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THE LEVEL OF EMPOWERMENT OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO WOM EN WORKERS

By Elizaer Christian E. Cabilan, Wisley S. Alcuirez, Angelyc M. Bonifacio, Charade A. Laguna, Neizzy Abegail C. Mainit, Maria Chessa G. Paica

ABSTRACT

Three hundred thirty (330) women OFWs were give survey questionnaires to

determine the respondents’ profile.The study deals on determining the level of

empowerment of overseas Filipino women workers who have residence and who reside

in Davao City, Philippines and in other parts in Mindanao. The research design used in

this study is descriptive research design. To determine the level of empowerment the

researchers used two domains: Economic and Social Participation and Access and

Control over Economic Resources and their uses with regards to the respondents’

profile with in accordance to the survey questionnaire given such as age, educational

attainment, occupation and range of wage or salary. Overseas Filipino women workers

ages 30 years old and above; were college graduate and/or proceeded to Master’s or

Doctoral; received Php 27,001.00 and above as their monthly salary; and were working

in non-human care field are empowered with regards to economic and social

participation and access to and control over economic resources. In addition, the

findings revealed that there is a significant difference between the Level of

Empowerment and Age, Educational Attainment, Occupation and Range of Wage or

Salary.

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INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Globalization has contributed to an increasing flow of migrant workers from

countries with limited economic opportunities to fill gaps in nations with a dwindling

labour supply. While globalization may foster the acceleration of trade and investment, it

does not create an environment that protects migrant workers economic, social and

physical security. This is even more so when it comes to women migrant workers,

whose numbers have been increasing, now constituting 50% or more of the migrant

workforce in Asia and Latin America.

Yet, while migration can bring new employment and opportunities, it also bears

great risks for women ,Migrant women workers, routinely lack access to social services

and legal protection and are subjected to abuses such as harsh working and living

conditions, low wages, illegal withholding of wages and premature termination of

employment. The worst abuses force women into sexual slavery.

The role of women in the Philippines is explained based on the context of culture,

standards, and mindsets. Filipino women live in a culture that is focused on the

community, with the family as the main unit of society. It is in the Philippine hierarchical

structure, class differences, religious justifications, and living in a globally developing

nation wherein Filipino women struggle for respect. Moreover, they make crucial

decisions that involve her family, her home, and her children. Due to poverty present in

the country, Filipinos, mostly women, migrate and work outside the country to look for

greener pasture. It is a fact that with regards to human care profession, women

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outnumbered men. Philippine export of workers has been a great demand today and by

the time our fellow nationals will return into their homeland, changes will happen and

would be visible to others. Hence, these changes may affect the relationship of their

family and empowerment of their gender and role in the society and at home. Filipino

women play an important role in the society and being OFWs they have the capacity

and authority in every decision making a family will do.

Davao City is known to be the most liveable city in the Philippines and 50.03%

of Davao’s population are women (Actual NSO Survey, 2000). Many women decided to

go outside the country to achieve the lives that they wanted for their families but these

things are still in question because it will conflict after the time they came from working

outside the country. Despite of this fact, does women empowerment really exist in terms

of economic and social participation and access to and control over economic resources

and their uses?

In line with these facts, the researchers came up to make a study that would help

the country particularly Davao region to determine the level of women empowerment in

the field of human care profession who is working outside the Archipelago. The level of

women empowerment in the study depends on the factors being mentioned.

Statement of the Problem

The main objective of this study is to know the level of empowerment of women

OFWs. Specifically, the study attempts to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the following respondents in terms of

1.1 Age

1.2 Educational background

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1.3 Range of wage or salary; and

1.4 Occupation?

2. What is the level of women empowerment with regards to

2.1 Economic and Social Participation and

2.2 Access to and control over economic resources and its uses?

3. Is there a significant difference in the level of women empowerment with

regards to:

3.1 Age



3.4 Occupation?

Null Hypotheses

H01: There is no significant difference between level of women empowerment and

age.

H02: There is no significant difference between level of empowerment and

educational attainment.

H03: There is no significant difference between level of empowerment and range

of wage or salary.


occupation.

Significance of the Study

The researchers strongly believe that this study will benefit the following:

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OFWs (working in the field of Human Care). This study can give information to

OFWs working in the aspects of human care if women are empowered with regards to

the dimension of economic and social participation and access to and control over

economic resources and their uses.

OFWs (working in the other fields). OFWs from other profession can also

benefit from this study through knowing if women empowerment does really exist and

will the dimensions could affect the said empowerment.

NGOs. This is also intended to the NGOs, for them to know about women

empowerment and its effects to their families. The NGOs can also give help to women

OFWs to handle problems regarding to their family when they are outside the country.

Community. Lastly, this study is for the community for them to have knowledge

about their fellow Filipinos who are working outside the country and the level of

empowerment of women OFWs.

Scope and Delimitation

The researchers only focused their study on the level of empowerment of women

OFWs. As for the respondents, there were 330 women OFWs from different parts of

Davao City. This study used a survey questionnaire as its instrument for data gathering.

The scope of this study is limited to the women OFWs’ perspectives in the level of their

empowerment. The study was conducted in the late quarter of 2010 and first quarter of

2011.

Definition of Terms

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The following terms were conceptually and operationally defined.

Empowerment - A person’s ability to have access and control over a certain

thing.

OFW – Filipinos who work abroad.

Economic and Social Participation - The ability of women OFWs to participate

in household matters and in the society.

Economic Resources - Income gained from the salary of OFWs.

OFWs Working in the Field of Human Care – Filipinos who work outside the

country as nurses, care givers, teachers, domestic helpers and other jobs in line with

human care profession.

OFWs Working in the Field of Non- Human care – Filipinos who work abroad

as engineers, computer technicians, drafts men, and other jobs that does not belong to

the field of human care.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter will present significant literatures that will help support the research

hypotheses of the study. In this chapter, related literatures and studies of past

researchers will be mentioned. Theoretical framework, conceptual framework and

definition of terms will be also included.

Empowerment. Personal empowerment views empowerment as focused on

individual strength and self-esteem to gain control over available resources and to

exercise their right to obtain quality of life for themselves and their family (Moyle,

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Dollard, & Biswas, 2006). Further, Kishor (2000) has pointed out to education and

employment as the measurement of empowerment. On the other hand, employment is

argued to improve individual’s empowerment for similar reasons, i.e., because it gives

access to their own earnings or contributions to family income that in turn increase their

understanding of money, right to participate in financial decisions, or financial

independence (Mason

and Smith, 2003).

According to Sen and Batliwala (2000), “Empowerment is the process by which

the powerless gain greater control over the circumstances of their lives. In addition,

Stromquist (2002) said that empowerment consists of four dimensions, each equally

important but none sufficient by itself to enable women to act on their own behalf. These

are the cognitive (critical understanding of one’s reality), the psychological (feeling of

self-esteem), the political (awareness of power inequalities and the ability to organize

and mobilize) and the economic (capacity to generate independent income).

Based on a review of literature on the definition and measurement of

empowerment, Malhotra, Schuler and Boender (2002) conclude that empowerment is a

process that marks change over a period of time and requires that the individual being

empowered is involved as a significant agent in that change process.

Bennett (2002) has developed a framework in which “empowerment” and “social

inclusion” are closely related but separate concepts. Drawing on Narayan (2002),

Bennett describes empowerment as “the enhancement of assets and capabilities of

diverse individuals and groups to engage, influence and hold accountable the

institutions which affect them.” Social inclusion is defined as “the removal of institutional

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barriers and the enhancement of incentives to increase the access of diverse individuals

and groups to assets and development opportunities.” Bennett notes that both of these

definitions are intended to be operational, and describe processes rather than end

points. The empowerment process, as she characterizes it, operates “from below” and

involves agency, as exercised by individuals and groups. Social inclusion, in contrast,

requires systemic change which may be initiated “from above.” As Narayan (2002) and

Ravallion and Chen (2001, in their discussion of “pro-poor growth”) also argue, systemic

change is necessary to sustain empowerment over time. It is through the process of

social inclusion that the “rules of the game” are modified and institutions transformed so

that economic growth is widely shared. Bennett argues that the distinction between

empowerment and social inclusion is important because the World Bank’s comparative

advantage is at the system or policy level.

Pradhan, B. (2003) argues that while these quantitative socio-economic

measures of empowerment are useful indicators as a first approximation, they are not

sensitive enough to capture the nuances of gender power relations. This is because

quantitative methods alone are unable to capture the interactive processes through

which those in a weaker position strategise ways of gaining from the unequal

relationship. Therefore in order to understand the socio-cultural context within which

women’s behaviour in social interaction and gender relationships takes place, an in-

depth anthropological method is essential.

Gender Empowerment. According to Alsop, R. and Heinsohn, N. (2005),

empowerment is defined as a person’s capacity to make effective choices and to

transform choices into desired actions and outcomes. The extent to which a person is

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empowered is influenced by personal agency (the capacity to make a purposive choice)

and opportunity structure (the institutional context in which choice is made). This is the

definition of empowerment used in this paper. To determine degrees of empowerment

various indicators are suggested: for agency, asset endowments - psychological,

informational, organizational, material, social, financial or human; for opportunity

structure, the presence and operation of formal and informal institutions, including the

laws, regulatory frameworks, and norms governing behavior.

Mason and Smith (2005) stated that, empowerment is about the extent to which

some categories of people are able to control their own destinies, even when the people

with whom they interact oppose their interests. Thus, according to her, people are not

empowered or disempowered in a vacuum. Rather, they are empowered or

disempowered relative to other people of groups whose lives intersect with theirs and

whose interests differ from theirs, at least in part.

Moreover, as cited from Basu and Koolwal study (2005), Empowerment is also

often seen only partially, through the outcomes of increased autonomy and freedom.

Nevertheless, empowerment also implies additional responsibility; responsibility which

may not necessarily be welfare-enhancing. For example, women’s greater mobility and

visibility often leads to increased exposure to violence; women’s increased role in

decision-making may cause men to take less responsibility and even withdraw support

for critical decisions like health care seeking. Thus, empowerment brings with it both

rights and responsibilities, and may lead to some freedoms being curtailed.

Women Empowerment. Human Development in South Asia (2000), stressed

out that women empowerment is a change in the context of a women’s life, which

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enables her increased capacity for leading a fulfilling human life. Women empowerment

is one of the essential factors that promote human development.

While empowerment is relevant to both sexes, women’s empowerment

necessarily is more complicated by the fact that they face additional disadvantages

because of their sex, and the fact that household and intra-familial relationships are a

major source of women’s disempowerment. (Malhotra and Schuler, 2005). On the

article written by Kishore, Lalit (2004), he said that the experts on gender issues hold

that women's advancement involves the process of empowerment and define it as a

process, by which women achieve increased control over public decision making. The

male domination of society and government are often seen for the purpose of serving

male interests and in the continued subordination of women. The experts also inform

that there are five levels of the women's empowerment framework, namely- welfare,

access, conscientisation, mobilization and control. But one needs to understand that

these five levels of women’s empowerment are not really a linear progression but helical

and circular along with being interconnected. The empowerment occurs when women

achieve increased control and participation in decision making that leads to their better

access to resources, and therefore, improved socio-economic status.

Vijayanthi (2002) emphasized in his study that education is one of the most

important means of empowering women and of giving knowledge, skills and the self-

confidence necessary to be full partners in the developmental process. Gustav Ranis

and Francis Stewart (2005) mentioned in their article that a study in Cote de Ivoire

reveals that increased female share in household income leads to increased spending

on human development enhancing items. They also viewed female literacy as an

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important input of the production function (i.e. human development improvement

function). While Blumberg, Rae Lesser (2005) viewed that economic empowerment of

women was the key to achieve gender equality as well as wealth and well being of

nation. The author opined that financial autonomy would enhance women’s capacity of

decision making in various arenas of life. Moreover, it would lead to less corruption, less

armed conflict and less violence against female in the long run.

According to Deshmukh-Ranadive, J. (2003), Women’s empowerment does not

necessarily take place when incomes are generated, when livelihoods are enhanced or

when groups are formed. This is because within families and households, hierarchies

and structures do not alter. In fact, public interventions which result in new social activity

or new avenues of income generation can actually accentuate tensions within

households. Moghadam, V.M. and Senftova, L. (2005) stressed out that there have

been many attempts to measure women’s empowerment in the development field, but

these have had various shortcomings. There is confusion over concepts, a lack of

disaggregated data, and limited information on household dynamics. Measurements

and indicators to date have focused more on civil and political rights, what are known as

first generation’ human rights, than on ‘second generation’ economic, social and cultural

rights. In his/her paper, empowerment is defined as a multi-dimensional process of

civil, political, social, economic, and cultural participation and rights. To analyse these, a

framework using six key domains is presented. These are used to assess women’s

participation (referring to an active social condition), rights (referring to a formal, legal

condition) and capabilities (preconditions for the enjoyment of rights and enhancement

of participation). The domains are: socio-demographic indicators, bodily integrity and

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health, literacy and educational attainment, economic participation and rights, political

participation and rights, cultural participation and rights. Indicators include: life

expectancy at birth, sexual and physical abuse against women, literacy rates, amount of

maternity leave, and number of feminist resources in the print and electronic media.

In the paper of Kabeer, N. (2005), he discusses the third Millennium

Development Goal (MDG) on gender equality and women’s empowerment and

highlights ways in which the indicators associated with this goal – women’s access to

education, share of non-agricultural wage employment, and political participation – can

contribute to women’s empowerment. Each of these indicators has the potential to bring

about immediate changes in women’s lives, along with long-term transformations in

patriarchal power structures. But unless provision is made to ensure that policy changes

are implemented in ways that allow women themselves to participate, monitor, and hold

policy makers and corporations accountable for their actions, the potential for women’s

empowerment will be limited. For example, while women’s access to education may

improve their chances of a good marriage, unless it also provides them with the courage

to question unjust practices, its potential for change will be limited. Similarly, while

women’s access to paid work may give them a greater sense of self-reliance and

greater purchasing power, if it is undertaken in conditions that damage women’s health

its costs may outweigh its benefits. The question, therefore, is to what extent the

international community is prepared to provide support for women at the grassroots –

support which will ensure that they have the collective capacities necessary to

participate in the policy process.

Synthesis

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Based on the related literature and studies presented, gender empowerment is

not only own by male but by female as well. And as every individual possesses

empowerment, they must also have the capability to control and be responsible in every

action that they will do.

Furthermore, people are empowered with regards to their individual strength and

self- esteem that may correspond with regards to their age, educational attainment,

income and occupation. These will signify that people can participate and can control

their income as these are some of the indicators of empowerment.

Theoretical Frameworks

Power Control Theory. The theory has been extended into adult social roles as

well. Stratified behaviors typically associated with males, particularly those in

authoritative positions, are now being seen more frequently in females attaining

powerful roles. And like their male counterparts, their power is used to control those

persons in subordinate roles.

Structurist Theory. This theory views international migration as a form of

exploitation of the peripheral nations by the “core” nations in the international system.

Workers in developing countries are structurally pulled into the secondary labor markets

in industrialized countries which are characterized by low wages, less preferable

working conditions and lack of job security.

Household Strategy Theory. Household strategy theorists contend that

migration decisions are not made by individuals but by households. According to the

proponents of this approach, people act collectively not only to maximize expected

income but also to minimize risks for the members of the kinship unit. Households

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control risks to their economic well-being by diversifying the allocation of household

resources such as family labor.

Conceptual Framework

The Women OFWs, who were also the respondents, was considered

independent variable in this study. While the Respondent’s profile which includes the

Age that was divided into two categories: 15 to 29 years old and those who were 30

years old and above; Educational Background which was also divided in two levels

those respondents who were High school graduate and below and college graduate and

above; and Range of wage or salary of the respondent which was also categorized into

two: those who received Php 5,100 up to Php. 27, 000.00 and those who received

27,001.00 and above; and Occupation that was also divided into two types: the human

care and the non-human care were utilized as the intervening variable of this study. The

manipulative variable in this study were the Level of Women Empowerment and its two

domains that became factors that measured the level of empowerment namely the

Economic and social participation; and Access to and control over economic resources

and its uses.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the dependent variable was administered to the

independent variable with its two categorized domains. Furthermore, the intervening

variables were correlated if there were significance to the said variable with regards to

the independent variable which then resulted to the level of empowerment of the

respondents and if they were empowered or not.

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Figure 1. Conceptual Model of the Study

Overseas Filipino Women Workers

Level of Empowerment

-Economic and Social participation

- Access to and control over

economic resources and its uses.

Age -18-30 or 31 and above

Educational Background -High School Graduate and below or

College Graduate and above

Range of Wage or Salary -30,000 and below or 31,000 and

above

Occupation -Human Care and Non-Human Care

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METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methods that the researchers used on how the study

has been conducted. It also gave the information about the research design, research

instruments, research locale, sampling technique, statistical treatments and data

analysis method.

Research Design

This study investigated the empowerment of women OFWs. The study used a

descriptive research design that determined the empowerment of women OFW.

Research Locale

Davao City is part of Region XI and is located and the center of the region. It is

the largest city on the island of Mindanao and can be found in the Archipelago of the

Philippines. The city was also awarded by the department of Tourism as the Most

Livable City in the country.

Figure 2. Map of Davao City, Philippines

Research Respondents

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This study used a non-random purposive sampling technique to the respondents.

It had a total of 330 women OFW respondents from Davao City.

Research Instruments

The researchers used a survey questionnaire that determined the profile of the

respondents specifically the age, occupation, the respondents’ educational background

and their respective monthly wage or salary.

Through this instrument the respondents’ level of empowerment had been

measured by the researchers.

The research instrument has been authenticated by the validators in order to be

reliable before the researchers conducted the survey.

Research Procedures

The steps that the researchers undergone on gathering the data were the

following:

Gathering of Information. The researchers gathered the information through the survey

questionnaire that the researchers gave to the women OFWs in Davao City.

Administering of Survey Score Sheets. The researchers-made survey questionnaire

was been disseminated directly to the women OFWs on the locations based on the information

that has been gathered.

Tabulating, Interpretating and Analyzing of the Dat a. The data that has been

gathered was presented in forms of table, graphs and/or figures. These were interpreted and

analyzed using the different applicable statistical tools.

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Statistical Treatment

The following statistical treatment have been used in interpreting and analyzing

the data gathered:

Percentage. This statistical treatment was used in determining the profile of the

respondents in terms of Age, Occupation, and Educational Background and in

determining the level of empowerment of women.

Mean. This was used to get the mean scores of the respondents’ profile when it

was correlated to the dimensions.

T-test. This tool was used to determine if whether or not there is a significant

difference on empowerment of overseas Filipino women workers when correlated to

Age, Educational Attainment, Rage of wage or salary, and Occupation.

Since the respondents of this study were female OFWs there was no need to

include Sex in this statistical treatment.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter contains the interpretation and analyses of the results of the survey

questionnaire acquired from the overseas Filipino women workers from Davao City from

January 28, 2011 up to February 26, 2011. The results were also discussed

comprehensively by the researchers through explanations and through supplementation

of appropriate tables and/ or figures presented in this chapter.

Profile of the Respondents

Age. The distribution of the respondents based on their age is shown in Table 1.

It shows the percentage and the equivalent number of each.

Table 1

Profile of Respondents by Age

Age Frequency Percentage

15- 29 years old 114 34.54

30 years old and below 210 63.64

No information 6 1.82

Total 330 100

With regards to the respondent’s age, most of the respondents were from ages

30 years old and above with a total number of 210 or 63.64 percent followed by 15-29

years of age with a total of 114 respondents which is equivalent to 34.54 percent. The

figure also shows that there were 6 respondents having a percentage of 1.82 who

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chose not to check or share their information regarding this matter. This outcome is

unavoidable since the researchers also respect their own privacy.

Therefore, Overseas Filipino women workers, ages 30 years old and above had

the most number of respondents.

Educational Attainment. Table 2 shows the percentage distribution of the

respondents’ Educational Attainment. The level is divided into two: those who were High

school graduate and below which means they were not able to finish tertiary education

but were able to graduate in secondary education and/or elementary graduate and

those who were College graduate and above, meaning to say those who were able to

graduate in tertiary education and/ or were able to be enrolled to a graduate school.

Table 2

Profile of the Respondents by Educational Attainment

Educational Attainment Frequency Percentage

High School Graduate and Below 91 27.58

College Graduate and Above 231 70

No Information 8 2.42

Total 330 100

Ninety one respondents or 27.58 percent were able to graduate only in High

School but not in tertiary and/or finished the elementary level only and/or not secondary

level. And 70percent which is equal to 231 respondents were able to finished tertiary

level and/or were also able to enrolled and finished in a graduate school. And there

were 8 respondents which is equivalent to 2.42 percent who chose no to share their

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information with regards to the certain profile asked. Since the researchers respect the

respondents’ privacy, this result is unavoidable.

Furthermore, according to this data, majority of the respondents who were able

to able graduate in college or people who graduated from Masters or PhD are working

abroad. Overseas Filipino women workers who were under high school graduate and

below had no choice than to be migrant workers for the reason that they cannot find

jobs in the Philippines.

Range of Wage or Salary. The percentage distribution of the Range of Wag or

Salary, in Philippine Currency, of respondents is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Profile of Respondents by Range of Wage or Salary

Range of Wage or Salary Frequency Percentage

Php 5,100- 27,000 143 43.33

Php 27,001 and above 185 56.06

No information 2 .61

Total 330 100

It is shown that 143 respondents with a percentage of 43.33 percent received a

minimum wage of Php 5,100.00- 27,000.00 while 56.06 percent or 185 respondents

have a salary of Php 27,001.00 and above. Two respondents which is equivalent to .61

percent were not able to answer this certain domain because they chose not to tell their

respective salary.

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Moreover, when analyzed according to whether respondents with regards to

what course they studied in college and/or they graduated in graduate schools taking a

Master’s degree or Doctorate, respondents who received a wage of Php 5,100.00-

27,000.00 mostly work as a domestic helper while respondents receiving 27,001.00 and

above were working as a professional workers.

Occupation. The respondents were divided into two with regards to their

occupation or field, either they were in human care or in non-human care. The

percentage of the respondents with regards to their occupation is presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Profile of Respondents by Occupation

Occupation Frequency Percentage

Human Care 170 51.51

Non-Human Care 154 46.67

No Information 6 1.82

Total 330 100

One hundred seventy or 51.51 percent of the respondents were working in line

with human care; people such as domestic helpers, caregivers, nurses, teachers,

doctors, tutors, teacher aids, and other allied medical professions While, 46.67 percent

or 154 respondents were working in non human care, or those dealing other than the

ones mentioned under the field of human care. Unfortunately there were 6 respondents

which is equivalent to 1.82 percent who did not answer the certain profile.

Respondent’s Profile According to Empowerment Indic ators

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Presented in Table 5 are Economic and Social Participation and Access to and

Control over Economic Resources’ means and its verbal description (VD) according to

the Respondents’ age classification. The mean scores of two empowerment indicators

and its respective verbal description were also included in this table.

Table 5

Economic and Social Participation, Access to and Control over Economic Resources and Empowerment with regards to Respondents’ Age Classification

Economic and Social Participation

Access & Control over Economic Resources

Empowerment

Age Classification

Mean VD Mean VD Mean VD

15-29 3.11 Sometimes 3.42 Sometimes 3.27 Sometimes

30 and above 3.80 Often 4.03 Often 3.92 Often

Age Classification. Economic and Social Participation. The 15-29 years of age

classification had a mean of 3.11. On the other hand, 30 years old and above

classification had a mean of 3.80. Based on the results from Table 5, respondents with

ages 30 years old and above showed to be more participative when it comes to

economic and social participation. They are given enough or full authority in their

household and sometimes in work, they are old enough to decide things and they are

more knowledgeable when it comes to decision making, and free from domestic

violence or abuses such as verbal, sexual, physical and emotional whether they are in

household or in work. This could be the reason why they are active when it comes to

participation in our economy and society.

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Access to and Control over Economic Resources. The 15-29 years of age

classification had a mean of 3.42, while the 30 years old and above classification had a

mean of 4.03.

According to the results, those overseas Filipino women workers who have ages

from 30 years old and above can have the access and control over economic resources

or the income. Most of the women who became the respondent’s were already married

and have their own child/ children and since the role of the mother is to keep the

finances and have the sole authority to control the income of the family despite of

working abroad they still have the authority of doing their role in their family. Since they

are the ones who are working abroad and gain high income to sustain the family they

are given the full authority of accessing and controlling the income and how the family

use the said income, thus they are entitled to it.

Empowerment. The mean score of the two economic indicators within

accordance to the classification of respondents’ age were 3.72 and 3.92.

The result argues to the study according to Deshmukh-Ranadive, J. (2003),

stressing that Women’s empowerment does not necessarily take place when incomes

are generated, when livelihoods are enhanced or when groups are formed. This is

because within families and households, hierarchies and structures do not alter. In fact,

public interventions which result in new social activity or new avenues of income

generation can actually accentuate tensions within households. However, it correlates

to the study of Moyle, Dollard, & Biswas (2006), stating that personal empowerment

views empowerment as focused on individual strength and self-esteem to gain control

over available resources and to exercise their right to obtain quality of life for

25

themselves and their family. It can also be correlated and implied to the theory of power

control, stratified behaviors typically associated with males, particularly those in

authoritative positions, are now being seen more frequently in females attaining

powerful roles. And like their male counterparts, their power is used to control those

persons in subordinate roles.

Table 6 presents the mean scores and their respective verbal description with

regards to Educational Attainment when analyzed with Economic and Social

Participation and Access and Control over Economic Resources.

Educational Attainment. Economic and Social Participation. The mean score of

High school graduate and below was 3.52 and the college graduate and above had a

mean of 3.63 with regards to the Economic and Social Participation.

People who graduated from college and/or continued to study in Master’s or

Doctoral are highly participative with regards to the participation in economy and in

society than those who were only High school graduate and below.

People who belonged to the College graduate and above can show great

confidence in showing their skills and sharing their knowledge for the reason that they

graduated tertiary education, moreover since they are well educated they cannot be

easily controlled by the other and they have the authority to decide whatever decisions

are to be made.

Access and Control over Economic Resources. The High school graduate and

below and College graduate and above had a mean scores of 3.38 and 4.05

respectively.

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The means for the empowerment levels for the respondents who were college

graduates and above are usually higher than those for the high school graduates and

below.

Table 6

Economic and Social Participation, Access to and Control over Economic Resources and Empowerment with regards to Respondents’ Educational

Attainment .


Access and Control over Economic Resources

Empowerment

Educational Attainment

Mean VD Mean VD Mean VD

H. S. Graduate and below

3.52 Often 3.38 Sometimes 3.45 Sometimes

College Graduate and above

3.63 Often 4.05 Often 3.84 Often

Empowerment. The mean scores of both empowerment domains were combined

with regards to their respective classification namely High school graduate and below

and College graduate and above and their means scores in terms of empowerment

were 3.45 and 3.84.

The result can be correlated to the study of Kishor (2000) that pointed out to

education and employment as the measurement of empowerment. In addition, it can

also be correlated to the study of Vijayanthi (2002) emphasizing that education is one of

the most important means of empowering women and of giving knowledge, skills and

the self-confidence necessary to be full partners in the developmental process.

Presented in Table 7 are the mean scores and verbal description of the

Empowerment indicators with regards to the respondents’ range of wage or salary.

27

Range of Wage or Salary. Economic and Social Participation. The mean scores

of 5,100-27,000 pesos as their salary and 27,001 pesos and above in accordance to

economic and social participation were 3.45 and 3.67.

Respondents who received 27,001 pesos and above as their monthly salary get

the highest mean score. People who received Php 27,001.00 and above as their

monthly salary can actively participate with regards to economical and social compared

to those who received 5,100 pesos up to 27,000 pesos. They obviously have more

participation because they have bigger amount of wage.

Access and Control over Economic Resources. With regards to this domain in

terms of salary people who received 27,001 pesos and above had a mean of 4.14,

meanwhile, those who received minimum wage which is 5,100- 27,000 pesos had a

mean score of 3.45. Those people who were above the minimum wage can easily

access and control the income of the family because they were the one’s who received

the certain amount of money and they can use the income whatever they want to do it.


with regards to their range of wage or salary. Respondents who received Php 5, 100.00-

27,000.00 had a mean of 3.45 while respondents who received Php 27,001.00 and

above had a mean score of 3.91.

Table 7

Economic and Social Participation, Access to and Control over Economic Resources and Empowerment with regards to Respondents’ Range of wage or

Salary



Empowerment

28

Range of Wage Mean VD Mean VD Mean VD

Php 5,100-27,000

3.45 Sometimes 3.45 Sometimes 3.45 Sometimes

Php 27,001 and above


The results can be implied to the view of Rae Lesser Blumberg (2005), that

economic empowerment of women was the key to achieve gender equality as well as

wealth and well being of nation. The author opined that financial autonomy would

enhance women’s capacity of decision making in various arenas of life. Moreover, it

would lead to less corruption, less armed conflict and less violence against female in the

long run.

Table 8 shows the mean scores and their respective verbal description of

Occupation when analyzed with Economic and Social Participation and Access and

Control over Economic Resources.

Occupation. Economic and Social Participation. Human Care had a mean score

of 3.61 while the Non-Human had a mean score of 3.56, making Human care the

greatest. Since most of Filipino women workers were working in line with human care

such as domestic helpers, teachers, teacher aids, nurses, doctors, caregivers and other

allied medical profession, one of their job is to interact with different people everyday

that is why, maybe, they get the highest mean score.

Table 8

Economic and Social Participation, Access to and Control over Economic Resources and Empowerment with regards to Respondents’ Occupation

Economic and Social

Access & Control over Economic

Empowerment

29

Participation Resources

Occupation Mean VD Mean VD Mean VD

Human Care 3.61 Often 3.68 Sometimes 3.64 Often

Non-Human Care


Access and Control over Economic Resources. The Human care type occupation

and non human care type had the mean scores of 3.68 and 4.02. This means those

who were working in the non-human care field have the highest level of empowerment

in terms of access and control over economic resources. It has opposite results with

regards to the economic and social participation. Women who were working in non-

human care field mostly received a high salary with regards to the human care type that

is why they are more empowered to access and control over their income.


in terms of their occupation. Respondents who work in Human care had a mean score

of 3.64. On the other hand those who work in Non-human care had a mean score of

3.79.

The result can be implied to the view of Kishor (2000) who has pointed out to

education and employment as the measurement of empowerment. On the other hand,

it argues to the statement of Mason and Smith (2005), stating that employment is

argued to improve women’s empowerment for similar reasons, i.e., because it gives

women access to their own earnings or contributions to family income that in turn

increase their understanding of money, right to participate in financial decisions, or

financial independence.

30

Significant Difference of the Level of Empowerment and

Age. Presented on Table 9 is the T-test on the significance between Level of

Empowerment and Age.

At .01 percent level of confidence, or a two tailed test of 0.005, the, t table value

is -2.576 on the left tail, and +2.576 on the right tail. While, t computed values were -

7.161, -6.316 and -7.372. Since the t-computed values are in the rejection region, then,

we reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the level of

women empowerment and age. The researchers, then, accept the alternative

hypothesis that there is a significant difference between level of empowerment and age

group of respondents.Furthermore, the researchers are 99 percent confident that the

older age group of OFWs, above 30 years old, are usually more empowered than the

younger age group, 15-29 years old.

Table 9

T- Test on the Significant Difference between Level of Empowerment and Age

Empowerment Indicator Age

Economic & Social Participation


Decision on H0

Empowerment

Decision on H0

T value

-7.161

-6.316

Reject

-7.372

Reject

Educational Attainment. Table 10 shows the T-test results on the significance

of Level of Empowerment and Educational Attainment.

At .01 level of confidence, or a two tailed test of 0.005, the, t table value is -2.576

on the left tail, and +2.576 on the right tail. The T computed value is -1.028. The t table

31

value at .05 level of confidence or a two tailed test at 0.025 is -1.960 and +1.960. The t

computed value for economic and social participation lies on the acceptance region of

the t distribution. The researchers, then, accept the null hypothesis that there is no

significant difference between the level of empowerment as measured by economic and

social participation of the respondents and her educational attainment. When it comes

to economic and social participation there is no significant impact of empowerment with

regards to educational attainment because regardless of being college graduate or high

school graduate and below, everyone has the right and are oblige to participate both in

economical participation and social participation. This means they have their important

roles as citizens and as migrant workers.

On the indicators access and control, the t-computed values which were - 6.793

and -4.064 were in the rejection region of the t distribution at .01 percent level of

confidence. The researchers, then, reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant

difference between level of women empowerment and educational attainment as

measured by access and control of resources and empowerment indicators. The

researchers, then, accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a significant difference

between level of empowerment and educational attainment of respondents.

Table 10

T- Test on the Significant Difference between Level of Empowerment and Educational Attainment

Educ. Att.


Decision

Access & Control over E. R.

Decision

Empowerment

Decision

32

T value

-1.028 Accept -6.793 Reject -4.064 Reject

The researchers are 99 percent confident that OFWs with higher the educational

attainment like college graduates are usually more empowered than those with lower

educational attainment such as those who are high school graduates when we use

access and control of resources as indicator.

Range of Wage or Salary. Table 11 presents the T-test results between the

Significance Level of Empowerment and Range of Wage or Salary.

At .01 percent level of confidence, or a two tailed test of 0.005, the, t table value

is -2.576 on the left tail, and +2.576 on the right tail. The values of t computed values

were -2.277, -7.856 and -5.296, as shown on the tables above are in the rejection

region of the t distribution. The researchers, then, reject the null hypothesis that there is

no significant difference between level of women empowerment and wages of the

respondents and accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a significant difference

between level of empowerment and range of wage and salary.

Table 11

T- Test on the Significant Difference between Level of Empowerment and Educational Attainment

Empowerment Indicator Range of Wage



Decision on H0

Empowerment

Decision on H0

T value

-2.277

-7.856

Reject

-5.295

Reject

33

Occupation. Presented on Table 12 is the T-test result on the Significant

Differences between Level of Empowerment and Occupation.

At .01 level of confidence, or a two tailed test of 0.005, the, t table value is -2.576

on the left tail, and +2.576 on the right tail. The value of t computed values which were

.571 and -1.621 and as shown on the table above is at the rejection region of the t

distribution both for .01 and .05 confidence level. The researchers, then, accept the null

hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the level of empowerment

based on economic and social participation and the type of occupation of respondents

On the indicators access and control, the t-computed value which is -3.675 was in

the rejection region of the t distribution. The researchers reject the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference between level of women empowerment as measured

by access and control of resources and empowerment indicators and the type of

occupation of the OFWs. We, then, accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a

significant difference between level of empowerment and type of occupation of

respondents.

Table 12

T- Test on the Significant Difference between Level of Empowerment and Occupation

Occupation


Decision

Access & Control over E. R.

Decision

Empowerment

Decision

T value

.571

Accept

-3.675

Reject

-1.621

Accept

34

The researchers are 99 percent confident that OFWs who are engaged in non

human care profession such as computer engineers, consultants, office workers are

usually more empowered than those with human care related occupations such as

those who are nurses, caregiver, when we use access and control of resources as

indicator.

35

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study deals on determining the level of empowerment of overseas Filipino

women workers who have residence and who reside in Davao City, Philippines. The

research design used in this study is descriptive research design.

This study used non-random sampling specifically purposive sampling technique

in which overseas Filipino women workers, who work in human care field, were only

surveyed.

Survey questionnaire was used to determine the respondents’ Age, Educational

Attainment and Range of Wage or Salary. The researchers used internet by using

Facebook (www. Facebook.com) and e-mailed the respondents by using yahoomail

(www.yahoomail.com) who are still in abroad but originally live in Davao City to

disseminate the survey questionnaire. Percentage, mean and t-test were the statistical

treatment used in this study.

Statement of the Problem

The main objective of this study is to know the level of gender empowerment of

women OFWs. Specifically, the study attempt to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the following respondents in terms of

1.5 Age



1.8 Occupation?

36

2. What is the level of women empowerment with regards to

2.1 Economic and Social Participation

2.2 Access and control over economic resources and their use?

3. Is there a significant difference in the level of women empowerment with

regards to:

3.1 Age

3.2 Educational attainment


3.4 Occupation?

Null Hypotheses

H01: There is no significant difference between level of women empowerment and

age.


educational attainment.

H03: There is no significant difference between level of empowerment and range

of wage or salary.


occupation.

Findings

37

The data gathered revealed the following findings:

1. Respondents belonged to ages 30 years old and above (210 or 63.64%) were

greater than those who were 15-29 years old (114 or 34.54%) and those who

had no information (6 or 1.82%). A greater number of respondents belonged

to College graduate and above in terms of educational attainment (231 or

70%) than those who belonged to college graduate and below (91 or

27.58%), 2.42% or 8 respondents were not able to fill up their profile

regarding this matter. In addition, 185 respondents or 56.06% said that they

were receiving Php 27,001.00 and above for their monthly salary and there

were 143 respondents (43.33%) who said that they were receiving Php

5,100.00-27,001.00 as their salary, there were also 2 respondents (.61%)

were not able to say their monthly salary. Moreover, 51.51% or 170

respondents said that their occupation are in line with human care field and

46.67% or 154 respondents said that their work are in non human care field,

only 1.82 % or 6 respondents were not able to say what kind of occupation

they belonged to.

2. The mean of Age under 15-29 years old is 3.11(Sometimes) with regards to

the economic and social participation. And in terms of access and control

over economic income the mean is 3.42 (Sometimes) and when the two

domains were combined to get the mean score of the empowerment it was

3.27 (Sometimes). Compared to the first classification the mean of Age under

30 years old and above were higher, with regards to the economic and social

participation, it had a mean score of 3.80 (Often), and in terms of access and

38

control over economic resources it had a mean score of 4.03 (Often). 3.92

was the mean score when the means of two domains were combined to get

the empowerment mean. Moreover, high school graduate and below had a

mean score of 3.52(Often) in terms of economic and social participation. On

the other hand it had a mean score of 3.38(Sometimes) with regards to the

access and control over economic resources resulting to a mean score of

3.45 (Sometimes) with regards to the empowerment mean. Meanwhile, the

college graduate and above classification had a mean score of 3.63 (Often)

when analyzed to the empowerment domain of economic and social

participation and in terms of to the access and control over economic

resources it had a mean of 4.05 (Sometimes). 3.84(Often) was the

empowerment mean score resulting from the combined mean of the two

indicators. Meanwhile, the mean of Range of wage under the classification of

minimum wage (Php 15,000-27,000) was 3.45 (Sometimes) with respect to

the first indicator of the empowerment and with regards to the second

indicator or domain it had a mean score of 3.45 (Sometimes), resulting to a

mean score of 3.45(Sometimes) in terms of empowerment. Moreover, the

mean of range of wage under Php 27,001.00 and above when analyzed to

the first domain of empowerment was 3.67(Often) and with regards to the

second domain it had a mean of 4.14(Often) that resulted to the

empowerment mean of 3.91(Often). Lastly, Non-Human care occupation got

a mean score of 3.56 (Often) while the human care occupation got the mean

score of 3.61 (Often) making it the highest with regards to the first domain of

39

empowerment. On the other hand it had the opposite result when they were

analyze to access and control over economic resources having a mean score

of 4.02 (Often) who belonged to the Non-human care group and 3.68 (Often)

for the human care group making the non-human care group the greatest

when it comes to the second domain of empowerment. In addition, the

empowerment mean of the non-human care group was 3.79 (Often)

compared to the human care group having a mean score of 3.64 (Often).

3. Null hypothesis H1 is rejected. There is a significant difference between the

Level of Empowerment and Age. On the other side, null hypothesis H2 was

divided into two decisions. There is a significant difference between Level of

Empowerment and Educational Attainment with regards to the access and

control over economic resources that is why it is rejected. However, there is

no significant difference between Level of Empowerment and Educational

Attainment with regards to economic and social participation that is why it is

accepted. The null hypothesis H3 is rejected. There is a significant difference

between the Level of Empowerment and Range of Wage or Salary. Finally,

decision of null hypothesis H4 was also divided into two decisions. As

measured by the access and control over economic resources, the decision

was accepted. Therefore, there is a significant difference between Level of

Empowerment and Occupation. On the other hand, with regards to economic

and social participation, the decision was accepted. Therefore, there is no

significant difference between the Level of Empowerment and Occupation.

Conclusions

40

Based from the given findings, the researchers concluded that

1. Most of the respondents were ages 30 years old and above, who were

college graduate and above, who received an amount ranging from Php

27,001.00 and above as their monthly salary and are working in line with

human care field.

2. Overseas Filipino women workers ages 30 years old and above; were college

graduate and/or proceeded to Master’s or Doctoral; received Php 27,001.00

and above as their monthly salary; and were working in non-human care field

are empowered with regards to economic and social participation and access

to and control over economic resources.

3. Overall there is a significant difference on the Level of Women Empowerment

to the respondents’ age, educational attainment, range of wage or salary and

occupation with regards to the economic and social participation and access

to and control over economic resource and their uses.

Recommendations

Based on the conclusions and findings of this study, the researchers recommend

the following:

1. Future researchers are encouraged to conduct studies about the level of

empowerment of Filipino women who are working in the Philippines to make a

comparison of who is more empowered with regards to the respondents’

profile and domains of this study.

41

2. The researchers highly recommend that future researchers may further

enhance this study using another type of domains or indicators to determine

the level of empowerment.

3. For the convenience of the respondents from far places, future researchers

may survey the respondents using social network websites.

REFERENCES

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DHS data, pp. 15-53. Calverton, MD: ORC Macro. Bennett (2002) . Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable International Development. Retrieved January 5, 2011 from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/Malhorta SchulerBoender.pdf Blumberg, Rae Lesser (2005). Women Empowerment in Assam A

Human Development Approach-By: Bidisha Mahanta, December 2008. Retrieved January 5, 2011 from http:// www.col.org/SiteCollection Documents/WELL-scan-Uttarakhand.pdf

Deshmukh-Ranadive, J. (2003) Placing Gender Equity in the Family Centre Stege: Use of ‘Kala Jatha’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26 April 2003. Retrieved January 5, 2011 from http://old.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/bb14.pdf

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Kabeer, N. (2005) Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal, Gender and Development, 13.1, March 2005. Retrieved January 11, 2011 from http://old.bridge.ids ac.uk/reports/bb14.pdf

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Equality and the Empowerment of Women, April 18, 2003. Retrieved January 6, 2011 http://www.unmillenniumproject.org /documents /tf03genapr18.pdf

Mason and Smith, 2003. The Effect of Women’s Socio-demographic Variables on their Empowerment 2010. Retrieved Janaury 5, 2011 from http://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am- sci/am0611/50_3774am0611_426_434.pdf Moghadam, V.M. and Senftova, L. (2005). Measuring Women’s Empowerment: Participation And Rights In Civil, Political, Social, Economic, And Cultural Domains, International Social Science Journal, 5 pp. 389-412(24). Retrieved January 6, 2011 from http://old.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/bb14.pdf Moyle, Dollard, & Biswas. 2006. The Effect of Women’s Socio-demographic Variables on their Empowerment 2010. Retrieved Janaury 5, 2011 from http://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am- sci/am0611/50_3774am0611_426_434.pdf Nana Oishi, March 2002. Gender and Migration: An Integrative Approach ; Household Strategy Theory and Structurist Theory, March 2002. Retrieved Retrieved January 5, 2011 from

Pradhan, B. (2003). Measuring Empowerment: A Methodological Approach, Society for International Development (www.sidint.org) 1011-6370 46:2; 51-57; 033500 Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved January 6,2011 from http://old.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/bb14.pdf

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Stromquist (2002). Women Empowerment in Assam A


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