The Life of Muhammad SLMS/12

Early LifeEarly LifeEarly LifeEarly Life

•Muhammad was born around 570 CE in Mecca to a widow (his father died before he was born). Muhammad’s mother died when he was 6 years old, and he was ultimately taken in by his uncle Abu Talib — the leader of the Banu Hashim clan. •As a child, Muhammad traveled with his uncle throughout the Arabian peninsula and into Syria for commercial purposes. He learned the business, and be-came a trusted merchant himself. •At the age of 25, Muhammad attracted the attention of a wealthy and successful busi-ness woman named KhadijahKhadijahKhadijahKhadijah. She proposed to him, and he accepted. Though she was 15 years older than he, the marriage was a happy one and produced six children.

RevelationRevelationRevelationRevelation

•Muhammad spent a good deal of time in prayer — seeking answers to questions that troubled him. He began to seek solitude for his prayers, and frequently went to some mountainous caves outside of Mecca. •At the age of 40, Muhammad received his first revelation while praying in the caves. The angel Gabriel appeared to him and told him that he was to be a messenger of God, and that he should proclaim the name of God! •Muhammad was terrified, and thought that he might be going insane. He quietly shared his experience with his wife, and she re-assured and encouraged him. Muhammad continued to receive revelations, and gradu-ally believed that he was a prophet in a lin-eage that extended back through Jesus, Mo-ses and Abraham.

Hejira (Hijra) Hejira (Hijra) Hejira (Hijra) Hejira (Hijra) ———— Flight to MedinaFlight to MedinaFlight to MedinaFlight to Medina

•After three years, Muhammad began shar-ing his revelations with the people of Mec-ca. He gained some followers, but also made powerful enemies. •Mecca was the site of much reli-gious pilgrimage. In the center of the city was the Kaaba Kaaba Kaaba Kaaba (a large black cube) which housed idols from many gods. People from all over Ara-bia came to Mecca to visit the Kaaba. This brought Mecca much wealth, and rulers worried that Muhammad’s monotheistic re-ligion would destroy the city’s income. •In 622, there was a plot to kill Muhammad. He escaped the city, hid in the caves where he received his revelation, then made his way to Medina. This migration is known as the Hejira Hejira Hejira Hejira — and is year one of Islam.

Return to MeccaReturn to MeccaReturn to MeccaReturn to Mecca

•In Medina, Muhammad was able to estab-lish a large Muslim community. People there were more open to his teachings, and he be-came an important religious and community leader. •Conflict brewed between the Muslim community in Medina and the Meccans. Muslims raided Mec-can caravans, leading to bloody skirmishes between the two cities. •In 630, Muhammad led an enormous force against the city of Mecca. They entered the city with little resistance, and Muhammad made his way to the Kaaba. There, he marched around it seven times, destroyed all the idols, and proclaimed it a holy place.

The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs SLMS/12

Abu BakrAbu BakrAbu BakrAbu Bakr

•Following Muhammad’s death in 632, Mus-lims from Mecca and Medina engaged in great debate over who would succeed him as leader of the community, or caliphcaliphcaliphcaliph. •Ultimately, Abu Bakr was chosen. He was a close friend and the father-in-law of the prophet, and he was among the first converts to Islam. He left his business in Mecca behind, and ac-companied Muhammad on the Hejira to Medina. •His selection was not without controversy. Many believed that Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet should be caliph. •However, with the help of his advisor Umar ibn al-Khattab, Bakr’s Muslim forces unified the entire Arabian peninsula before his death in 634.

UthmanUthmanUthmanUthman

•Before his death, Umar directed a commit-tee to gather to choose the new caliph. Uthman ibn Affan was se-lected as the third caliph. •Uthman was one of the earliest converts to Islam, and was also a compan-ion of the prophet. He came from a very wealthy family, the UmayyadsUmayyadsUmayyadsUmayyads, and they had vigorously opposed Islam and Muham-mad. Many people opposed Uthman as ca-liph because of this. •Under Uthman, the Islamic empire expand-ed through Egypt and across northern Afri-ca. During this era, construction of a navy was begun, and most importantly, a written copy of the Qur’an was finalized. •In 656, Uthman was assassinated by rebel forces wishing to overthrow his caliphate.

UmarUmarUmarUmar

•Umar ibn al-Khattab had been a companion of the prophet and an advisor under Abu Bakr. He was named the next caliph. •Under Umar, the Islamic empire expanded greatly. Muslim armies conquered Syria, Egypt, eastern Anatolia (Turkey), and the Persian Empire (which included Iraq). •Umar was an able administra-tor. The growing empire was divided into provinces, and the provinces were divided into districts. Districts were headed by jun-ior governors and provinces were headed by governors. All were appointed by Umar himself. This structure helped facilitate the ruling of a large and growing empire. •In 644, at the peak of his power, Umar was assassinated by Persians.

AliAliAliAli

•Finally, the cousin and son-in-law of Mu-hammad was made caliph. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the fourth and the last caliph of the Rashidun Rashidun Rashidun Rashidun caliphate — rightly guided or righteous caliphate. All caliphs were chosen by committee or appointment, the position was not inherent. •Ali’s appointment as caliph was opposed by many, but specifically by Mu’awiyahMu’awiyahMu’awiyahMu’awiyah, the governor of Syria and relative of Uthman. Mu’awiyah felt Ali did not do enough to punish the re-bels who killed Uthman, and he began a civil war. Likewise Ali’s supporters wanted him to punish Mu’awiyah for his rebellion. •Ali tried to pursue a peaceful path while re-uniting the empire, but he was ultimately assassinated by his former supporters.

The Umayyad Caliphate SLMS/12

Establishment of Dynastic CaliphateEstablishment of Dynastic CaliphateEstablishment of Dynastic CaliphateEstablishment of Dynastic Caliphate

•After the death of the fourth caliph Ali in 661, Mu’awiyahMu’awiyahMu’awiyahMu’awiyah,, of the Umayyad family, the long-time governor of Syria, was pro-claimed the next caliph (leader of the Muslim community). •Mu’awiyah moved the capital of the growing Islamic empire out of the Arabian peninsula to Damascus in Syria. He also established a dynastic line of caliphs, as his son succeeded him in that leadership position. •Establishing the position of caliph as an in-herent one had both positive and negative effects on the growing empire. As a positive, it settled questions and quarrels surround-ing who would succeed as caliph, but nega-tively, it began the process of establishing the position of caliph as that of a secular kingship rather than a religious position.

External Expansion and Internal ConflictExternal Expansion and Internal ConflictExternal Expansion and Internal ConflictExternal Expansion and Internal Conflict

•The Umayyad caliphs greatly expanded their empire. In the west, they added a great deal of territory in northern Afri-ca, Spain, and southern France. In the east they expanded to In-dia. •The Umayyads adopted Byzantine adminis-trative structure and financial systems for their growing empire (which they found al-ready in place in many of the conquered territories). •The Umayyads had to deal with significant internal strife. Part of the conflict stemmed from expansion, and the administration of a large multi-ethnic empire. Many ethnic mi-norities were not satisfied with the Arab dominated government and society. But part of the conflict emanated from within the Arab community itself. Many felt the

Overthrow and RelocationOverthrow and RelocationOverthrow and RelocationOverthrow and Relocation

•There were many rebellions toward the end of Umayyad rule — some rebellions were led by disaffected non-Arab Muslims, but a growing number were led by Arabs who op-posed the secular nature of their rule. •In 750, a successful revolution was led by the Abbasid family (which was related to the prophet Muhammad), that end-ed Umayyad rule. •The remaining Umayyad family fled Syria and re-established their rule in Al-Andalus (Spain) with their capital at Cordoba. They continued to rule there until 1031.

Secular Rule and SocietySecular Rule and SocietySecular Rule and SocietySecular Rule and Society

•The Umayyad caliphs did not think of themselves as religious leaders, but rather as the administrative head of a religious community. They began to behave much like secular monarchs, and they enjoyed the wealth and luxury their position brought. •Umayyad caliphs established a court, and they began to patronize artists, architects and writers. Many feel this began a new era of sec-ular art with Islamic themes. •The Umayyads carefully guard-ed Arab supremacy. With many people con-verting to Islam, the Arabs actually became a minority. In order to protect them, Arab Muslims were made the highest social class, and Arabic was the official language.

The Abbasid Caliphate SLMS/12

Establishment of the Abbasid CaliphateEstablishment of the Abbasid CaliphateEstablishment of the Abbasid CaliphateEstablishment of the Abbasid Caliphate

•The Abbasids were descended from the family of Abbas — the youngest uncle of the prophet Muhammad. In 750 CE, they suc-ceeded in overthrowing the Umayyads who had ruled the Muslim world since 661, and they established their own dy-nastic caliphate. •In 762 the Abbasids moved the capital of the Empire from Da-mascus (in Syria) to Baghdad, located along the Tigris River in Iraq. This move appeased the Persians who played a key role in the overthrow of the Umayyads (the capital was now closer to Persia).

Abbasid SocietyAbbasid SocietyAbbasid SocietyAbbasid Society

•Society in Baghdad and other cities was multi-ethnic and very cosmopolitan (worldly). People came from distant nations to study in Baghdad’s House of Wisdom, and merchants from Europe, Africa, India and China traveled through the Empire. •Socially speaking, those who were born and raised Muslims constituted the upper class. Converts to Is-lam were slightly lower than those raised in the religion. Be-low Muslims were the “People of the Book” — Jews, Christians and Zoroas-trians. Anyone else was in the lowest class. •Slavery was common, but Muslims could not enslave “People of the Book” or other Muslims, so most slaves were from Africa or Central Asia. •Women had specific legal rights (more so than women in Asia or Europe), allowing the ownership of property, but upper class women were largely secluded to the house.

Decline and FallDecline and FallDecline and FallDecline and Fall

•Most of the caliphs of this era were little more than political figureheads. The govern-ment was run by a vizier (Prime Minister), and an effective bureaucracy. •The government became less centralized over time, and regional governments strengthened and split from the Empire. •By 950, Iraq was conquered by the Bu-wayhid family from northern Iran. By 1050, Seljuk Turks controlled the govern-ment. The Abbasids were allowed to retain the title of caliph. •In 1258 the Mongols sacked the city of Baghdad and killed the fi-nal Abbasid caliph.

Abbasid EconomyAbbasid EconomyAbbasid EconomyAbbasid Economy

•The Abbasid caliphate engaged in exten-sive trade with T’ang China, as the city of Baghdad lay prominently along the Silk Roads. Thus Chinese products and technolo-gy poured into the Empire. •Importantly, the knowledge of paper mak-ing was learned from the Chinese, and the world’s first paper mill was established in Baghdad. This would have a profound effect on the Caliphate’s intellectual and literary development, but it would also impact trade. •In order to facilitate trade within the Em-pire, the Abbasids set up an extensive bank-ing system. Major banks had branch offices scattered throughout the Empire, and mer-chants traveled with paper sakkssakkssakkssakks, or checks — letters of credit which allowed them to deposit money in one branch bank and withdraw it from another. This made it safer to travel and easier to exchange goods and money.

Artistic Contributions SLMS/12

CalligraphyCalligraphyCalligraphyCalligraphy

•Calligraphy (beautiful handwriting) was el-evated to a major art form during the Ab-basid Caliphate. In part, the reason for this is that Muslim art forbid the depiction of Allah or any human forms because it was feared the forms would become idols. •Arabic was the language of the Qur’an, and the language in which Muhammad received his revelations. The calligraphic representation of Arabic script not only adorned Qur’ans, but also mosques, homes and other literature. The calligrapher was highly revered for his artistic talent.

CeramicsCeramicsCeramicsCeramics

•One of the major artistic crafts used in pot-tery, and in tiles that decorated homes and mosques, was ceramics. •In 9th century (800s) Iraq, artisans devel-oped the use of stonepaste ceramics. Cer-tainly, Islamic ceramics were heavily influ-enced by the Chinese. However, Islamic arti-sans developed their own style. •’Arabesque’ designs developed during the Abbasid caliphate and decorated ceramic tiles. These de-signs were floral in nature, that included a winding stem design with spiral-ing flowers. •Another type of design was the geometric design. The use of geometry in art was a way of expressing that unity and order exist in the universe. This was a reflection of the power and order cre-ated by Allah.

Glass WorkGlass WorkGlass WorkGlass Work

•Muslim glass work was a continuation of previous glass production traditions de-scended from the Roman and Byzantine Empires. •It was during the Abbasid Cali-phate that glass production took on a distinctively ‘Islamic’ expres-sion. They developed techniques which allowed the glass to be etched or cut, allowing the glass to stand out in relief. •Additionally, in Egypt, they developed the ability to color glass using copper or silver. The coloration of glass increased the scope of the artistic expression as designs were ‘colored’ on the glass. •By the 11th century, glass workers were creating mold-decorated glassware. In this technique a mold is created, often with a carved or detailled surface. Molten glass was then blown into the mold. After the

MosquesMosquesMosquesMosques

•Numerous mosques were constructed in Baghdad and in Samarra (a second capital located close to Baghdad) during the rule of the Abbasids. •These mosques incorporated more Eastern or Persian styles of architecture — differing from the previous Umayyad caliphate which incorporated more Hellenistic or Mediterranean styles. •Mosques were decorated with ceramic tiles, mosaics and Arab calligraphy. Addi-tionally, walls were decorated with intricate stone carvings, similar to frescoes, that were made in stucco or carved in stone.

Scientific & Mathematical Contributions SLMS/12

AlgebraAlgebraAlgebraAlgebra

•Muslim mathematicians combined Indian numerals and material with Greek geometry to develop algebra. •The most famous math scholar, Al Khwarazmi (al KWAH rihz mee), intro-duced algebra to civiliza-tion. Algebra comes from the word “al jabr,” which means “the bringing together of sep-arate parts.” In algebra, a mathematician substitutes symbols such as x, y, or z for numbers in order to solve mathematical problems.

MedicineMedicineMedicineMedicine

•Muslims believed that Allah provided a treatment for every illness, thus medicine was eagerly pursued by many scholars. Two Muslim doctors were particularly influential — al-Razi and ibn-Sina. •AlAlAlAl----Razi Razi Razi Razi is considered the “Father of Islamic medicine”. He was the chief surgeon in many hospitals, and was an advisor to caliphs. He wrote the Comprehensive Book of Medicine which detailed cases he experienced and symptoms of various diseases. •IbnIbnIbnIbn----Sina Sina Sina Sina (Avicenna Avicenna Avicenna Avicenna in the West) made many medical observations and recorded them in his book The Canon of Medicine. This book was used as a textbook in medical schools, and proved to be highly influential in Europe when it made its way there in the late Mid-dle Ages and early Renaissance. •Physicians were licensed by examination. Only the licensed could practice. Drugs were restricted to pharmacies where the prepara-tion and storage were carefully supervised.

AstronomyAstronomyAstronomyAstronomy

•Much information on astronomy came to the Muslim caliphates from the Greco-Roman world. Predominantly, a scientist named Ptolemy theorized that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and other planets revolved around it. •Muslim astronomers studied Ptolemy’s ta-bles, made their own observations, and gradually found and corrected many mis-takes Ptolemy had made. •A significant number of stars in the sky and astronomical terms are still referred to by their Arabic names. •It was already understood that the Earth was a globe, and some even began to sus-pect that the Earth rotated on its own axis, and revolved around the sun. •One important instrument devel-oped was the astrolabe. This was a flat brass disc that could be used to locate and predict the po-sitions of the sun, moon, planets and stars. It could also be used in navigation.

HospitalsHospitalsHospitalsHospitals

•It was in the Muslim world that public hos-pitals were first established. The first hospi-tal was built in Damascus in 707, but many more were constructed in the Abbasid era. A large hospital in Baghdad served as a medi-cal school, pharmacy, and library as well. •Hospitals separated patients into different wards depending on their illness, and people were served re-gardless of race, religion, citizen-ship or gender. Nobody was to be turned away for any reason, and there was no limit as to how long a patient could stay.

Literary & Philosophical Contributions SLMS/12

LiteratureLiteratureLiteratureLiterature

•The development and manufacture of paper (a process learned from the Chinese) sparked an intellectual and literary rebirth during the Abbasid era. Paper books be-came more affordable, and ownership of them became a status symbol. The wealthy often had well stocked libraries. •The most famous work of fiction from the Abbasid period was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (sometimes called Arabian Nights in English translations). The book was a collection of Indian, Persian and other Mid-dle Eastern tales and fables. Most famous were the characters of Ali Baba, Aladdin and Sinbad, which appeared in the tales. •Poetry was perhaps, the most important form of literature in this era. Poets were patronized by the wealthy court, and in the early Abbasid, Arabic poetry reached its greatest heights. •Persian poetry dominated the late Abbasid period (even as Persians themselves domi-nated the Abbasid government). Poetry had a strong tradition in Persia, and it was gen-erally interwoven into all literary forms — even prose. Nearly half of IbnIbnIbnIbn----Sina’s Sina’s Sina’s Sina’s (Avicenna’sAvicenna’sAvicenna’sAvicenna’s) medical writings were in verse! •Unfortunately, in 1258, Mongol armies laid siege to the city of Baghdad, and wreaked wide-spread death and destruction. They destroyed the Grand Library of Bagh-dad, destroying countless priceless works of literature, medicine, astronomy and mathe-matics. Survivors said that the Tigris river ran black with the ink of these treasures.

The House of WisdomThe House of WisdomThe House of WisdomThe House of Wisdom

•”The ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr.” This quote from the prophet Muhammad can be found in the Hadith, and it encouraged the Islamic cali-phates to pursue scholarship and knowledge. •The House of Wisdom was a combination library, translation center and research in-stitute founded in Baghdad in 830. Scholars from around the world translated Greek, Persian and Indian texts into Arabic. These scholars preserved Greek texts which might otherwise have been lost or destroyed. •Besides having the largest library in the world in the 9th century, the House also served as a research cite for science, mathe-matics, medicine, astronomy and zoology.

PhilosophyPhilosophyPhilosophyPhilosophy

•Islamic philosophy began in the early Ab-basid period, and was focused on the quest for wisdom. It is considered a branch of Is-lamic studies on the Qur’an. •IbnIbnIbnIbn----Rushd Rushd Rushd Rushd (or AverroësAverroësAverroësAverroës, in the west), reconciled the work of Aristotle with Islam. This began an important step in the transmission and preser-vation of Ancient Greek and Roman learning to the Muslim world. •His conclusions affirmed the eternal nature of the world and the divine soul, and the temporal (temporary) nature of the individ-ual soul. These ideas made their way back to Europe, and inspired the development of St. Thomas Aquinas’s St. Thomas Aquinas’s St. Thomas Aquinas’s St. Thomas Aquinas’s ideas of scholasticism (examination of Christianity in philosophy).