsobekey.Infact,creatinga
safespaceandacommunityinwhichwomencandiscusstheirleadershipidentities
withouttheneedtofeeljudgedhasactuallypositiveoutcomesinthesenseoffeeling
supportedandthereforenotashamedoffeelinggoodinaleadingexecutiveposition
(Ibarra et al. 2019). Nonetheless, a supportive organizational structure must
contributetowomen’sdevelopmentasleaders.Therefore,thenextsub-sectionis
dedicatedspecifically to thosepoliciesandacts thatcompaniescouldperformto
encourageandpromotegender.
11Forfurtherunderstandingofnegotiatingaspartoftheobstacleswithinthelabyrinth,checktheworkandresearchofBowlesetalandMazeietalindependently.Forunderstandingonhowgenderandsexstereotypesaffectpersistenceinnegotiationchecktheirworkfrom2010(BowlesandFlynn2010);Forunderstandinghowwomencandoforlegitimizingtheirclaimstotopleadershippositionsseetheirworkfrom2012(Bowles2012);Forfurtherunderstandinginwhichdegreegenderdifferencesaffectinnegotiationoutcomesandaffecteffectivenegotiationbehavioursseetheirworkfrom2015(Mazeietal.2015).
EME10 20
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES TO FOSTER GENDER utc
Throughout the project, it has been mentioned that organizational habits can
sometimes benefit men (Carli and Eagly 2011). Additionally, HR practices are
connected to organizational climates. These arise from what their members
experienceandarerelatedtoformalandinformalsharedperceptionsofroutines
andprocedures(Ostroffetal.2012;Schneider,Ehrhart,andMacey2010).Hence,
organizational climates can affect to perpetuate gender inequalities. In contrast,
theseclimatescanalsoprovideamorediverseandinclusiveculture(Stamarskiand
SonHing2015).Yet,organizationsoughttoappreciatethecomplexitiesoftheissue
andactinaccordancetopuzzleoutthelabyrinth(EaglyandCarli2007b).Thissub-
sectionrelatestothosepracticesthatcanbe implementedastoappreciatethose
complexities and to eliminate gender inequalities from organizational climates.
EaglyandCarli(2007b;2011)mentionedintheirworkseveralpoliciesinreference
tothat.Hence,thiswillbeexposedalongwithotherpiecesofresearch.
First, educating everyone about second-generation gender bias becausewithout
understandingwhatstereotypesareandwhymentalassociationsaremadeisthe
basisforbeingawareofthem.Consequently,womenmightthenfeelempoweredas
theywillknowwhichactionscanbetakeninordertosolveinequalities(Carliand
Eagly2011;Ibarraetal.2019).Secondly,changinghiring,performanceevaluation
andpromotionprocessesinto lesssubjectiveandmorecriticalonescouldaimto
leavebehindtheeffectsof lingeringprejudicethatsurgesfromtheseprocedures.
Hence,promotingopen-recruitmenttoolsandnotrelyingonlyininformalnetworks
to fill positions and establishing transparent and explicit criteria to limit the
influenceofdecision-makers’personalbiases(CarliandEagly2011;EaglyandCarli
2007a;Ibarraetal.2019).Lastly,womenmayfeelmoreauthenticandsaferwhen
discussinggenderissueswithotherwomen(EaglyandCarli2007a).Consequently,
ensuring that there is a critical mass of other women executive and therefore
avoidinghavingonlyonefemalememberperteam.Indeed,thiscouldincreasetheir
self-confidence and have those essential informal networks to succeed in top-
ranked managerial positions (Eagly and Carli 2007b). Additionally, the Grant
Thorntonreport(2019)highlightedsomeactions topromotegenderdiversity in
leadership such as ensuring equal access to developmental work opportunities,
EME10 21
providingmentoringandcoaching,reviewingrecruitmentapproachesandlinking
seniormanagementrewardstoprogressongenderbalancetargetsamongothers.
Nonetheless,company-specificcharacteristicsareneededtobe take intoaccount
when approaching thedifferentdiversity and inclusionpractices andpolicies, in
termsofgenderinthiscase.Therefore,context-specificissuesneedtoberecognized
andtreatedastotranscendthemostmainstreamperspectives.Consequently,the
applicationoftheseorganizationalchangeswouldneedtohaveasagoaltofacilitate
knowledgecreationandskillsandresources tomove forwardwith thisdiversity
initiatives(NishiiandÖzbilgin2007).
Thesepoliciesnormallyincreasefemaleleadership,however,ifnottakencontext-
properly, they could also lead to pitfalls (Sojo et al. 2016). Nevertheless, the
applicationofallthesehumanresources-relatedpracticesisnotonlyinthebenefit
ofwomen.Infact,menaremorecommitthaneverinthecaringoftheirchildrenand
family,so,theyhavethesameproblemsinbalancingworkandfamily.Evenso,they
might face more intolerance for these commitments. Therefore, good practices
applicationisadvantageousforbothmenandwomenintheiractiveinvolvementin
off-workactivities(EaglyandCarli2007a).Finally,investinginsocialcapitalcanbe
itself a solution for evading thedead endswith theuseof specific practices and
organizationalmethodologiessuchtheonesexplainedinthefollowingsub-section.
INVESTING IN SOCIAL CAPITAL
Amajorbarrierhappenstobethelackofaccesstoinfluentialcolleagues(Ibarraet
al.2019)andbecauseinformalinteractionsarecrucialtorisetopositionsofpower,
ifwomen do not have enough access to them, they findmore obstacles to their
advancement(EaglyandCarli2007a).Participatinginnetworks,therefore,creates
social capital. As seen in the social capital sub-section,womenneed to establish
supportive and emotional relationships with both their male and female
counterparts.Additionally,womenneed to join anddevelop thesenetworks and
also cultivate them in a strategic manner (Moore 1988). Furthermore, time-
managementskillsandresourcesavailable forwomenmightbemanagedtodeal
alsowiththisissue(EaglyandCarli2007a).Notonlyinvestinginsocialcapitalis
EME10 22
buildingtrustworthyrelationshipsbutalsobeingclosetomakingachangebyacting
directly near to those who have that paternalistic and stereotyped view of
management and in general. Moreover, since family obligations are principally
underwomen'sresponsibility,havingthepossibilitytoworkflexibleshiftswould
helpinboththeirnot-paidlabourandtobeabletomanagetheirtimeastodevelop
those essential ties (Perschel 2008). Indeed, changing the long-hours norm and
organizationalmindsetofbeingthattheprimeindicatorofsomeone’sdevotionfor
thecompanycouldalsomakewomenmeetwithalltypesofresponsibilities(Ibarra
etal.2019).Onesolutioncouldbementoring,asitcouldhelp,apartfromshowing
how organizations is structured, by offering acceptance and coaching through
personalsupport(EaglyandCarli2007a).Moreover,“whenawell-placedindividual
whopossessesgreaterlegitimacytakesaninterestinawoman’scareer,hereffortsto
build social capital can proceed far more efficiently” (Eagly and Carli 2007b:17).
Other practices that a company can adopt are family-friendly human resources
practices(PrusakandCohen2005).
EME10 23
FINAL THOUGHTS
Althoughitslimitations,thisstudyaroundthelabyrinthmetaphorandtheissueof
whyandhowwomenarestillunderrepresentedinleadershiproleshasgivensome
insightsonbothcausesandsolutionstothosetwistingpathwaysthatdrivewomen
to constant challenges and dead ends in their career’s advancement.Women no
longerconfrontmonolithicbarriers.Yet, impedimentsstillexist,creatingindirect
paths that hardly enable women to succeed in high leadership positions.
Discrimination, negative mental associations linked to feminine behaviours and
stylesandorganizationalpoliciesthatmostlyfavourmenrepresentthemaincause
of female lesser advancement in business. Indeed, attitudes and societal beliefs
towardsthesegregateddivisionoflabourandresponsibilitiesbeyondmanagerial
onesdonothelpinbalancinggenderedroles.
Recently,leadershiproleshavebeenshiftingtoamorecommunalstyle,whichmight
helpwomenbyfacilitatingthemtoperformabalancingactbetweencommunaland
agenticqualities.Moreover,ifbusinesseswereeducatedinamoreinclusiveandnot-
gendered-biasmanner, itwouldbepossible to reducestereotypeddecisionsand
perceptionsthatcouldleadtotheparadigmofthinkmanager-thinkmale.Then,it
wouldbepossibletoreducetheexistingresistancetofemaleleadersandmakethem
feelmoreempowered.Thisprojecthasmademedevelopmoremycriticalthinking,
clarify what I already thought about which were the issues that needed to be
addressed and havemore technical understanding on the reasons. I continue to
believethatbyunderstandingtherootsoftheproblemsandbytryingtostudyit
fromdifferent perspectives, people becomemore aware and changingwhat you
dislikecanbepossible.Thegendered-biasedorsegregationissuesthatcompanies
faceare,mainly,becauseofsocialconstructionssuchasstereotypesthatcreatea
negative associationbetween the leader role and the feminine one.Besides, this
associations are cultural,whichmeans that society itself inevitably continues to
expandthementalityofwomenastheonesthattakecare,andmenastheonesthat
takecharge.Itisnotonlythatmenneedtodeconstructtheirmasculinityandallow
themselvestofeelandactinaccordancetotheirinnatebeliefs,butforwomento
speakupandtonotreflectwiththosebiasedmentalities.
EME10 24
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