The Major Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization Imposed Over Modern Border1

8/12/2019 The Major Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization Imposed Over Modern Border1

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The major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization imposed over modern borders

The Indus Valley Civilization(IVC) was aBronze Agecivilization(33001300 BCE; matureperiod 26001900 BCE) extending from what today is northeastAfghanistantoPakistanand

northwestIndia(see map).[1]

Along withAncient EgyptandMesopotamiait was one of three

early civilizations of theOld World,and of the three the most widespread.[2]

It flourished in the

basins of theIndus River,one of the major rivers ofAsia,and theGhaggar-Hakra River,which

once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.[3]

At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of

the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelianproducts, seal

carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban

planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of

large non-residential buildings.[4]

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, afterHarappa,the first

of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then thePunjab provinceofBritish India,

and is now in Pakistan.[5]

The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was

the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of theArchaeological Survey of

Indiain theBritish Raj.[6]

Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with

important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[7]

There were earlier and later cultures,

often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area of the Harappan Civilization.The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan cultureto distinguish it
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a.org/wiki/Old_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20091-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age


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from these cultures. By 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96

have been excavated,[8]

mainly in the general region of theIndusand Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and

their tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres ofHarappa,Mohenjo-

daro(UNESCO World Heritage Site),Dholavira,GaneriwalainCholistanandRakhigarhi.[9]

TheHarappan languageis not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since theIndus

scriptis still undeciphered. A relationship with theDravidianorElamo-Dravidianlanguage family

is favored by a section of scholars.[10][page needed][11]

Contents

[hide]

1 Discovery and history of excavation

2 Chronology

3 Geography

4 Early Harappan 5 Mature Harappan

o 5.1 Cities

o 5.2 Authority and governance

o 5.3 Technology

o 5.4 Arts and crafts

o 5.5 Trade and transportation

o 5.6 Subsistence

o 5.7 Writing system

o 5.8 Religion

6 Collapse and Late Harappan

7 Legacy

8 Historical context and linguistic affiliation

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

12 Bibliography

13 External links

Discovery and history of excavation

Indus Valley pottery, 2500-1900 BC

The ruins ofHarrappawere first described in 1842 byCharles Massonin his Narrative of Various

Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city

extending "thirteencosses"(about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would attach to this

for nearly a century.[note 1]

In 1856, GeneralAlexander Cunningham,later director general of the archaeological survey of

northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton were

laying theEast Indian Railway Companyline connecting the cities ofKarachiandLahore.John

wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway".

They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he
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found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the

ballast I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[13]

A few months later, further

north, John's brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks

from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site.

These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from

Karachi to Lahore".[13]

Excavated ruins ofMohenjo-daro,with theGreat Bathin the front

In 187275 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappanseal(with an erroneous

identification as Brahmi letters).[14]

It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals

were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign underSir John Hubert

Marshallin 192122 and resulting in the discovery of the civilization at Harappa by Sir John

Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and atMohenjo-darobyRakhal

Das Banerjee,E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had

been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led bySir Mortimer Wheeler,director of

theArchaeological Survey of Indiain 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites

before the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 wereAhmad Hasan Dani,Brij Basi Lal,Nani

Gopal Majumdar, and Sir MarcAurel Stein.

Following thePartition of India,the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan

where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include those led by Sir

Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of

the Indus Valley civilization were excavated as far west asSutkagan DorinBaluchistan,as far

north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river's ancient name wasOxus)in

currentAfghanistan,as far east as atAlamgirpur,Uttar Pradesh,India and as far south as

atMalwan,Surat Dist., India.[15]

In 2010, heavy floods hitHaryanain India and damaged the archaeological site ofJognakhera,

where ancient copper smelting were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley

Civilization site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as theSutlej Yamuna link canaloverflowed.[16]

Chronology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurel_Steinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurel_Steinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurel_Steinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jognakherahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jognakherahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jognakherahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej_Yamuna_link_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej_Yamuna_link_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej_Yamuna_link_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej_Yamuna_link_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jognakherahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurel_Steinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-davreau-14


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Early Harappan Period, c. 3300-2600 BCE

Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600-1900 BCE

Late Harappan Period, c. 1900-1300 BCE

Main article:Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization

The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the

inclusion of the predecessor and successor culturesEarly Harappan and Late Harappan,

respectivelythe entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to

the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for the periodization of the

IVC: Phasesand Eras.[17][18]

The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases

are also called the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the

Regionalization era reaching back to the NeolithicMehrgarhII period. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh

changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization", according toAhmad Hasan Dani,professor

emeritus atQuaid-e-Azam University,Islamabad."There we have the whole sequence, rightfrom the beginning of settled village life."

[19]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization


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Dates Phase Era

7000

5500BCE

Mehrgarh I(aceramic Neolithic) Early Food-ProducingEra

55003300 Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic)

Regionalisation Era

33002600 Early Harappan

33002800 Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase)

28002600 Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII)

26001900 Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization)

Integration Era

26002450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)

24502200 Harappan 3B

22001900 Harappan 3C

19001300 Late Harappan (Cemetery H);Ochre Coloured Pottery

Localisation Era19001700 Harappan 4

17001300 Harappan 5

1300300Painted Gray Ware,Northern Black Polished

Ware(Iron Age)Indo-Gangetic Tradition
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Geography

The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of northwestern India,

Afghanistan and Iran, extending fromBalochistanin the west toUttar Pradeshin the east,

northeastern Afghanistan to the north andMaharashtrato the south.

[20]

The geography of theIndus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those

inEgyptandPeru,with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean.

Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier Province as well.

Other IVC colonies can be found inAfghanistanwhile smaller isolated colonies can be found as

far away asTurkmenistanand inGujarat.Coastal settlements extended fromSutkagan Dor[21]

in

Western Baluchistan toLothal[22]

inGujarat.An Indus Valley site has been found on

theOxusRiver at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[23]

in theGomal Rivervalley in

northwestern Pakistan,[24]

atManda,Jammuon theBeas RivernearJammu,[25]

India, and

atAlamgirpuron theHindon River,only 28 km fromDelhi.[26]

Indus Valley sites have been foundmost often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,

[27]for example, Balakot,

[28]and on islands,

for example,Dholavira.[29]

There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with theHakrachannel in Pakistan and the

seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been discovered

along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[30]

Among them are:Rupar,Rakhigarhi,Sothi,Kalibangan,and

Ganwariwala.[31]

According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein,[32]

the Harappan Civilization "is

a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra

valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".[30]

According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harappan sites have been discovered along

the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[33]

in contrast to only about

100 along theIndusand its tributaries;[34]

consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus

Ghaggar-Hakra civilizationor Indus-Saraswati civilizationis justified. However, these politically

inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra

desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus

period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that

the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have been exaggerated and

that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature isredundant.

[35]"Harappan Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common

archaeological usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot.

Early Harappan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manda,Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manda,Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manda,Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-possehl-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manda,Jammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan


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Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600-2450 BC.LACMA

The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearbyRavi River,lasted from circa 3300 BCE

until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to

the west, and predates theKot DijiPhase (28002600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in

northernSindh,Pakistan, nearMohenjo Daro.The earliest examples of theIndus scriptdate

from around 3000 BCE.[36]

Discoveries fromBhirrana,Rajasthan,in India, by archeologistK. N.

Dikshitindicate thatHakraware from this area dates from as early as 7500 BC.[37]

The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented byRehman DheriandAmriin

Pakistan.[38]

Kot Diji(Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the

citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town

of this stage was found atKalibanganin India on the Hakra River.[39]

Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw

materials, includinglapis lazuliand other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time,

domesticated numerous crops, includingpeas,sesame seeds,dates,andcotton,as well as

animals, including thewater buffalo.Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres

by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started.

Mature Harappan

By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centres. Such

urban centres includeHarappa,Ganeriwala,Mohenjo-Daroin modern day Pakistan,

andDholavira,Kalibangan,Rakhigarhi,Rupar,andLothalin modern day India. In total, more

than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus

Rivers and their tributaries.

Cities
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LACMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LACMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LACMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo_Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo_Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo_Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-parpola-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-parpola-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehman_Dherihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehman_Dherihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehman_Dherihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_buffalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_buffalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_buffalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeriwalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeriwalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeriwalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeriwalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_buffalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehman_Dherihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._N._Dikshit&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-parpola-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo_Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LACMA


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Computer-aided reconstruction of coastal Harappan settlement at Sokhta Koh nearPasni,Pakistan

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley

Civilization making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality ofmunicipaltown

planning suggests the knowledge ofurban planningand efficientmunicipal governmentswhich

placed a high priority onhygiene,or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.

As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently partially excavatedRakhigarhi,this urban

plan included the world's first known urbansanitationsystems: seehydraulic engineering of the

Indus Valley Civilization.Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water

fromwells.From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing,waste waterwas

directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to

innercourtyardsand smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still

resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans.[40]

The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities

throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites

in theMiddle Eastand even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.

The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards,granaries,

warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely

protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[citation needed]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sokhta_Koh.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_City


25/35

So-called "Priest King" statue,Mohenjo-Daro,lateMature Harappanperiod, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan

The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's

contemporaries,MesopotamiaandAncient Egypt,no large monumental structures were built.

There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples

or of kings, armies, or priests. Somestructures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath

(the "Great Bath"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far

from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.

Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the

same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the

cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among theartifactsdiscovered were

beautiful glazedfaencebeads.Steatiteseals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods),

and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-decipheredwriting system of the Indus Valley

Civilization.Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had

other uses as well.

Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were remarkable for their

apparent, if relative,egalitarianism.All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities.

This gives the impression of a society with relatively lowwealth concentration,though

clearsocial levellingis seen in personal adornments.

Authority and governance

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or for depictions of

people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken

and implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as evident in

pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major theories:

There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for planned

settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near

sources of raw material.

There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another,

and so forth.

Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

Technology

Further information:Indian mathematics - Prehistory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%AFencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%AFencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%AFencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_concentrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_concentrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_concentrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_concentrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%AFencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Daro


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Indus Valley seals,British Museum

The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and

time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Acomparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their

smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found inLothal,was approximately

1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of theBronze Age.Harappan

engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the

measurement of mass as revealed by theirhexahedronweights.[41]

Thesechertweights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,

100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the

EnglishImperial ounceor Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with

the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the

area. The weights and measures later used inKautilya'sArthashastra(4th century BCE) are the

same as those used inLothal.[42]

Harappans evolved some new techniques inmetallurgyand producedcopper,bronze,lead,

andtin.The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.

In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men fromMehrgarh,Pakistan, made the

discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had

knowledge of proto-dentistry.Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific

journalNaturethat the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in

vivo(i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults

were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,5009,000 years ago.

According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early

farming cultures of that region.[43]

Atouchstonebearing gold streaks was found inBanawali,which was probably used for testing

the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[44]

Arts and crafts
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kautilyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kautilyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kautilyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banawalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banawalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banawalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banawalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kautilyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum


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The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro"

Chanhudaro. Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 B.C.E. Red pottery with red and black slip-painted

decoration, 415

/166in. (12.515.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum

Various sculptures, seals,pottery,gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines interracotta,

bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.

A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of

somedanceform. Also, these terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. Theanimal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly

identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet,

there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic

significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in

images of the IVC are religious symbols.[45]

Sir John Marshallis known to have reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze

statuette of a slender-limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo-Daro:

When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed tocompletely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Potteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Potteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Potteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracottahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracottahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracottahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Keay.2C_John_2000-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Keay.2C_John_2000-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Keay.2C_John_2000-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Keay.2C_John_2000-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracottahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Pottery


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unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that

some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels

some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged .... Now, in these statuettes, it

is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-

important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off

age on the banks of the Indus.

[citation needed]

Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were

used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan

sites and some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today.[46]

Some make-up and

toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use ofcollyriumand a special three-in-one

toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern

India.[47]

Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which had red colourapplied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).

[47]

Seals have been found atMohenjo-Darodepicting a figure standing on its head, and another

sitting cross-legged in what some call ayoga-like pose (see image, the so-called Pashupati,

below).

This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall

identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[48]

If this can be validated, it would be evidence

that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.

A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate

the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games,

among them cubicaldice(with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like

Mohenjo-Daro.[49]

Trade and transportation

The docks of ancientLothalas they are today

Further information:LothalandMeluhha
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collyriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collyriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collyriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lothal_dock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lothal_dock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lothal_dock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lothal_dock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-Lal_2002_82-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collyriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


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The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly ontrade,which was

facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first

civilization to use wheeled transport.[50]

These advances may have includedbullock cartsthat are

identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were

probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the

Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have

discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal

city ofLothalin western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has

however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort.

During 43003200 BCE of thechalcolithicperiod (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilization area

shows ceramic similarities with southernTurkmenistanand northernIranwhich suggest

considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 32002600 BCE),

similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade

withCentral Asiaand the Iranian plateau.[51]

Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilization artifacts, the trade networks, economically,

integrated a huge area, including portions ofAfghanistan,the coastal regions ofPersia,northern

and western India, andMesopotamia.

There is some evidence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly to Egypt.[52]

There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and

Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being

handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modernBahrainandFailakalocated inthePersian Gulf).

[53]Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative

development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of

woven rushes or cloth.

Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani),Sokhta

Koh(astride Shadi River, north ofPasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with

Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at the

estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.

Subsistence

Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley.

It is known that the people ofMehrgarhused domesticatedwheatsandbarley,[54]

and the major

cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer

and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). ArchaeologistJim G. Shaffer(1999: 245) writes that the

Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon"

and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex social

organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments".

Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took some 2000 years before Middle

Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian conditions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-GoogleBooks-4532313-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-GoogleBooks-4532313-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-GoogleBooks-4532313-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Kohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-GoogleBooks-4532313-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/w

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The Major Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization Imposed Over Modern Border1

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