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TheLandowner’sGhosts:RealismandFinancializationinContemporaryLatinAmericanFiction

ErickaBeckman

Workinprogress:Donocitewithoutpermissionofauthor

In1994,theliteraryandculturalcriticJeanFranconotedthatLatinAmericanculture

hadentereda“BlackPeriod”ofuncertaindurationafter1989,inwhichmanywriters—long

committedtocraftingradicalvisionsofthefuture—“arestillmourningtheendofutopia.”The

endofutopia,writesFranco,hailsmostdirectlyfromthefailureofrevolutionaryprojects

acrosstheregion,andtraumaofcounterrevolutionarymilitaryregimes,theresultofwhichwas

“aneweraofmodernizationundertheaegisofneoliberalism.”Thiscontexthelpsexplainsthe

turninLatinAmericanfictiontotheworkofmourningandrestitution,asinstudiesbyIdelber

AvelarandAlbertoMoreiras;aswellasthestronglydystopiancharacterofmuchrecentcultural

production,asrecentlystudiedbyFranco,MaryLouisePrattandIleanaRodríguez,among

others.

ThepresentessaystudieshowLatinAmericanfictionhasattemptedtonarratethe

blockageofrevolutionitself,and—intheaftermathofanti-communistcounter-insurgencyand

scorchedearthcampaigns—theconsolidationofaparticularlybrutaleraofcapital

accumulation.Forthepurposeofthisvolumeon“thecontemporary,”Iamparticularly

interestedinhowtwoworksofrecentfiction—ArturoFontaine’sOírsuvoz(1992)andHoracio

CastellanosMoya’sLadiablaenelespejo(2000)—attempttonarratetheneoliberalpresentby

resurrectingoldhistoricalfiguresandcastingtheminnewroles.Whiledifferinginformand

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style,whatthesetwonovelsfromChileandElSalvador,respectively,haveincommonistheir

attempttonarratecontemporarycapitalisttransitionthroughmembersofanolderoligarchic

regime,aclassthatwhiletemporarilydefeatedbyrevolutionandreform,cometopersonifya

newmodeoffinancialaccumulationinthecurrentera.

LandowningoligarchshavebeenamainstayofLatinAmericanfictionsincethe19th

century,infoundationaltextssuchasJorgeIsaacs’MaríaandMachadodeAssis’Memórias

póstumasdeBrasCubas,totwentieth-centuryclassicssuchasRómuloGallegos’DoñaBárbara

andJuanRulfo’sPedroPáramo.Infact,apowerfulargumentmightbemadethatatleastuntil

themid-twentiethcenturyLatinAmericanliteratureisaliteratureoflandownersandtheirilk;

andsoitisnotthatsurprisingthattheirstayingpower—atleastonanimaginarylevel—carries

overintothepresent.WhatIaminterestedinprimarily,however,ishowlandowners—inspite

oftheirreputationasbackwardandfeudalremnants,outofstepwithmodernlife—are

imaginedinrecentfictionasencapsulatingtheverylogicofcontemporaryneoliberalism.This

isononelevelcounterintuitive:itispreciselybecauseofthereactionarycharacterof

landownersinmid-20thcenturyLatinAmericathatnationalbourgeoisiesandtheLeftagreed

thattheyneededtobeeliminated.Andindeed,landreformprogramsbeguninthe1960s,

togetherwithacceleratingtransitionstocapitalistagriculturefromthe1970s-presentare

widelyrecognizedascontributingtothedeathofthistheclassacrossmuchofLatinAmerica.1

AndyetinthecontemporaryfictionIexaminehere,itispreciselythesedefeatedoldguard

1OnPeru,seeMayer.Chile,Bengoa,Riesco.ElSalvador,Robinson.Butthereareofcoursesignificantdivergences.Mexico—Revolutionarylandreformprogramsearlyinthe20thcenturydestroyhaciendaandrerouteaccumulationthroughthePRI.Argentina—earlycapitalistmechanizationandnolandreformever.Colombia,alsonolandreform,andmostprolongedruralguerrillaconflictinthehemisphere.

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eliteswhofunctionasharbingersofanewfinancializederainthepostrevolutionary,neoliberal

period.Asarguedbelow,thisispossiblebecauselandownershighlighttherestorativenatureof

neoliberalismasaclassprojectinLatinAmerica,butalsobecausethemainhistorical

tendenciesofthelandowningclass—predatory,rent-based,extractive—reemergeandbecome

dominantinneoliberalism.

Iamalsofundamentallyinterestedinthewaysinwhichrealistandproto-realistform

mightallowustoglimpsealargertotalityofsocialrelationsundercontemporarycapitalism.To

recallFredricJamesonwordsin“CognitiveMapping,”even“narrativesofdefeat”allow“the

wholearchitectonicofpostmodernglobalspacetoriseupinghostlyprofilebehinditself,as

someultimatedialecticalbarrierorinvisiblelimit.”(352-3).Inthissense,Iaminterestedin

whatnarrativesofdefeatedrevolutionscantellusaboutourownpresent.2

1.LandownersandChileanfinancialrealism

ArturoFontaine’snovelOírsuvoz(ToHearHerVoice,1992)isanattempttodepict,in

realistfashion,thefinancialworldresultingfromwhatwasarguablytheworld’sfirstradical

experimentwithneoliberaleconomicrestructuring.Intheaftermathofthe1973militarycoup

againstSalvadorAllende’ssocialistPopularUnitygovernment,thePinochetdictatorship,

guidedbyagroupUniversityofChicago-trainedChileaneconomists(knownasthe“Chicago

Boys”),undertookradicalmeasurestoprivatizestateindustries,attractforeigninvestment,and2InfocusingonhowLatinAmericanliteratureconjuresthe‘ghostlyprofile’ofpostmodernglobalspace,thisessayowesmuchtoToscanoandKunkle’supdatingofJameson’sconceptofcognitivemappinginCartographiesoftheAbsolute.AndinitscommitmenttoLatinAmericanliteraryinvocationsoftotality,IalignmyprojectwiththatofEmilioSauriandEugenioDiStefanoin“MakingitVisible:LatinAmericanistCriticism,LiteratureandtheQuestionofExploitationToday.”

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(re)openthenationaleconomytointernationalcompetition.Theseeconomicpolicieswere

implemented,asmanyhavealreadydiscussed,intandemwithstateterror(tortureandforced

disappearances)inanefforttoextirpate,inthefavoredphraseofthemilitaryregime,the

‘Marxistcancer’destroyingthenation.

MuchChileanpost-coupliteratureattemptstoexpress,onthelevelofform,theeffects

ofstateterrorandtheforeclosureofrevolutionarypossibility;DiamelaEltit’sneo-avant-garde

novelLumpérica(1983)isawell-knownexample.And,asAlessandroFornazzarihasarguedin

hisstudyofcapitalistcounterrevolutionandcultureinChile,JoséDonoso’sCasadecampo

(1976)turnstoallegorytoexpresstheimpossibilityofrealistrepresentationinaworld

dominatedbythecommodityform.InFontaine’snovel(whichisalsostudiedbyFornazzari,

andwhoseanalysisIdrawfrombelow),somethingverydifferentisafoot:stateterrorremains

decidedlyatthemarginsofthistext,aswhenaminorcharacter,thePresidentofChile’sCentral

Bank,muses,atonepointthathistorywilljudgetheregimeharshlyforitshumanrightsabuses.

CITE.Likewise,neartheendofthenovel,wehearthestrainsofthefirstmajorstreetprotests

againstthePinochetregime;thispresenceonlyservesasbackgroundnoise,however,tothe

novel’smainfocus:thederegulated,privatizedandfinancializedbusinessmilieuofearly1980s

Chile.

Thefour-hundred-plus-pagenovelissaturatedinrealistdetailaboutthismilieu:

charactersengageinconversationsaboutirrigationtechniquesforkiwiproduction,attemptsto

foundaprivatetelevisionstation,accountingpracticestohidemoney,andbattleswiththe

CentralBankoverexchangerates.Suchdetails,inturn,areanchoredbytwointersecting

storylines:first,theriseandfallofAliroToro’sbusinessgroup,runoutofabankthatwas

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nationalizedunderthesocialistPopularUnityGovernmentandprivatizedunderthePinochet

dictatorship;andsecond,theclandestineaffairbetweenFernándezPelayo,ajournalistfora

glossymagazine,andAdelaida,anadvertisingcopywriter.Eachofthesestoriesgrindtoahalt

withtheChileanbankingcrisisof1981:Toro,togetherwithhiseconomicadviser,the“Chicago

Boy”MempoTaburinini,isjailedforfinancialfraud;andPelayolosesAdelaidawhenshe

returnstoherhusbandandchildren.

ThefocusofOírsuvozishencesimultaneouslylimitedtoaspecificclassmilieuand,in

contrastwithmuchpost-coupfiction,resolutelydeterminedtocreateavisionofsocialtotality

viarealistrepresentation.Fontaine’sversionofrealismcanbedirectlylinkedtotheriseof

neoliberalism,andespeciallyfinance-drivenaccumulation,inmid-1970sChile.First,itisa

visionoftotalitythatlimitsitselftothevictorsofthecapitalistcounter-revolution,excluding

thesocialsectorsagainstwhichthecoupwaswaged--radicalizedworkers,peasants,and

students.Onadeeperlevel,Fontaine’srealistprojectmightbeembeddedintheideological

attempttocreatenewbasesforapproaching‘reality’itselfinthepost-coup,neoliberal

landscape.AsFornazzarihasalreadynoted,Oírsuvozmightbeapproachedasaliteraryrealist

versionofthefoundingdocumentofChileanneoliberalism,knownasElladrillo(TheBrick).

Namedforitsunwieldysize,thetextscomposingElladrillowerepennedbyChicago-trained

economistsonthevergeofthe1973coup,andbecameblueprintforthemilitaryregime’sfirst

experimentwithneoliberalreformsinthemid-1970s.Strikingly,thisdocumentdeclaresitself

committedakindofeconomicrealism.Evenasthetextassumesthatupper-andmiddle-class

oppositiontosocialismunderthePopularUnitygovernmentwas“natural,”itself-consciously

retreatsfromideologytopresentneoliberalmarketreformsas“theonlyrealisticwaytotackle

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thehumanandsocialimprovementweallwantforourcountry”(19-20,emphasisadded).3

“Realistic”economicpolicy,whichinElladrillomeanstheprivatizationpublicservices,the

openingofnationalmarketstoforeigncompetition,andthecreationofadynamicmarketin

land,mightthusbeviewedasanantecedenttothevariantofliteraryrealismFontaineemploys

torepresentthesocialworldcreatedinthewakeofsuchpolicies.

Fontaine,itshouldbenoted,isequallyknowninChileasanovelistandasapublic

intellectual,whoservedfornearly30yearsasthedirectorofthecenter-rightthinktankCentro

deEstudiosPúblicos.Butitisnotinhispolicypapers—inwhichhecriticizesdictatorshipin

favorofliberaldemocracy,butlargelyembracesthefree-marketpoliciesinstatedbythe

dictatorship—thathecomesclosesttorepresentingcapitalisttransitioninChile.4Therealist

novel,thatis,stilloffersFontainespecialpurchaseonrepresentingeconomiclife.

Morespecifically,therealismFontaine’snovelcorrespondswiththeriseoffinanceasa

dominantmodeofaccumulationinneoliberalChile.AsLeighClaireLaBergehasshownforthe

UnitedStates,anewformofrealismemergedinthe1980sasakeymodeofrepresentingthe

riseoffinance.WorkssuchasThomasWolfe’snovelBonfireoftheVanitiesandOliverStone’s

WallStreet,LaBergeargues,“cement(ed)anewaestheticmodethatcapturedthewayanew

financialclasswasbeginningtoidentifyitselfanditseconomicobject,”intheprocess3“laúnicaformarealistadeafrontarelmejoramientosocialyhumanoquetodosansiamosparanuestropaís.”(19).Ofcourse,thissupposedlyscientificandnon-ideologicalturnineconomicdiscourseisitselfhighlyideological.4Asanexampleofthisdefenseoffreemarketsandcritiqueofdictatoship,Fontainemusesin1994(inthecontextofChile’sreturntoliberaldemocracy):“Paraquienesapoyamosfirmementelasreformasencaminadasallibremercado,peronoacostadeunquiebredemocrático,elproblemaconsisteencómogenerarlascondicionespolíticas,económicasyculturalesquefavorezcanelliderazgodemocrático”(417).Thisevenasheopenlyrecognizesthatitwouldhavebeenimpossibletointroducefree-marketreformsinChilewithoutthe1973coup.

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reimagining“theeconomy”tomeanfinanceitself,andlendingasoliditytothefinancialworld

throughrealisttechnique.ArturoFontainehashimselfbeencalleda“ChileanThomasWolfe”

andhisnoveldisplayssomestartlingsimilaritieswithwhatLaBergehasidentifiedaskey

characteristicsof“capitalistrealism”:theconfluenceofpersonalscandalandaggregatecrisis

(theillicitaffairandthefinancialfraudinthecontextthecrisisof1981-2);thesalienceof

‘financialmasculinity”(thefinancierAliroToro,whosenameafterall,means“bull”);andthe

centralityofinformationtotheplot(theknowledgeofwhetherexchangerateswillberaised).5

LaBerge’sdiscussionof“capitalistrealism”intheU.S.alsogeneratesmeaningful

particularitieswhentransposedontoChile,asemi-peripheralcountrywhoseneoliberal

transitionisrootedinthe1973US-supportedmilitarycoupagainstSalvadorAllende.6Along

theselines,thesalienceoflandowningelitesinFontaine’sstoryofcapitalisttransitioninChile

deservesspecialattention.Thenovel’stwomaincharacters–AliroToroandPelayo

Fernández—aroundwhichthemajornarrativestrandsareconstructed,arebothmembersof

theformerlypowerfullandedoligarchy.AccordingtoJoséBengoa,thehacienda(orfundoasit

isoftenreferredtoinChile)anditssocialrelationsfunctionedasthecountry’s“basicunitof5OnFontaineasaChileanThomasWolfe,seeRojo.6Thesecontextualdifferencesbetweencenterandsemi-peripheryneedtoinscribedinaglobalhistoryofcapitalcrisisandreorganizationsincethe1970s,meaningthatthe“ghostlyprofile”ofworldcapitalistrelationscanbeglimpsedinworksfrombothChileandtheU.S.InOírsuvoz,itisinconstantdebatesonwhethertheChileanpesoshouldbepeggedtothedollar(themilitaryregimes’searlyresponse)orfloat,intheubiquityoftheUniversityofChicago,intheimportedprestigegoodsthatflitthroughthenovel.Asmightbeexpected,(semi)peripheralcountrieslikeChilearelesspresentinworkssuchasBonfireoftheVanitiesandWallStreet.ItisperhapsinterestingtorecallthatinthefilmWallStreet,rightbeforeGordonGekko’sfamous“greedisgood”speech,aboardmemberaccusesthecorporateraideroftreatingtheircompanyasifitwere“somepiss-poorSouthAmericancountry.”Thisthrowawaycommentgesturestoalongerhistorynotrepresentedinthefilm:thefundamentalroleplayedbyThirdWorlddebtcrisesofthe1970sand1980s(andensuingstructuraladjustmentandausterityprograms)asmajorsourcesofwindfallprofitsforWallStreetbankinginstitutions.Onthislastpoint,seeHarvey.

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sociability”(Bengoa,page)untilthe1960s.ThisoligarchyhadbeencreatedbySpanish

colonialism,butrosetonewprominenceattheendofthe19thcenturywiththeexpansionof

agro-exportmarkets,especiallywheat.Inthe20th-centuryeraofnationaldevelopmentand

industry,however,thisclasscametobereviledbytheleftandthenationalbourgeoisiealike

foritspoliticalintransigienceandeconomicbackwardness.FortheNewChiletoemerge,both

ofthesesectorsagreed,thefundoanditssocialrelations(patriarchialism,unfreelabor)hadto

bedestroyed;thiswasindeedcarriedoutbylandreformprogramsbetween1965-1970,firstby

ChristianDemocratandthenbySocialistgovernments.

Historiansagreethatlandreformsoundedthedeathknellofthelandedoligarchyin

Chile.ItisthusevenmoresignificantthatinOírsuvoz,itisonlythroughrecoursetothisold

guardanditshistorythatFontainecanplotthecountry’sneoliberaltransitionunderPinochet.

Thestoryoffinancializationintheneoliberalera,thatis,isthestoryofareconfiguredlanded

elite,andvice-versa.MorethanfocusontheCentralBankbureaucratBarraza,orthescionof

thenational-industrialistfamilyEskenazi,Fontaineisinterestedinthedivergingpathsoftwo

formerlandowners:PelayoFernández,whopersonifiesalostattachmenttolandedwealth;

andAliroToro,whopersonifiesfictitiouscapitalitself.Thesedivergingpaths,Iargue,are

themselvescontemporaryexpressionsoftheJanus-facedcharacteroftheoldguard,andhence

itssymbolicandmaterialimportanceinthenew:atturnsstaticanddynamic;‘feudal’and

boundtotheglobalmarket;firmlyrootedinapastmodeofproductionanduniquelysuitedto

financial(andnot,forexample,industrial)modesofaccumulation.Moreover,thisaclassthat

isunwaveringlycounterrevolutionary,whichisultimatelywhyIthinkitremainsimportantin

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Fontaine’snarrativizationofcapitalisttransitionunderaneoliberalandatthesametime

neofacistregime.

FirstwecanexaminePelayo,amemberoflandowningfamilywhoseestateinthesouth

ofChileexpropriatedunderlandreformduringthePopularUnitygovernmentbegunin1970.A

decadelater,inthenovel’spresent,early1980s,hehasbecomeajournalist,writinginthe

glossymagazineMira(Look),preciselyaboutthe“NewChile.”Butthelossofthelandedestate

iswhatdefinesPelayo,evenasheretainsthesocialprestigeofthepreviousera(cheekily

drivingaVWBeetlewithaRollsRoycegrill).Inaflashbackscenesetimmediatelyafterthe

1973coup,PelayobringsAdelaidatohisfamily’sestateinsouthernChile.7

TheestatehadbeenexpropriatedbythePopularUnitygovernmentin1970,andhis

grandmotherhadrefusedtoacceptthereserveaccordedtothefamily.Asaresult,the

seigniorialhousehasfalleninastateofdecayanddisrepair.Pelayoblamesthedeclineon

“thosepeople”[esagente]—peasants—whoabsentanaffectiverelationshipwiththelandand

anyknowledgeofhowtoworkit,ruintheestate’svineyards.Insidethedecayinghouse,Pelayo

buildsafireandattemptstoconsummatehisrelationshipwithAdelaida.Butshe,sensing

perhapstherotbeyondthedampsmellofraulí(atypeofwoodfromSouthernChile)inthe

cozyroom,withdraws,andleavesPelayotomarryherestrangedboyfriend.Withthisrejection,

Pelayo’smelancholyoverthelossofthefamilyestateassumesadistinctshape,andis

transferredontothefigureofAdelaida,theunattainablewomanhewillpursuefortherestof

thenovel.

7Therearedefiniteautobiographicalstrainstothisstory:FontainehailsfromalandowningfamilyinsouthernChile.

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Notably,withPelayo,thenovelexpressesalandownerperspectiveofhistory:the

traumaticmomentisnot,aswehavecometoexpectofpost-coupfiction,the1973coup,but

ratherlandreform.Asidefrompredictableassociationsbetweenwomanandlandassitesof

malepossession,Pelayo’spursuitofAdelaidagesturestowardthewiderprocessof

dematerializationandabstractionrepresentedintherestofthenovelascharacteristicofthe

worldofbanking.AndwhilePelayodoesn’tparticipatedirectlyintheworldoffinancial

speculation,hisinabilitytoattainAdelaidaconjuresboththelossoflandandtheprocessof

dematerializationcharacteristicoffinancialization.Inthisregard,wecannotethatthetitleof

thenovel,Oírsuvoz,comesfromthephoneconversationthattakesplaceinthenovel’s

‘present’(1981),yearsafterbothPelayoandAdelaidahavemarriedotherpeople.Inthis

conversation,hecanonlyhearhervoice;hecannottouchher.Pelayoisfiguredhereand

throughoutthenovelasmalesubjectwhoexperiencesasunderingbetweensoundand

substance,inwhichpossessioncanbeexperiencedonlyastrace(memory,voices),but

separatedfromthethingitself(womanandland).

Chile’s‘greattransformation’underneoliberalismdoesnotonlysignifylossforold

regime,though.8AndPelayo’saristocraticmelancholyiscontrasted,inturn,withthemobility

anddynamismofanothersonofalandowningfamily,AliroToro,whointhePinocheterahas

cometodominateoneofthecountry’smostpowerfulfinancialgroups.Aliro,likePelayo,hails

fromlandowningclass,butwithatwist:hisfatherhadbeenanurbanspeculator,whoafter

losingeverythinginafraudulentteaspeculation,relocatedtohiswife’sfamily’sruralestate.

Fromthisplotdetail,Fontaineshowsawarenessofthepeculiarhistoryofthelandowningclass8JavierMartínezandAlvaroDíazusethistermtodescribeChile’scapitalistcounterrevolutionafter1973.

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inmodernChile,whichatdifferentmomentswaslimitedbytheestatesystemand,historically,

definedbyworldmarketand,especially,thecreditsystem.9Indeed,preciselybecauseof19th

centurylandowners’risetoprominenceasexportproducers(especiallywheat),theybecome

identifiedwithrent-basedwealth,speculation,andluxuryconsumption.10Thisconnectionwas

suspendedintheperiodofnational‘development’—whenlandowningsectordidinfact

stagnatewithrespecttonationalindustry—buttheconnectionisresurrectedintheneoliberal

era.

InOírsuvoz,itisparadoxically,orperversely,throughlandreformandsocialist

revolutionthatthehistoricalconnectionbetweenlandowningelitesandfictitiouscapitalcanbe

rebornandflourishinunexpectedways.When,intherevolutionaryatmosphereoftheUnidad

Popular,politicizedpeasantsbegintoexpropriateestates,AliroTorodoesnotdespair:instead,

inthespiritofhisspeculatorfather,he“ideósuprimernegocio”(loc647)(conceived/devised

hisfirstbusinessventure).Heagreestohelplandownersthreatenedwithexpropriation

negotiatetheretentionofareserveofland,andaspayment,keepsapercentageofthatland.

9ZeitlinandRadcliffemaintain,forexample,that19thcenturylandownerswereneverfeudal:instead,theywereengagedin“seigniorialcommodityproductioninagriculturethatemergedwhena‘world-embracingcommerceandaworld-embracingmarket’alreadyexistedandwhenindustrialcapitalwasalreadyascendantinEngland,whichstoodastrideworldcommerce.(153).Inthismanner,eventhebackwardelementsofthismodel(forcedlabor,non-mechanization),were“nottherelic(s)ofafeudalpastbuttheproductofcapitalistdevelopment.”(154,emphasisinoriginal).10ThomasC.Wrightshowsthatin19thcentury,wheatexportmarketsintegratedChile’slandedclassintocreditmarketstosuchanextentthatitbecomesynonymouswithnon-productivegainsofthefinancialworld:a1900attackontheoligarchyhecites,forexample,railsagainst“thesquanderingofthemoneyreceivedtocultivatetheland…onsterileluxuries,ongambling,onstupidfinancialcombinations”(32).

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Contradictorily,then,itpreciselythebreakupoftheoldestatesunderlandreform—apeasant

demandbackedbythesocialiststate—thatallowsTorotobeginto(re)accumulateland:

Alosdosaños,AliroToroeradueñodemásdecincomilhectáreasderulo,deescasovalor,enverdad,peroque,sinembargo,constituyeronsucapitalsemilla.Porqueesastierras,seguramentesobretasadas,constituyeronlahipotecaqueadquiriólacadenadesupermercados,suprimeragranvacalechera,sucashcow,comoleexplicaríandespuésaélmismoexpertosfinancieroscomoMempoTaburinini,cuandoelvolumedesusnegocioslollevóacontratartécnicoscomoél.(loc.658).(Aftertwoyears,AliroToroownedmorethan5,000hectaresofbarrenlandthatrealitywasn’tworththatmuch,butthatneverthelessformed/constitutedhisseedcapital.Becausethoselands,surelyovertaxed(orovervalued?),constitutedthemortgagethatacquiredthesupermarketchain,hisfirstcashcow,asMempoTaburininiwouldexplaintohimlater,afterthehighvolumeofhistransactionshadledhimtohirefinancialexperts.)

ThequantityoflandToroacquires,5,000hectares,isastounding,especiallyifweconsiderthat

thePopularUnityreformshadtriedtobreakupestatesover80hectares.Associalscientists

havedocumented,landreformsetsinmotionaprocessbywhichlandcouldbebrokenup

undersocialismandreconcentratedunderneoliberalismtoreachlevelsexceedingeventhatof

thepreviousestatesystem,whichhadlongbeenvilifiedforitsinequity.11Sowhilesome

landowners—likePelayo’sfamily—losewealthandpower,others—asexemplifiedbyToro—are

ablereconstitutelandholdings,andusethemas‘seedcapital’onceconditionsareripe,under

thePinochetdictatorship,fornewinvestments.Intheprocessofhistoricaltransformation,the

estatesystemceasestoexist(tobecomeafullycapitalistagriculture);withthis,thesocial

structurerootedinresidentlandownerandsemi-boundpeon(inquilino)isfinallysundered.

11Riesco,forexample,writes:“Enestesentido,laReformaAgraraicomountodo,incluyendosuculminacionfascista,sisecomparaconlasituacionexistenteenelcampoen1965,puedeconsiderarseunaverdaderarevolucioncapitalista,y,comotal,progresivaenrelacionalantiguoregimendeinquilinajeyhaciendas.”(70)

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WhereasPelayoexperiencesthistransformationasloss,AliroToro(ashisultra-masculine

surnamenotsosubtlysuggests)seesthisasopportunity.Thepreviouslylimitedagricultural

worldallowsaleapinto“seedcapital”and“cashcows”,languagethatreflectsthelandowner’s

fullleapintoatypeofcapitalaccumulationdrivenbyfinance.12Thisofcoursemeansthatheis

nolongeralandownerintheprevioussense.Inadditiontobuyingland,banks,supermarkets

andbottlingplants,heacquiresheavilycapitalizedexport-agricultureinstallations,which,

importantly,henevervisits:

Toronuncavisitabalosparronalesnitampocolasgranjasmarinasdondesedesarrollabansuscultivosdesalmonesytollosdeexporación.Preferíamantenerseadistanciaynodejarseembrollarporlacorporeidaddeesosprocesosproductivosque,enlamentedelfinancista,sonúnicamenteotrotipodepagarés.Legustabaqueelobjetodesupasióntomaraformasabstractas.”535

(Henevervisitedhisgrapearborsorthemarinefarmswherehecultivatedsalmonanddogfishforexport.Hepreferredtomaintainadistance,andnotlethimselfbecomeembroiledinthecorporealityofthoseproductiveprocesses,which,inthemindofthefinancier,areonlyanothertypeofIOU.Helikedtheobjectofhispassiontoassumeabstractforms.)

Toseethelandwouldbetobecomeembroiledintheproductiveprocess;instead,heprefersto

remainintherealmoftheidealandintangible.AsAlessandroFornazzariwrites:

Thenotionofabstractionthatbeginstoemergeherereferstoanemptyingofstablesubstancesandtheirunifyingidentifications…;animmaterialityofthecommodity…;andthequalityofendlesstransferability.Fromthecycleofrevolutions—theagrarianreformbeingoneofthemostimportant—thatledtothecollapseoftheoldoligarchicorderemergesanewcapitalistregimethatrecodifies,underthebannerofabstraction,olderformsofcommoditiesandcommodityrelations(50).

FornazzariinsightfullypointstothewayinwhichAliroToroemergesfromtheashesoftheold

ordertoembracefictitiouscapitalintheneoliberalera.WhatIwanttoemphasizehereisthe12AliroToro’sownlastnamemightpointtothistransitionfromagriculturetoWall-Street-drivenfinance(asintheEnglishexpression‘bullmarket’)

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factthatinordertotellthestoryofcapitalisttransition,Fontainefocusessoresolutelyonthe

divergentpathsofmembersofthisoldguard.ThemelancholicPelayoFernándezlosesland

(andasenseofimportance),butretainsasizeableculturalcapitalheputstoworkinan

emergingcreativeeconomy.AndAliroToro,paradoxicallyempoweredbyrevolution,isableto

awaken,atleastonasymboliclevel,thespeculatingsoulofthenineteenth-centurylandowner,

longassociatedwithnon-productiverentandfictitiouscapital,tomakealeapintothefuture.

Inthis,AliroToroisamuchmoresuitablefigurefortheriseoffinancecapitalismthan,say,the

sonofthetwentieth-centuryindustrialist,associatedwithproductionandtheprotectionof

nationalmarkets.Andeventhoughitistruethatitispreciselythesonofoneofthose

twentieth-centuryindustrialistswhoweathersthebankingcrisisattheendofthenovel,

FontainetreatsToroasthecatalystforthefinancialboom.Heisdestructive,butheisalsocast

asdaring,almostnoble.Heis,atbottomIthink,akeyfigureintherestorationofclasspower,

privateproperty,andthesettinglooseoffictitiouscapital.

If,asnotedearlier,thenoveladoptsalandownerperspectiveofhistoryinmarking

socialistlandreformasthetraumaticmomentforPelayo,withAliroToroitplots

financializationasacontinuationoflandownerhistory.InFontaine’snovel,thestoryof

financializationcannotbetoldwithoutrecoursetothisclass.Eventhoughthenovelendswith

the‘defeat’oftheformerlandowners(withAliroinjail,andPelayoasmelancholicasever),

theirprotagonismgestures,perhaps,towardthefundamentallyrestorativeclassprojectofthe

dictatorship.Inthenovel’sbackward-andforward-lookingtemporality,thenovelpointstothe

successofthecapitalistcounter-revolutionagainstsocialismasaforegoneconclusion.Class

conflict(themotorofhistoryundertheUnidadPopular)isabsentfromOírsuvoz,whoserealist

15

visionislimitedtotheintra-classjockeyingforthespoilsof(re)privatizationandfinancialization

intheneoliberaldictatorship.13Fontaine’snovelgesturestowardtheparticularsuitabilityof

thelandowningclassasrepresentativesofthisshift,markingsimultaneouslyareturntonon-

productiveformsofwealth(rentsorfictitiouscapital),andtheemergenceofsomethingnew

(mechanizedagro-industry,businessgroups).Thelandowner’sghost,thatis,animates

contemporarycapitaliststructuresinOírsuvoz.Itisperhapsinthissensethatthenovel’stitle

becomesmeaningful,asthesimultaneouslymelancholicandparasiticghostoflandowner

history.

II.TheOligarchyintheMirror:Anti-CommunistCounter-InsurgencyandFinancializationinElSalvador

LikeFontaine’sOírsuvoz,theSalvadorannovelistHoracioCastellanosMoya’snovelLa

diablaenelespejo(2000)tellsthestoryofcapitalisttransitionbywayofalandowningclass

transformedbyrevolutionandcounter-revolution,andreconfiguredbyfinance-drivenmodes

ofaccumulation.AsinthecaseofFontaine,theactionofCastellanosMoya’snovelreachesits

climaxwithabankingcrisis,inthiscaseaveiledreferencetothecrisisof1996.Butunlike

Fontaine’s‘financialrealism’,whichasIarguednaturalizestheclassrestorationofthePinochet

dictatorship,providingonlyacritiqueofthelingeringmoralconservatismoftheneworder,La

diabla,denaturalizesthisnewworldthroughregistersofexcess,hyperbole,andparanoia.At

thecoreofthisshiftisachangeinnarrativeperspective:whileOírsuvozisnarrated13Alongtheselines,themostpotentsiteofnovel’scritiqueismoral–notwithrespecttofinance,though,butratherinrelationtotheCatholicprohibitionofdivorce,whichiswhatultimatelypreventsPelayofromreunitingwithAdelaida.(Theconflictattheheartofthenovelis,again,notrootedinclass,butinwhatFontaineviewsasacontradictionbetweenan‘open’economyand‘traditional’moralvalues.

16

omnisciently,Ladiablaisnarratedbyamemberoftheoligarchyitself,awomannamedLaura,

amove,thatasI’llarguebelow,allowsforamuchmorepotentcritiqueofclasstransition

underneoliberalism.

TheactionofLadiablatakesplaceinthemid-1990s,shortlyafterthesigningofthe

peaceaccordsthatendedthedecadelongcivilwarbetweentheSalvadoranstateandLeftist

guerillas.ThepremiseisthatLaura’schildhoodfriend,OlgaMaria,hasrecentlybeenkilledin

herhomebyahitmaninfrontofhertwoyoungdaughters.OpeningimmediatelyafterOlga

María’smurder,thenoveltakestheformofalongmonologue,asLauraaddressesanunnamed

femaleinterlocutor,addressedonlyas“niña”or“girl”(renderedas‘dear’inEnglishtranslation)

inanattempttomakesenseofOlgaMaria’sdeath.Eachoftheninechaptersiscomposedbya

single,uninterruptedparagraphofLaura’sspeech.Breathless,disorganizedandseemingly

unhierarchized,hermusingsemployahighlyfeminizedregisterofbreathlessnessandvolubility,

shiftingdirectionseveraltimesinthespaceofafewlines.Asanexample,hereisLaura,inthe

firstchapter,chattingatthewakeasOlgaMaría’scadaverarrives:

“Eramoslasmejoresamigas,desdelaEscuelaAmericana,teimaginás,haceveintitrésaños.Ahílatraenya,alfin.Vení,acompáñame,avercómoquedó.Miráquearreglosfloralesmáspreciosos;ésteesdelacompañíadepublicidaddeMarito.Telodije,niña,eraelmejorvestido,sevetanpreciosa,lahanarregladomuybien,hastaelhoyitoenlasiencasinoselenota.”(14)Wewerebestfriends,havebeeneversincewestartedattheAmericanSchool—imaginethat,twenty-threeyearsago.Finally,they’rebringingherout.Comon,comewithme,let’sseehowshelooks.Lookatthosegorgeousflowerarrangements:Marito’sadvertisingagencysentthemover.Itoldyouthat’sherbestdress—don’tyouthinkshelooksgorgeous,theydidagoodjobonher,youcanbarelyevenseetheholeinherhead.(5)

17

Inaclearparodyofoligarchicfemininity,Lauraissotakenbythemake-upartist’ssuccessin

coveringthebulletholeinherbestfriend’sheadthatsheseemstoforgetforamomentthat

sheisdead.Asifremembering,Lauradropsthevacuouschatterforamomenttonote,“Son

unoshijosdeputa,habríaquematarlosatodos,”(Thosesonsofbitches,thosecowards,they

shouldallbekilled)beforeimmediatelynoting:“Miráelpeinadoquélindolehaquedado…”

(Doesn’therhairlookgreat?)(14;5).

Themodeloffemininityparodiedhereandthroughoutthenovelissimultaneously

decorativeandopenlyfascistic,amixturethatgiveshistoricaltexturetoarepresentationthat

mightotherwiseeasilyfallintocasualsexism.14ForLauraisagenderedrepresentativeofa

particularclassformation:ElSalvador’snotorious“14families,”thenamegiventothehandful

offamiliesthatdominatedthecountry’seconomyandpoliticsformuchofthe20thcentury.

Thisoligarchyrosetoprominenceinthe19thcenturywithcoffee,andlaterotheragro-exports

(suchassugarcaneandcotton),presidingoveroneofthemostunequaldistributionsoflandin

LatinAmerica.Afterapeasant-andcommunist-ledinsurgencyin1932,thisclassranthestate

bymilitaryproxyforthenexthalfcenturytodefeatanyattemptatreform,earningthemthe

reputationasoneofthemostreactionaryoligarchiesintheregion(nosmallfeat!).15During

14CastellanosMoya’srepresentationofLauraremindsmeoftheChileanwriterPedroLemebel’sparodieswhite,upperclassandprofoundlyreactionarymodeloffemininitythatbecameanideologicalpillarofthePinochetregime,infiguresliketheChileanMissUniverseCeciliaBoloccoandtheactress-turned-politicianRaquelArgandoña;seeDeperlasycitactrices.15ThefirstmajoreventthatconstitutesthehistoricalcharacterofthisclassformationisLaMatanzaof1932,inwhichtheSalvadoranarmymassacredbetween10and40thousandpeasants,indigenouspeopleandcommuniststoquellrebellioninthecountryside.Afterthis,theoligarchyopposedallmannerofreformfor50years,whichiswidelyrecognizedastheprimarycauseofthecivilwarinthe1980s.ThisoligarchywassoreactionarythateventheSalvadoranmilitarybrokeawaytoenactlandreformin1979(alast-ditchefforttocontainthecivilwar),toireofitsformerpatrons.EventheU.S.—heavilyinvestedincontainingthe

18

thecivilwarbetweensocialistsandthemilitary,ElSalvador’sinfamousultra-rightdeathsquads

emergedoutoftheirranks.HencetheoffhandmannerinwhichLaurasaysthat‘theyshouldall

bekilled,’shouldthereforenotbetakenlightly,especiallywhencouchedinseeminglyinnocent

chatteraboutherdeadbestfriend’sdressandhairdo.

TheeffectivenessofLadiabla’srepresentationofpost-warElSalvadordependsuponits

adoptionoftheperspectiveofafemalememberofthe14families,anoligarchythat,aswe’ll

seeshortly,haslargelyabandonedcoffeeproductioninthepostwarperiodtobecomeretail

magnates,advertisingexecutivesandfinanciers.Iftheomniscientrealistvoiceemployedby

FontaineinOírsuvozservedtonaturalizethebasesof“reality”inneoliberalChile,the

adoptionofLaura’sskewedfirst-personperspectivedenaturalizesanddestabilizesthatreality.

HereIaminspiredbyRobertoSchwarz’sreadingofthegreat19th-centuryBrazilianauthor

MachadodeAssis,whowasabletomovepasttheimpassesoftheperiod’srealismbyadopting

theperspectiveoftheslaveowningelite,ashiftthatallowed“acomplete,intimateexposureof

theveryviewpointitostensiblyadopted”(Schwarz47).CastellanosMoya’sadoptionofan

upper-classperspectiveworksinasimilarfashion,allowingfullandintimateaccessintothe

seeminglylimitlesssocialdepredationsofpost-warElSalvador.16

communistthreat—opposedtheoligarchsasbackward,andshiftedsupporttofactionsofthemilitaryandChristianDemocrats.SeeVelásquez.16SchwarzmaintainsthatMachadodeAssisdismantledrealismwhileremainingarealist,anobservationthatholdstrueforCastellanosMoya’sattempttocreateavisionofsocialtotalityinpost-warElSalvador.Alongtheselines,WeisnercallsCastellanosMoya’sproject—whichcomprisessomeXnovels—‘almostBalzaquian’inhisuseofrecurringcharactersandsettings.Indeed,novels,readtogether,createsocialmapofpostwarElSalvador.Differentformssimultaneouslypointtotheradicalfragmentationanddecenteringofthissociety,anditsultimateintelligibilitybywayofalongerhistoricaldurée.Inhistwelvenovelstodate,wecanpointtonovelslikeElAsco:ThomasBernhardenSanSalvador(1997),thedisaffectedfirst-personnarrativeofanexiledintellectualwhohasreturnedtoElSalvadorafterseveralyears;

19

TheChileannovelistRobertoBolañooncestatedthatHoracioCastellanosMoyais“the

onlywriterofmygenerationwhoknowshowtonarratethehorror,thesecretVietnamthat

LatinAmericawasforalongtime.”17AndLaura’svoiceisindeedsteepedinthisColdWar

history,andcannotescapeit.Atfirstglance,thenovelsituatesusinthehyper-presentofa

triumphantneoliberalism,fullofreferencestotheshinynewmalls,boutiques,restaurantsand

advertisingagenciesthatcharacterizethe“New”(post-warandneoliberal)ElSalvador.Take,

forexample,Laura’sappraisalofanewmall.“Handejadobienlindoesecentrocommercial.

Loquenomegustaesesecaseróncolonialquequedóenmedio;lohuieranbotato:un

chipustehorrible,rodeadodetiendaslindasymodernas.”(63)(Theydidagoodjobonthat

mall,exceptforthatbigoldcolonialmansiontheyleftrightinthemiddle;theyshouldhave

tornitdown;suchacrummyolddumpsurroundedbyallthosepretty,modernstores(52).And

yetitispreciselyLaurawho—inthemidstofthis‘prettyandmodern’presentcan’tstoptalking

aboutthebloodyColdWarpast,anditsreverberationsinthepresent.Evenasshefrequentsa

Baileconserpientes(1996),afantastictaleaboutanunemployedsociologistwhoridesaroundthecapitalinaChevroletfulloftalkingsnakes,killingeveryoneintheirwake;andTiranamemoria,amoretraditionallyrealistnovelsetduringthefallofthedictatorHernándezMartínezin1944.17ItshouldbenotedherethatBolañohimselfturnstooligarchicperspectivetounlockthishistoryofanti-communistcounterinsurgencyandcounterrevolutioninNocturnodeChile(2000).Thenoveltakestheformofasingle-paragraph,deliriousdeathbedinternalmonologueoftheOpusDeipriestandliterarycriticSebastiánUrrutiaLacroix,acharacterinturnmodeledonJoséMiguelIbáñezLanglois,betterknownbyhispseudonymIgnacioValente.Likehishistoricalinspiration,UrrutiaLacroixhailsfromChile’slandowningoligarchy;afterthe1973coup,hebecomesatutorinMarxismtoPinochet(whowantstounderstandhowhisenemiesthink).Bolaño’snovelthusconjoinsthelandowningoligarchy,theChurch,literaryinstitutionsandthemilitarytotellthestoryofthePinochetcounterrevolution.ItisworthnotingthatNocturnodeChilebearsstrikingformalsimilaritieswithLadiabla:theoligarchicmonologuetransmitsaskewed,partialanddeliriousvisionoftransitionthatnonethelessgivesglimpseoflargerhistoricalprocesses.Inbothnovels,thislimitedperspectiveallowsthebrutalhistoryofcounterrevolutiontobeexperiencedinadelusionalmode.

20

Frenchbistrobecause‘unasesientecomosinoestuvieraenSanSalvador”(81),(youdon’tfeel

likeyou’reinSanSalvador,73)forexample,shecan’tavoidmentioningthatitsownerisMirna

Leiva,fromacoffeefamily,whoduringthewarfellinwiththecommunistsandwastortured

andrapedbysecurityforces.ThisactthatmakesLaurashudderwithdisgustbeforenotingthat

“Papasaystheydon’tarrestanybodyfornoreason,Mirnamusthavebeeninvolvedin

something”(79).Throughsuchactsofforgettingandremembering,orerasureand

resurrectionoftheColdWarpast,thedisorderlyfragmentsthatconstituteLaura’smonologue

thusprovideaccesstoalargerstoryofhistoricaltransitioninElSalvador.

Theformtakenbythisstoryisafirstpersonmonologue,aformthatimmediatelycalls

tomind—ifonlytodebaseit—themostfamousliterarygenretoemergefromCentralAmerica

inthe1980s:testimonio(Kokotovic).Thisgenreiscreditedasthefirsttogivevoicetopoor,

rural,subjects,oftenindigenousandfemale,whosestorieshadlongbeenexcludedfrom

lettereddiscourseinLatinAmerica.Themostfamousoftheseisofcourse,RigobertaMenchú’s

MellamoRigobertaMenchúyasímenaciólaconciencia(1983),whichtellsthestoryofthe

Guatemalanarmy’sgenocideagainstindigenouspeople(carriedoutinthenameofcounter-

insurgency)fromtheperspectiveofoneofitssurvivors,aMaya-Kichéwoman.InElSalvador,

ManlioArgueta’stestimonialnovellikeUndíaenlavida(1980),isthefirst-personnarrativeofa

ruralwomanwhosehusbandisarrestedandkilledbythemilitaryfororganizingagainstthe

landownerheworkedfor.Inthepost-warperiod,HoracioCastellanosMoyapervertsthis

genrebytellingafirst-personstoryfromtheperspectiveofvictorsandperpetrators.InLa

Diabla,itisthevacuouslyoligarchicwomanwhogoesaboutlifeinanElSalvadorofmalls,

bistrosandSUVs.Inasubsequentnovel,Elarmaenelhombre(TheWeaponintheMan,2001),

21

thefirst-personstoryofOlgaMaria’skiller,nicknamed“Robocop”,theanti-testimonyis

narratedformermemberoftheSalvadoranarmy’sspecialcounter-insurgencyforces,turned

intoaprivatehitmaninthepostwarperiod.Onaverybasiclevel,thisperversionoftestimonio

positsthedeathofthisgenreasconcomitantwiththedeathofnational-popularand

revolutionarystrugglesinCentralAmerica—ahorizonofworld-historicalrevolutionary

potentialinthe1980s—astheregionbrokereda‘peace’fullypredicateduponitsabsorption

intoglobalcapitalism.18

HoracioCastellanosMoya’s‘anti-testimonial’modethusexpresses,inagrotesque

fashion,aclassvictory,andthesuccessfulblockageoftherevolutionarypossibilityfromwhich

testiminioemerged.Thetwosectorsmostresponsibleforthisblockage—theoligarchyandthe

U.S.-supportedmilitary—areeachgiventheirownnovel.Thisvictory,inturn,opensontothe

employmentofasecondgenreemployedinLadiablaenelespejo:detectivefiction.Thisisa

genrethat,asseveralcriticshavealreadyexamined,hasflourishedinpost-ColdWar,neoliberal

societies.AsFredricJamesonwasperhapsthefirsttonote,fortheUScontext,detectivefiction

representsanideologicalandepistemologicaldecenteringincapitalism(RaymondChandler’s

LA),adecenteringthatreachesnewheightsinacontextlikepost-warSanSalvador.19Weknow

thatthehitmanRobocop(whosenameconjuresthecontributionoftheUnitedStatesmilitary

tothecivilwar)isaformersoldier;demobilizedinthepostwarpresent,however,ashehas

becomeahitmanforhire,inaninstanceofwhatJeanFrancohascalled“theprivatizationof

atrocity”incontemporaryLatinAmerica.InLadiabla,wedonotknowwhohashiredRobocop18CfRobinson,Kissingerreportof1984alreadylaysthisoutclearly.19RecentinterestindetectivefictioninLatinAmerica.SeeClose,Kokotovic,Chinchilla.(Morehere)

22

tokillOlgaMaría,orwhy.Thepoliticallydecenteredandradicallyprivatizedsocialcontext

generates,onaverybasiclevel,theneedfordetection.Alongthesamelines,itissignificant

thatLadiabla,asdetectivenovelfocusesentirelyonconflictswithinthevictoriousclass(and

not,asinthepreviousera,onrevolution),bringingtomindBenjamin’sobservationthatthe

originalsettingfordetectivefictionisthenineteenth-centurybourgeoisinterior,linkingthe

genrefundamentallywithclasscriminality.20

Tothisdegree,itisimportantthatLaura’smonologuefocusesonOlgaMaría’ssecret

affairswithmembersofherclosedsocialcircletoprovidecluestothemurder.Thecharacters

consideredincludeaSpanishemigrant,nicknamed“JulioIglesias”,whoworksforOlgaMaria’s

husband’sadvertisingfirm;aphotographer,‘mediocomunistaperodebuenafamilia,’(who

returnstoElSalvadoraftertheWar,(34),Laura’sownex-husbandAlberto,theownerofan

investmentfirm(moreonthislater);andElYuca,theownerofmega-storesandrising

politician.ThroughthesestoriesweneverlearnwhokilledLaura—thoughmorecluesare

providedinCastellanosMoya’scompanionnovelElarmaenelhombre—butwedogeta

20ForBenjamin,thenineteenth-centurydetectivegenrefollowsthe‘traces’ofprivateindividualsinthebourgeoisinterior,notingthat“(t)hecriminalsofthefirstdetectivenovelsareneithergentlemennorapaches,butprivatemembersofthebourgeoisie”(156).TheelementofclasscriminalityassociatedwithdetectivefictionresurfacesinLadiablaaswellasinothernovels:forexample,asmentionedearlier,LauraRestrepo’sDelirio,themysteryconvergesaroundanoligarchicfamily’sinvolvementinthedrugtradein1980sColombia.Othernovelslocatethemurdermysteryinaphysicallyclosedupper-classmilieu(anothervariationonBenjamin’sinterior):inPatriciaLara’snovelHilodesangreazul(2009),thesuicide-murdermysteryunfoldsinaluxurycondominium;similarly,ClaudiaPiñeiro’sLasviudasdelosjueves(2005),themurdertakesplaceinagatedcommunityoutsideBuenosAiresintheaftermathofthe2001economiccrash.InLara’snovel,themysteryisresolvedthroughaPonzischeme;inPiñeiro’s,bywayofalifeinsuranceschemeconcoctedbyexecutivesruinedbythe2001economiccrisis.Ontheseupper-classmilieusasvariationsoftropeofthe‘lockedroom’incontemporaryLatinAmericandetectivefiction,seeChinchilla.

23

pictureofatransition,asoutlinedbelow,fromalandedtoafinancialoligarchy;and,asa

corollary,fromanoligarchicunityofpurposeagainstrevolutioninthecoldwarperiodtointra-

classcompetition(figuredasbetrayalandmurder)inthepostwarneoliberalorder.

ThestoryofElYucaisemblematicoftheremakingoftheSalvadoranoligarchyinthe

crucibleofscorchedearthcounter-insurgencyandeconomicliberalization.AtOlgaMaría’s

wake,ElYucaarrives,andLaurareminiscesabouthowheandherfriend’shighschoolromance:

“hacíanunaparejaperfecta,losdosguapísimos…”(37)(Theywouldhavemadetheperfect

couple,bothsogood-looking,30).Today,heisapowerfulpolitician,rumoredtobenameda

candidateforthepresidencysoon.DismissingrumorsthatelYucamarriedthedaughterof

retailmagnatetoboosthispoliticalcareer,Laurasayshehadnochoicebuttogetinvolvedin

politics:

“fueporquelequitarontodaslasfincasdesufamilia,yomeacuerdo,niña,alláporelcomienzodelaGuerra.ElYucayaestabaalapardelmayorLeChevalier,dandolacaracontraloscomunistas,nadalehanregalado,alcontrario,elhombresehafajadoparallegaradondeestá,poresodonFedericolehaechadoelhombro”(38)itwasbecausetheytookallhisfamily’sfincas,Irememberitwell,mydear,rightatthebeginningofthewar,YucawasuptherewithMajorLeChevalier,takingastandagainstthecommunists.Hehasn’thadanythinghandedtohimonasilverplatter,onthecontrary,thatmanhasworkedlikeadogtogetwhereheis,that’swhyDonFedericolenthimahand(31).

Onceagain,asinOírsuvoz,itisparadoxicallyagrarianreform—inElSalvadorcarried

outbythemilitaryregimeasalast-ditchhedgeagainstsocialistrebellion,totheireof

landowners—thatallowsthelandedoligarchytoremakeitselfunderanewmodelof

accumulation.AsinChile,ElSalvador’sshort-livedlandreformiscreditedwithcrushingwhat

24

remainedofagrarianelites.21Butonceagain,fictionrepresentshowlandreform,ratherthan

destroyingtheoligarchy,allowsittoberebornunderneoliberalreform.First,duringthewar,

ElYucajoinsLeChevalier(athinlyveiledallusiontoRobertoD’Aubisson,theultra-rightfounder

ofdeathsquadsandthepoliticalpartyARENA)tofightagainstcommunism,thencrossesover

inpeacetimetobecomeapoliticianandretailer.

AsinOírsuvoz,inonemomentlandreformcripplestheoldoligarchicsystem,whilein

thenext,aperiodcounter-revolutionfollowedbyneoliberalrestructuringallowstheformer

landownertoreconstitutehimselfasafull-fledgedcapitalist.IntheSalvadorannovel,the

expropriatedlandownerbecomesadeathsquadleadertodohispartintheblockingof

revolution;oncethepeacearrives,hecloakshimselfinthelegitimacyofelectoraldemocracy,

andtakesfulladvantageofopportunitiestoaccumulateinaprivatizedandderegulatedmarket.

Thisperformanceisneverquitefullylegitimate,however:therearehumanrightsgroupsafter

him(Laura’sstrenuousdisavowalofhiscrimesleavesnodoubtastotheirtruth);andaswe

learnfromLaura’sreportonhisaffairwithOlgaMaria,heisacocaineaddict,andtotallyerratic

inhisbehavior.

ThroughYucawecanseethattheformeroligarchyisforcedoutofitshistoricalrolein

agro-exportproduction(coffee,cotton,sugar)bylandreform;outofviolentcounterinsurgency,

intheformofdeathsquadsandthelike,followedbyneoliberalreform,arisenew

opportunities.Thistime,however,theseopportunitiesarenotintheproductionof

commodities,butinnon-productiveventureslikeretail,advertising,insurance,realestate,and,

mostimportantly,finance.

21SeeRobinson.

25

TheoligarchyinLaDiablahasallbutabandonedcoffee,thecommoditythathadcome

todefinethisclasshistorically.Significantly,Laura’sfatheristheonlycharacterinthenovel

thatremainscommittedtocoffee,amoveLauraherselfexplainsassheerstubbornness.

Becauseanyoneanysenseknowsthattheeraofcoffeeisover:“Owningcoffeeplantations

isn’twhatitusedtobe,there’sonesetbackafteranotherthesedays,firstthecommunists

takingthemoverandnotallowingtheharvest,andnowthedropinprices.That’swhyDoña

Olgawasrighttogetridofthem,itwasforthebest.Myfathershoulddothesame,andI’ve

toldhimso,buthe’spigheaded,veryattachedtohisland.Hey,lookwhojustarrived…”(23)

Betweeninternalobstacles(communistpeasants)andexternalones(thefallofexport

cropssincethe1970s),plantingcoffeejustisn’tworthitanymore.Inthenovel,whenDoña

Olgaandotherformerlandownersselltheircoffeefarms,theyinvesttheprofitsinthefinancial

sector:namely,aninvestmentfirmmanagedbyLaura’sex-husbandAlberto(withwhom,Laura

discovers,OlgaMaríaalsohadanaffair).Thisinvestmentfirm,namedFinapro,servesasa

referentforamajorshifttowardfinanceintheSalvadoraneconomyafterthewar:massive

U.S.militaryspendinginthe1980s,coupledwiththeprivatizationofpreviouslystate-owned

banks,providedampleopportunitiesfortheoligarchytoabandonagricultureforgood.Asa

result,thesociologistVelásquezCarrasconotes,thepreviousagro-exportoligarchybecame“a

rigidoligopycontolledbyahandfuloffinancialenterprises”(page).Or,asnewspaperarticles

haveannounced,the14familieshavebeenreconfiguredinto8businessgroupsownedbythe

descendantsofthisclass,andbearingtheirnames:Solá,Hill,Llach,etc.22

22Onthe14Familiesas8businessgroups:http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/56827.html.Also,FINAPROinthenovelismostlikelybasedinthecaseofthecollapseoftheinvestmentfirmFinapre.

26

Ladiablaenelespejoincorporatesthishistoricalshiftintoitsplot,butalsointoits

formalorganization,intwoways:first,throughavisionofthenewoligarchyasaPonzischeme;

andsecond,throughLaura’sownvoice,whichexperiencesasbreakdownpreciselyatthe

momentoffinancialcollapse.Finaprodramatizesamassiveshiftinaccumulationpatternsin

postwarElSalvador,fromproductiontocirculation,andfromanexport-orientedcapitalismto

onethatisdrivenbytransnationalfinance,asPadillaandothershavealreadypointedout.The

socialsettingofLadiablaishencedefinednotonlybyideologicaldecentering,butalsobya

particularlyfinancialformofinstability.TheclimaxofthenovelcomesasLauralearnsofthe

collapseoftheinvestmentfirm.Shecallsex-husbandAlbertototellhimsheknowsabouthis

affairwithherdeadbestfriend;hetellsherthathehasbiggerthingstoworryabout--allof

Finapro’smoneyisgone.Laura,stunned,tellsherfriend:‘itjustcanbethatallthatmoney’s

beenlost,moneyjustdoesn’tdisappearfromonedaytothenext”(138).Tothemurder

mysterythenoveladdsanother,thatofmoneyitself.Laura’sfather,thelastcoffeeplanterin

thenovel’smilieu,notesthat‘he’dbeenexpectingthis,itwasimpossibleforthemtobepaying

twenty-twopercentannuallywhenthebankswerepayingten,therehadtobesomething

shadygoingon”(140).Here,thereconfigurationoftheoligarchyasfinancialclasstakesa

specificformundercontemporarycapitalism:thePonzischeme.WhileLauramarvelsthat

”everyone”hadmoneyinFINAPRO—fromOlgaMaría’smother,tomilitaryofficials‘whomade

millionsduringthewar’,totheArchbishop—thesearepreciselytheclosed,incestuous

relationshipsthatpermittedtheinvestmentfirmtocreatefictitiouscapitalinthefirstplace.

27

Hugegainsarepossible,infact22%aslongaseveryonebelieves,butthesegainsevaporate

whenbeliefcannolongerbemaintained(asinevitablyoccursinthecontextofalargercrisis).23

Theoligarchy,unmooredfromland,isbestfiguredinLadiablaasagroupofinvestorsin

aPonzischeme.Thisatteststotheincestuouscharacteroftheeliteastheymakeanewleap

intotransnationalfinance.Italsoatteststothefactthatthisclass,insellingoffcoffeefarms,

haslargelyabandonedproductionitself.Astartlingstatisticillustratesthisshift:accordingto

VelasquezCarrillo,in1978,81%offoreignearningscamefromtheagro-exportsector.Butin

2004,thishadbeenreducedtoamere5%offoreignearnings,whileworkerremittanceshad

cometooccupy70%,thusbecomingthenewpillaroftheSalvadoraneconomy(10).

Hereinliesanothersecretoftheoligarchicturntowardfinanceinthe1990s.Inthepost

warperiod,windfallprofitsfromtheprivatizationofbanksgreasedthewheelsofanemerging

financialcomplex,while—asadirectresultofscorchedearthcounter-insurgencyand

austerity—massesofworkers,manyofthemformerpeasants,wereexpelledintolabormarkets

intheUnitedStates(theverycountrythatfinancedthewar).Andwhilethesourceofthe

23OlgaMaría’smurderandthefinancialfraud,inturn,openontoalargercriminalconspiracyinLadiabla.ForitisrumoredthatToñitoRathis,theownerofFinapro,isindebttotheCalicocainecartel.Theoligarchy’sconnectionstonarco-traffickingarefurtherexploredinHoracioCastellanosMoya’ssubsequentnovel,Elarmaenelhombre,narratedfromtheperspectiveofOlgaMaria’skiller,Robocop,inwhichToñitoandElYucareemergeastheleadersoftworivaldruggangs.Inthesetwonovels,narco-traffickingemergesnotonly,asCarlosMonsiváisonceremarked,as“thehighestrepresentationofcriminalityinneoliberalism,”butmorespecifically,thehighestrepresentationofclasscriminality.ThepenultimatesectionofElarmatakeplaceinpoppyfieldsownedbyElYuca,aka“ElTíoPepe,”revealingtheremakingofthelandedoligarchybywayofnarco-trafficking.(Also,ifthereisanyproductivebaseintheguttedSalvadoraneconomy,itisnotinmaquilas,asneoliberalreformershadhopedfor,butinpoppyproduction!)

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moneyisnotdirectlyrepresentedinthenovel,migrantworkerremittancesarepresentin

ghostlyformintheirconversionintofictitiouscapital.

AndsotheroleofthereconstitutedoligarchyrepresentedinLadiablabecomeseven

moreperverse,ifthiswerepossible,whereindirectcontroloverworkers(thepatriarchal

agriculturaleconomy)morphsintoatransnationalarrangementwhereintheoligarchyskim

profitsfromthelaborthatscorchedearthandausterityexpelledfromthecountry.Thisdeep

andperversehistoryisitselfpresentinLaura’sownvoice,whichasnotedservesasatemporal

bridgebetweentheColdWarandthecommodity‘now’.TheColdWarstrainsofLaura’svoice

giveway,inturn,toavoicethatbridgesatransitionfromaneconomyrootedinproductionto

onerootedincirculation.24

Thistransitionisrifewithopportunitiesbutalsodangers,aspresentinthecollapseof

theinvestmentfirm.Laura(whomightnotbeasvacuousasweareledtobelieve)comesto

thinkthatherfriend’smurderandthefinancialfraudarerelated.“WhatifOlgaMariaand

AlbertowerestillseeingeachotherandshefoundoutwhatwashappeningwithFinapro?…It

waslikeIsawablindinglight.Ifeltthisterribledread,asifmydiscovery,thatI’dsolvedthe

case,couldcostmemylife”(141).Asiftoconfirmherpossibleinsights,herfather,towhom

sherelateshertheory,simplytellshertokeephermouthshut.Afterthechapterinwhichshe

convincesherselfthatshehasdiscoveredthetruecauseofherfriend’sdeath,Laurabecomes

increasinglyparanoidandunhinged.Inachapterentitled“TheStampede,”Laura’slong-

windedandmeanderingmusingsgivewaytoshort,staccatosentencesenclosedbymultiple

24Othercritics,suchasPadilla,havealreadypointedtothetransitionfromagriculturetocirculationinLadiabla’splot;IwanttoemphasizethatthetransitionextendsintoLaura’svoice,andhencethenovel’sveryform.

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exclamationpoints,inwhichshebecomesconvincedthatOlgaMaria’skiller,Robocop,is

outsideherdoor.Inthefollowingandfinalchapter,“TheClinic,”wefindoutthatLaurahas

beeninternedforaparanoid-schizoidepisode,aswelearnthatthefriendshehasbeen

addressingthroughoutthenoveldoesn’texist.

Thisresolutionfrustratestheaimofthedetectivegenre:wedon’tfindoutwhokilled

OlgaMaria—thisseemsimpossibletoknow,giventheopacityofsocialrelationsinthecurrent

era,anopacitythatislinkedatoncetothepreviouseraofbrutality(deathsquadsandcounter-

insurgency)ElSalvadorandtothemysteriousnessoftransnationalfinanceinthecontemporary

era.Laura’svoicebridgesthesetwomoments,aworkofsuturingthatcanonlybeexpressedas

madnessandparanoia.Notaccidentally,thisrepresentationisrootedinalonghistory(inboth

EuropeandtheAmericas)thatcastsfinancialinstabilityasparticularlyfeminineincharacter;

whatsavestherepresentationfromcasualsexismisthefactthatthisoligarchicmodelof

femininitydoesprovideuniqueinsightsintothehistoryofthisclass,andintoitschief

contradictions.ThedecorativenessandvacuityofLaura’sfemininityishistorical,withpractical

andideologicalfunctions:tocementsocialrelations(theyarethe“14families”after);tojustify

classprivilege(oftenthroughadiscourseofrace);andtoprovideaveneerofbeautyand

respectabilityinthemidstofunrelentingrepressionandinequality.ButincontemporaryEl

Salvador—intheaftermathofColdWarmassacresandinthemidstoffinancialcriseswithout

end—thisperformanceofdecorativefemininityitselfcomesunderpressureandbeginsto

crack.Unmooredfrom‘family,’fromland,andfromproductionitself,theoligarchylooksat

itselfinashatteredmirror,reflectingtheimageofLaura.Thisimage,inturn,isonethat

emergesfromon-goingprocessesofsocialdisintegration,withnoendinsight.Byrestricting

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thenoveltothenarrowfocusofaself-cannibalizingoligarchy,CastellanosMoyaallowsusto

seehowtheunendingdepredationsvisiteduponElSalvadortoday—highmurderrates,

rampantpoverty,massiveforcedmigration—arethemselvesperpetratedbyaspecificclass

structurewithabrutalhistory.